Russians

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Russian women (often also Ruthenian , Rusniaken , Russynen , Carpatho-Ukrainians , Karpatorussen , Carpathian Rusyns , Hungarians Ruthenians etc.) are an East Slavic and mixed language population, mainly in the Carpathian Mountains in the Carpathian Ukraine , the the Ukraine bordering states of Central Europe , in South-Eastern Europe as well as in North America lives.

Russian settlement area in Carpathian Ukraine and in the Slovak-Polish border area
Russians in folk costume ( Lemken )
Russians from Galicia , the Carpathians and Podolia , lithograph from 1836
Russians from the area of Gorlice , Lower Beskids , Galicia, lithograph from 1860

In contrast to a total of 22 states in which they are recognized as an independent nationality (ethnicity), the minority in Ukraine is considered part of the Ukrainian national people . The aim of the Russian national movement is to promote the awareness of an independent Russian nation.

Definition of terms and dissemination

Although the terms Russians and Ruthenians have the same etymological background and Ruthenians were previously used for Old Russians or by the Austrians for the Ukrainians in the Habsburg Empire , the simple classification of the Russians as "Ukrainians outside the Ukraine " is controversial today.

Under Ruthenians were once all Eastern Slavs in the Habsburg Empire understand the Rusyns in Transcarpathia , as well as Galician Ukrainians. The term “Russians” was also used as a synonym for “Ruthenians” in the 19th century. Today all those ethnic minorities in the successor states of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy who were once called "Ruthenians" call themselves Russians ; most Ukrainians of Galicia excepted. Ukrainians , Slovaks , Russians or Poles have often viewed the Russians partially or as a whole as part of their own people, and many Russians have also assimilated in these nations. Since the 1990s, controversy has reignited as to whether the Russians are a separate ethnic group or part of the Ukrainian nation.

Today the Russians live primarily in Carpathian Ukraine, which once belonged to Hungary, from 1919 to Czechoslovakia , now to Ukraine, as well as in Poland, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania (e.g. in Știuca , Timiș district ), Croatia and Serbia ( Vojvodina , center Ruski Krstur ). The Russians in Croatia and Serbia were colonists who resettled in these areas ( military border) that were partially depopulated by the Turkish wars from the 17th century . The Russians in the USA are descendants of the 19th and 20th century emigrants .

Ethnic classification

According to some authors, the Russians are historically a cultural splinter group of the Old Russian ethnic group that populated the Kievan Rus , according to other views it is historically a Slavic ethnic group from the northeastern Carpathians with a separate development from the rest of the Eastern Slavs. According to a third view, although it is a splinter group of the residents of the Kievan Rus, they should now be understood as an independent nation.

Harald Haarmann describes the Russians as "the Slavs most closely related to the Ukrainians" (Eastern Slavs), but not directly as "Ukrainians".

The Ukrainian Academy of Science denies the existence of an independent Russian ethnic group. This view is also followed by the International Association of Ukrainians , for which Rusyn and Ruthenians are only alternative names for Ukrainians.

Russians have seen many changes in the 20th century that have negatively affected their national consciousness. Unfavorable economic and political conditions and several, often artificial interventions in ethnic development meant that the self-identifying processes of the people have not yet been completed.

structure

Regional groups, clearly distinguishable due to the rugged Carpathian valleys: Lemken (blue), Bojken (brown), Doljanen (purple) and Huzulen (green).

The individual subgroups of Rusyns in Poland, Slovakia and Transcarpathia are mainly: Lemken (Lemkos, Lemoks), Boyko (Boykos, Boyks) Huzuls (Hutsuls) Werchowiner (Verkhovinetses, in the valley to Verkhovyna counted, mostly to Huzuls ) and Doljanen (Dolinyanins, Haynals, Hajnalen).

language

Call of the Ruthenians (1848)

According to the controversial ethnic classification, the Russian language is also considered by some linguists as a dialect of Ukrainian, others see it as an independent language, and still others as an East-Slovak-West-Ukrainian transition dialect.

religion

Despite the by Poland partly forcibly driven Catholic missionary of the East Slavic territories under Polish-Lithuanian rule that kept Russian Orthodox Rusyns mostly their original denomination or came to the Greek Catholic Church over. In the American diaspora , many Greek Catholic Russians turned back to the Orthodox Church after the local bishops of the Latin Church tried to change the Greek Catholic customs of the Russian parishes in line with the Roman liturgy, in particular the compulsory celibacy for ordinary parish priests to enforce, which neither the Orthodox nor the Greek Catholic Church tradition know.

Early history and etymology

In the 5th and 6th centuries, small groups of the first Slavs settled in the Carpathian valleys. In the 860s Christianization by Cyril and Method reached the Carpathian Slavs. From the time of the Magyar conquest, there is a legend about Prince Laboret of Uzhhorod, who was defeated by the invaders. This legend was later used by both Ukrainian and Russian nationally-minded writers as a glorifying symbol of their history. The border area was barely controlled, which allowed further immigration of Slavs from the north and the east, especially from later Galicia. This migration continued into the 17th century and even after. At the latest at the end of the 11th century, when the border of the Kingdom of Hungary in the relevant area reached its modern course, the ancestors of the Russians (referred to as Rutheni in the surviving sources since the 11th century) lived in the Kingdom of Hungary instead of in the neighboring Kievan Rus . At first they are only documented as guards, and since the 13th century also as farmers.

Regardless of the efforts of Ruthenian historians and writers to embellish the history of their people with legendary epochs and characters, one cannot speak of a political history of the Ruthenians until the first half of the 19th century. On the basis of a few, often dubious reports, a kind of history of the Russians was reconstructed. Its core is the doctrine that the Ruthenians, even before the arrival of the Magyars or at least at the same time with them, settled in the Carpathian Mountains and had their own territory as early as the beginning of the 11th century. This "Ruśka kraina" would have been ruled by dukes, perhaps from the royal family, such as Teodor Korjatovyč. A corresponding document from 1360, the mainstay of this reconstruction, turned out to be a forgery. In reality there was no rich, influential Russian nobility; the few who reached the nobility quickly rose into the Hungarian nobility. There were no important prelates and no middle-class bourgeoisie with privileges. The people consisted exclusively of peasants and a few clergymen and were considered subjects of the Hungarian nobility. The fact that the Russians were able to preserve their national character at all is thanks to the pronounced “tribal awareness” of their church. Apart from that, no historical awareness could develop for a long time. Because there was no cultural center for the clergy and no chronicles for tradition.

The word Ruthene (Ruthenen) is derived from the Latin Ruthenus (Rutheni), which in turn is documented as the Latin equivalent of the ethnonym Rusyn / Rusin from the 11th century . The name comes from Rutheni , the Latinized form of Rus , Rusyn , Ruscia , Russia or Ruzzia , the old names of the Eastern Slavs. No distinction was made between Ukrainians and the other East Slavic (sub) ethnic groups . The actual early use of the word "Ruthenians" as well as the exact western borders of the former Kievan Rus and the ethnic conditions in today's main areas of the Russians in the Middle Ages are rather unclear and thus their history in the Middle Ages. In any case, since the 15th century the word has been used primarily to describe the Slavs of Eastern Christian faith living in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , Poland-Lithuania and the Kingdom of Hungary ; the (great) Russians were already called Moscovitae or Russi at that time . On the other hand, in the kingdom in the 16th century, guardians of the royal court were also referred to as Rutheni , who were no longer Eastern Slavs.

After the Turkish wars, some of the Ruthenians emigrated from eastern Slovakia to Serbia and Croatia. Evidence of an independent Ruthenian (Russian) national consciousness in the Kingdom of Hungary has existed since the 18th century. Before that, the Ruthenians were identified by their membership of the Greek Catholic Church . According to some researchers, the "national rebirth" of the Ruthenians (Russians) began with the work of Andrej Batschinskij , Arsenij Kozak and others. a. They tried in vain to enforce Church Slavonic with elements from the local dialect as the written Russian language. J. Basilovich wrote the first story of the Russians of the Kingdom of Hungary, it was published in Košice from 1799–1805. However, according to other views, the Russian National Revival did not take place until 1849-1867. In 1848 representatives of the Russians protested in the "Demands of the Slovaks and Hungarian Ruthenians" against their oppression in the Kingdom of Hungary, and demanded, among other things, a separate parliament. After the Hungarians were defeated by Russian troops in 1849, the Russians, under the leadership of the politician Adolf Ivan Dobrjanský , submitted their demands to the government for recognition of their nation, language and an appropriate administrative structure. In the period after 1849 Alexander Duchnovich (Duchnovytsch), Ivan Rakovskij (Rakovský) and A. Pavlovitsch (Pavlovytsch) wrote texts, poems, textbooks partly in Russian, partly in Russian; they tried to improve the level of education of the Russians, and in any case they decided against the use of Ukrainian. Thanks to Duchnovitsch, Russian was also introduced as the language of instruction at the Prešov grammar school and Russian at the Kaschau Academy. The total number of Ruthenians in Hungary amounted to 440,600 in 1851, in the few towns within the Ruthenian area, Ungvár , Munkács , Sziget and Huszt , Magyars and Jews made up the majority. In 1849 Duchnovitsch, the "awakening of the Ruthenian people", was arrested by the Hungarian government for " Pan-Slavism " and because he had written books in Russian and was later banned.

With the proclamation of the October diploma by Emperor Franz Joseph , which initiated a development that ended with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise in 1867, the modest advances made by the Ruthenians in administration and education threatened to be undone. Duchnovich was in despair: The Ruthenian people in Hungary ceased to exist ... we are lost . Dobrjanský formulated a Ruthenian national program in this situation, which, among other things, called for the formation of a separate voivodeship from the predominantly Ruthenian counties. A Ruthenian state parliament was to be created, and the election of a bishop and senior civil servants for Ruthenians were some of the other demands. Dobrjanský was then expelled as a "Pan-Slavist" from the Budapest Diet .

After 1867, the Russians in Carpathian Ukraine were exposed to strong Magyarization . This period marked a national, cultural and economic decline for the Russians. In Hungarian historiography, the national political aspirations of the Russians were always regarded as side effects of Pan-Slavism. Under the influence of Ukrainian patriots from Galicia, such as Iwan Franko , Mychajlo Pavlyk , Volodymyr Hnatyuk , a Ukrainophile orientation began to establish itself in Carpathian Ukraine from the end of the 19th century and among the Russians in Czechoslovakia only after the First World War .

Development since 1918

Russians never had their own state. In the course of the disintegration of Austria-Hungary , there were different efforts within the Russian population about future political affiliation:

Poland

Flag of the Lemko-Russian Republic 1918–1920

From December 1918 to March 1920 there was a Lemko-Russian republic in Florynka near Grybów in Galicia , whose self-government, in contrast to the pro-Ukrainian republic in Komańcza (November 1918 to January 1919), first proclaimed unity with Russia and then sought annexation to Czechoslovakia . The leaders of the republic were arrested by Polish troops in February 1919, and the entire region was under Polish control in early 1920.

Czechoslovakia

Some of the Russians living in Carpathian Ukraine wanted to achieve an autonomous position within Hungary at the end of 1918, another part wanted a common state with the Ukrainians or Russia and a third part wanted to join the then emerging Czechoslovakia . The latter group also received support from the Russians living in the United States, the most active part of the Russian groups. In 1919 the American National Council of Russians finally agreed with the Czechoslovak President Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk to join the country. The Treaty of Trianon , Article 48, mentions the Ruthenian autonomous region south of the Carpathians . So the Russian territory didn't even have a name of its own. On May 8, 1919, the province of Ruthenia was established. The preliminary census of 1919 was a big disappointment for Russian politicians: only 93,411 people, 16% less than 1910, claimed responsibility for the Russian nation. The Ukrainians as a whole, on the other hand, had a share of 62.3% in the Carpathian Ukraine in the 1921 census.

In Czechoslovakia, before World War II , the Carpathian Ukraine population was again divided into three political groups - this time a Ukrainophile, a Russophile, and a group that viewed the Russians as a separate nation, the latter group being certainly the most common . The autonomy rights of the "Ruthenians" were granted in the minority protection treaty of September 10, 1919 and guaranteed in the Constitution of Czechoslovakia of February 29, 1920, but were repealed by a simple government decree of April 26, 1920. The "Ruthenians", who made up 3.44% of the population in the new state, turned to the international public several times in vain to complain about the deprivation of their rights, autonomy and their own parliament, guaranteed in Trianon. The main bearers of these demands were the Ukrainian intellectuals who had returned from Budapest since 1924 .

After all, the Ruthenian language was officially recognized for the first time in history. Newspapers and books were published in Ruthenian, and a Ruthenian national theater was opened in Uzhhorod . By 1937, more and more schools were teaching Russian instead of Slovak. Economically, the region was the most underdeveloped in the country. In 1930, 89% of Russians worked in agriculture, while industry and crafts employed only 3.5%. According to the 1930 census, there were 549,169 Ukrainians in Czechoslovakia, of which 446,916 were in Carpathian Ukraine and 91,079 in Slovakia.

In October 1938, Carpathian Ukraine proclaimed an autonomous state within Czechoslovakia, which had been weakened by the Munich Agreement . On the 11th of the month the first independent government was formed under Andrei Brody. The first Vienna arbitration on November 2, 1938 meant the loss of the previous capital Uzhhorod to Hungary; Khust became the new seat of government . In the course of the " smashing of the rest of the Czech Republic" on March 15, 1939, Carpathian Ukraine, like Slovakia, declared itself an independent state. On the same day, however, the country was occupied by Hungarian troops and Hungary was rejoined under the name "Kárpátalja". At the end of 1944, the Red Army conquered the area, which was incorporated into the Soviet Union as "Transcarpathian Ukraine" in 1946 after a manipulated referendum .

In today's Serbia, a variant of the Russian language was codified before World War II and has been used and taught ever since.

Soviet Union

At least since the annexation of the Carpathian Ukraine to the Soviet Union, the Russians were officially considered a subgroup of the Ukrainians in the Soviet Union. This perspective was also binding for the communist neighboring countries. The Russians were religiously, culturally and politically oppressed, the idea of ​​their own Russian identity was banned, Russians were only recognized as Ukrainians. It wasn't until the late 1980s that a national return began, triggered by glasnost . After the turning point of 1989, Russians are again recognized as an independent nation alongside the Ukrainians in all countries except Ukraine. In Slovakia and Poland, two other variants of the Russian language were codified after 1989 and have been used and taught since then. However, there are some researchers in countries outside of Ukraine who continue to view the Russians as a subgroup of Ukrainians.

Ukraine

Today's flag used by Russian activists is inspired by both Russian and Ukrainian and is similar to the official flag of Zakarpattia Oblast

After the years in which a Russian, Ukrainian or Slovak orientation was imposed on the Ruthenians, two fiercely competing currents emerged within the minority: the Ukrainian and the Ruthenian.

After Ukraine gained independence, the Transcarpathian Regional Council asked the Ukrainian parliament in 1992 and 2002 to recognize the Russians as a nationality. In March 2007, the Transcarparty Regional Council took this step independently, after the UN Committee against Racial Discrimination also called on Ukraine to recognize the minority in August 2006. In October 2008 in Mukachevo (Transcarpathia), the Second European Congress of Sub-Carpathian Russians announced its intention to restore the short-lived statehood once it had split from Czechoslovakia in 1938 and called on the authorities to do so by December 1, 2008 . The goal is a self-governing republic of Subcarpathian Rus (Podkarpatskij Rus) in the Ukraine. As a result, on December 8, 2008, the chairman of the Union of Sub-Carpathian Russians, Dimitri Sidor , was placed under house arrest and charged with “attacks on the integrity of Ukraine”. In contrast to the unequivocal vote of the Russians (over 78% voted for Transcarpathia to remain and autonomy within Ukraine in 1991) and the assurances of their leaders, the Ukrainian security authorities place them under the obligation of statehood under the protectorate of Russia, the EU and Slovakia. The Russian associations are accused of being financed and controlled by Russia since the 1980s. According to Ukrainian politicians in Kiev, this is proven by the fact that Sidor is a Russian Orthodox priest and has good relations with the Russian press. Pyotr Getsko , the self-appointed Prime Minister of the state proclaimed by the Russians on December 1, 2008, and Sidor are now facing up to three years imprisonment for alleged separatism. Other sources see Yushchenko's presidential adviser Viktor Baloha , a Ukrainian from Transcarpathia, behind the bustle : Yushchenko's rival, Prime Minister Tymoshenko , was supposed to be subjected to domestic political pressure. Russia initially rejected efforts to gain international recognition.

Numbers and recognition

Representatives of the view that the Russians are a separate ethnic group give up to 800,000 of the 1.3 million Carpathian-Ukrainians as Russians, although in the last Ukrainian census only 10,000 are said to have identified themselves as Russians. Of 1.5 million Russians in Europe, 1.2 million live in the Ukraine, mainly in the Carpathian Ukraine, 130,000 in Slovakia and 80,000 Lemks in Poland. Some Russian nationalists even speak of a total of 5 million Russians in Central and Eastern Europe. According to the 2002 census, there were 61,000 "Ukrainians" in Romania, around 55% of whom are Russian (including Hutsuls). According to expert estimates, there are 120,000–150,000 “Ukrainians” in Romania, and according to Ukrainian data even more.

In contrast, in Poland, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Croatia (around 2,500), Serbia and in the USA and Canada (around 250,000) the Russians are recognized as a national minority alongside the Ukrainians, although they are also recognized by some researchers in these countries be classified as a subgroup of Ukrainians.

literature

  • Meinolf Arens: The fourth East Slavic nation: the Russians. A “belated” nation-building process in Eastern Europe at the beginning of the 21st century. In: Flavius ​​Solomon (Ed.): South East Europe in the 20th Century. Ethno structures, identities, conflicts (=  Bibliotheca Historiae Universalis. Vol. 8). Editura Universităţii Alexandru Ion Cuza u. a., Jassy [et al. a.] 2004, ISBN 973-703-046-X , pp. 243-254.
  • Alexander Bonkáló: The Rusyns (=  East European Monographs. Vol. 293 =  Classics of Carpatho-Rusyn Scholarship. Vol. 3). Columbia University Press, New York NY 1990, ISBN 0-88033-190-9 .
  • Michal Danilák: The influence of the Greek-Catholic Church on the formation of the national consciousness of the Ruthenians (Ukrainians) in Hungary in the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century. In: Peter Švorc, Karl Schwarz (ed.): Cirkvi a národy strednej Európy. (1800-1950). = The churches and peoples of Central Europe. (1800-1950). Universum, Prešov 2008, ISBN 978-80-89046-47-8 , pp. 134–148.
  • Paul Robert Magocsi: The people from nowhere. An illustrated history of Carpatho-Rusyns. Padiak, Uzhhorod 2006, ISBN 966-7838-96-X (Magocsi, professor at the University of Toronto is one of the ardent fighters for Russian rights).
  • Paul Robert Magocsi, Ivan Pop (Ed.): Encyclopedia of Rusyn history and culture . Revised and expanded edition. University of Toronto, Toronto [u. a.] 2005, ISBN 0-8020-3566-3 ( limited preview in Google Book Search).
  • Michael Moser, András Zoltán (ed.): The Ukrainians (Ruthenians, Russians) in Austria-Hungary and their linguistic and cultural life in the field of vision of Vienna and Budapest (=  Slavic language history. Vol. 4). Lit, Vienna [u. a.] 2008, ISBN 978-3-7000-0827-9 ( table of contents (PDF; 211 kB)).
  • Heinrich Pfandl: The Windisch of the Ukrainians or the Kurds of Europe? Reflections on the ethnos and language of the Russians on the occasion of the publication of the Gramatika rusins'kogo jazyka from 2005. In: Wiener Slavistisches Jahrbuch. Vol. 54, 2008, ISSN  0084-0041 , pp. 105-123.
  • Stefan Troebst: Regionalism and striving for autonomy in East Central Europe in the post-“turning point” period. Moravians and Russians in comparison. In: Heinz-Dietrich Löwe (Ed.): Minorities, Regional Consciousness and Centralism in East Central Europe (=  Transylvanian Archive. Vol. 35). Böhlau, Cologne [a. a.] 2000, ISBN 3-412-12799-X , pp. 67-104.

Web links

Commons : Rusyns  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Ernst Lüdemann: Ukraine. Verlag Beck, Munich 2006, ISBN 3-406-54068-6 , p. 39.
  2. ↑ Michael Moser: “Ruthenian” (Ukrainian) language and imagination in the Galician primary school reading books of the years 1871 and 1872. Lit Verlag, Berlin 2007, ISBN 3-8258-0213-2 , p. 7; see for example the contemporary article Ruthenen (Russinen, Rußniaken) in Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892, Volume 14, p. 104.
  3. ↑ a b James Stuart Olson (Ed.): An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet empires. Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport, Conn. 1994, ISBN 0-313-27497-5 , pp. 135 f.
  4. ↑ Marta Harasowska: morphophonemic variability, productivity, and change. The case of Rusyn. Verlag de Gruyter, Berlin 1999, ISBN 3-11-015761-6 , p. 2.
  5. ↑ Harald Haarmann: Kleines Lexikon der Völker - from Aborigines to Zapotecs , p. 296 .
  6. ↑ Russia Today, December 1, 2008: Ethnic group seeks autonomy in Ukraine ( Memento of the original from December 4, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. & Video feature  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (English) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.russiatoday.com@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.russiatoday.com  
  7. ^ Adela Mad'arová: Ruthenians in Slovakia. National, linguistic and cultural identity of the Ruthenian national minority in Slovakia in its historical development up to the present day. Unprinted diploma thesis, Vienna 2004, p. 5.
  8. ^ A b Paul R. Magocsi: Encyclopedia of Rusyn history and culture. University of Toronto Press 2002, ISBN 978-0-8020-3566-0 , pp. 185 ff.
  9. ↑ Elaine Rusinko: borders straddling. Literature and identity in Subcarpathian Rus'. University of Toronto Press, 2003, ISBN 0-8020-3711-9 , p. 28.
  10. ↑ Ivan Žeguc: The national political aspirations of the Carpatho-Rusyns. 1848-1914. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1965, p. 13 f.
  11. ↑ Ivan Žeguc: The national political aspirations of the Carpatho-Rusyns. 1848-1914. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1965, p. 14 f.
  12. ^ Andreas Kappeler: Brief history of the Ukraine . Verlag Beck, Munich 2000, ISBN 3-406-45971-4 , p. 21 f .; Ricarda Vulpius: Nationalization of Religion. Russification Policy and Ukrainian Nation-Building 1860–1920 . Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-447-05275-9 , p. 34.
  13. ^ Adela Mad'arová: Ruthenians in Slovakia. National, linguistic and cultural identity of the Ruthenian national minority in Slovakia in its historical development up to the present day. Unprinted diploma thesis, Vienna 2004, p. 23.
  14. ^ Adela Mad'arová: Ruthenians in Slovakia. National, linguistic and cultural identity of the Ruthenian national minority in Slovakia in its historical development up to the present day. Unprinted diploma thesis, Vienna 2004, p. 25 ff.
  15. ↑ Ivan Žeguc: The national political aspirations of the Carpatho-Rusyns. 1848-1914. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1965, p. 11.
  16. ↑ Ivan Žeguc: The national political aspirations of the Carpatho-Rusyns. 1848-1914. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1965, p. 13.
  17. ↑ Ivan Žeguc: The national political aspirations of the Carpatho-Rusyns. 1848-1914. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1965, p. 52 f.
  18. ^ Adela Mad'arová: Ruthenians in Slovakia. National, linguistic and cultural identity of the Ruthenian national minority in Slovakia in its historical development up to the present day. Unprinted diploma thesis, Vienna 2004, p. 29 ff.
  19. ↑ a b Ivan Žeguc: The national political aspirations of the Carpatho-Rusyns. 1848-1914. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1965, p. 7.
  20. ↑ Flags Of The World: Republic of Lemko Rusyn
  21. ^ Paul R. Magocsi: Encyclopedia of Rusyn history and culture. University of Toronto Press 2002, ISBN 978-0-8020-3566-0 , pp. Vii and 290.
  22. ↑ Jerzy Kozenski: The Carpathian Ukraine in 1938. In: Manfred Alexander (Ed.): Small peoples in the history of Eastern Europe. Festschrift for Günther Stökl on his 75th birthday . Verlag Steiner, Stuttgart 1991, ISBN 3-515-05473-1 , pp. 130-141, here p. 132.
  23. ↑ Trianon Peace Treaty
  24. ↑ James Minahan: One Europe, many nations. A historical dictionary of European national groups. Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport / Conn 2000, ISBN 0-313-30984-1 , p. 151.
  25. ^ Adela Mad'arová: Ruthenians in Slovakia. National, linguistic and cultural identity of the Ruthenian national minority in Slovakia in its historical development up to the present day. Unprinted diploma thesis, Vienna 2004, p. 35.
  26. ^ Stephan M. Horak: Eastern European national minorities, 1919–1980. A handbook. Libraries Unlimited, Littleton, Col. 1985, ISBN 0-87287-416-8 , pp. 121 f.
  27. ^ Adela Mad'arová: Ruthenians in Slovakia. National, linguistic and cultural identity of the Ruthenian national minority in Slovakia in its historical development up to the present day. Unprinted diploma thesis, Vienna 2004, p. 39 f.
  28. ↑ Jörg K. Hoensch , Hans Lemberg (Ed.): Studia Slovaca. Studies on the history of the Slovaks and Slovakia. Collegium Carolinum, Verlag Oldenbourg, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-486-56521-4 , p. 171 f.
  29. ^ Stephan M. Horak: Eastern European national minorities, 1919–1980. A handbook. Libraries Unlimited, Littleton, Col. 1985, ISBN 0-87287-416-8 , p. 114.
  30. ↑ Manfred Alexander (ed.): From the Beneš cabinet to the first supranational government under Švehla 1921–1926. Reports from the envoy Dr. Walter Koch. (= German Legation Reports from Prague , Volume 2) Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, Munich 1983, ISBN 3-486-55922-2 , p. 642.
  31. ^ Clarence A. Manning: Twentieth century Ukraine. Bookman, New York 1951, pp. 120 ff.
  32. ↑ a b Jakub Siska: The Masaryk cult in Carpathian Ukraine
  33. ^ Adela Mad'arová: Ruthenians in Slovakia. National, linguistic and cultural identity of the Ruthenian national minority in Slovakia in its historical development up to the present day. Unprinted diploma thesis, Vienna 2004, p. 37 f.
  34. ^ Stephan M. Horak: Eastern European national minorities, 1919–1980. A handbook. Libraries Unlimited, Littleton, Col. 1985, ISBN 0-87287-416-8 , p. 108 ff.
  35. ↑ Jerzy Kozenski: The Carpathian Ukraine in 1938. In: Manfred Alexander (Ed.): Small peoples in the history of Eastern Europe. Festschrift for Günther Stökl on his 75th birthday . Verlag Steiner, Stuttgart 1991, ISBN 3-515-05473-1 , pp. 130–141, here p. 140.
  36. ↑ James Minahan: One Europe, many nations. A historical dictionary of European national groups. Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport / Conn 2000, ISBN 0-313-30984-1 , p. 152.
  37. ↑ Flags of the World - Ruthenians (Ukraine)
  38. ^ Adela Mad'arová: Ruthenians in Slovakia. National, linguistic and cultural identity of the Ruthenian national minority in Slovakia in its historical development up to the present day. Unprinted diploma thesis, Vienna 2004, p. 7.
  39. ^ RIA Novosti, December 8, 2008: Ruthenians are fighting for autonomy rights in the Union of States of Ukraine
  40. ↑ James Minahan: One Europe, many nations. A historical dictionary of European national groups. Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport, CN 2000, ISBN 0-313-30984-1 , p. 153.
  41. ↑ Ukrainian security service warns Ruthenen of a violation of the territorial integrity of the country and threatens to take “energetic measures”  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / ncru.gov.ua  
  42. ^ RIA Novosti December 9, 2008: Smashing of foreign-funded extremists reported in Ukraine
  43. ↑ The leaders of Subcarpathian Ruthenians have urged Kyiv ...
  44. ↑ In the 1991 census, 55,000 Slovaks gave Russian / Ruthenian as their mother tongue; see. Adela Mad'arová: Ruthenians in Slovakia. National, linguistic and cultural identity of the Ruthenian national minority in Slovakia in its historical development up to the present day. Unprinted diploma thesis, Vienna 2004, p. 10.
  45. ↑ James Minahan: One Europe, many nations. A historical dictionary of European national groups. Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport / Conn 2000, ISBN 0-313-30984-1 , p. 148 f.
  46. ^ Adela Mad'arová: Ruthenians in Slovakia. National, linguistic and cultural identity of the Ruthenian national minority in Slovakia in its historical development up to the present day. Unprinted diploma thesis, Vienna 2004, p. 9.