Sumo
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Sumō [ sɯmoː ] ( Japanese 相撲 , Sumō or 大 相撲 , Ōzumō ) is a form of wrestling from Japan . A sumō fighter is known as a sumōtori or rikishi.
The aim of the fight is to force the opponent out of a sand-covered circle marked out with a straw rope or to throw him off balance so that he touches the ground with a part of the body other than the soles of his feet. A single fight usually only lasts a few seconds; several hundred fights take place during a regular tournament.
designation
The spoken word sumō goes back to the verb sumau / sumafu , which means “to compete; to fight "means. The written word goes back to the expression sumai no sixi ( 相撲 の 節 ), which was a wrestling competition at the imperial court in the Heian period . The characters of sumai or today sumō mean "hit each other". There is also an alternative spelling as 角力 , which can already be found in Nihon Shoki from the 8th century. Here the first character actually means "corner", but serves here as a phonetic element, since one reading of it is sumi , while the second character means "force".
Sumō is also a general term for wrestling in Japanese. So udezumō ( 腕 相撲 , "arm sumō") means arm wrestling and yubizumō ( 指 相撲 , "finger sumō") means finger wrestling . There is also the game kamizumō ( 紙 相撲 , "paper sumō"), which consists of two paper figures on a base, which are moved by knocking on the base until one falls over and thus loses.
The association sumo with its league system, so the "Japanese wrestling match" known in the west, is called ōzumō ("great sumo").
history
Early and Japanese Antiquity (until 1185)
Sumō is first mentioned in a document from 712, the Kojiki ( 古 事 記 , record of ancient events ), which describes how the possession of the Japanese islands is decided in a wrestling match between the gods Takemikazuchi and Takeminakata. The Nihonshoki ( 日本 書 紀 , Chronicle of Japan in individual writings ) from 720 dates the first battle between mortals to the year 23 BC. When a man named Nomi-no-Sukune, at the request of Suinin - tennō, fought against the fighter Taima-no-Kuehaya in a wrestling match and eventually killed him, making him an ancestor of sumo in myths. In fact, until the Japanese Middle Ages, the more or less irregular wrestling matches often only ended with the death of one of the fighters.
The original origin of sumo is obscure. It is possible that it developed under Chinese or Korean influence. Both countries have a long tradition of wrestling ( Shuai Jiao in China, Ssireum in Korea) and both had a great cultural influence in the early history of Japan.
In Japan, the wrestling matches traditionally took place at festivals ( Matsuri ) ( 祭 り ) of the Shinto folk religion . Archaeological finds suggest that such battles were held before the year 500. But they didn't have much of today's sumo, so there was no fixed ring and the rules were not yet fixed. The first historically documented sumo fights were fought in 642 at the court of the Kōgyoku- tennō for the entertainment of an embassy from Korea. In the following centuries, with the popularity of sumo at court, its ceremonial and religious importance increased. Regular events at the court of Tennō , the sumai no sixi , and the establishment of the first sets of rules fall into the cultural bloom of the Heian period .
Japanese Middle Ages (1185-1603)
With the disintegration of the central power of the Tennō, the courtly sumō lost in importance, in the warlike Kamakura period , the formerly highly ceremonial wrestling among the shoguns turned into military combat training. The samurai were encouraged to practice it. Sumo also left the seclusion of the court and became an event for the masses, and it became customary among daimyo (princes) to sponsor wrestlers. Sumōtori who successfully fought for prince's favor were granted generous support and samurai status.
One of the greatest lovers of sumo was Oda Nobunaga , who held a tournament with 1,500 wrestlers in February 1578. So that the fighters did not interfere with each other, circular battlefields were demarcated - the sumo ring ( 土 俵 , Dohyō ) was invented and developed into the current form by the 18th century.
Edo period (1603-1867)
Since sumo had become a nuisance through fierce fighting in the streets, especially in Edo , sumo wrestling was temporarily banned in the city during the Edo period . In 1684 it was allowed to hold charitable fights on the property of shrines , as was customary in Kyōto and Osaka ( 勧 進 相撲 , Kanjin-zumō ).
At that time, an official sumo organization developed which, at the disposal of the Edo administration from 1719, consisted only of professional wrestlers. Many elements date from this period, e.g. B. the Dohyō-iri , the system of heya or stables, the Gyōji and the Mawashi .
In the 18th century, sumo wrestling experienced a golden age, especially in Edo, when legendary fighters such as Raiden Tameimon , Onogawa Kisaburo and Tanikaze Kajinosuke , the first historical yokozuna , were born. On the occasion of a trial of strength of the latter in honor of the Shogun Tokugawa Ienari in 1791, many elements of the old Shinto cult battles were reintegrated and retained.
Since 1868
The Meiji Restoration in 1868 made the feudal system disappear, and with it the wealthy princes as sponsors. As sumo became fixated on the western world, its status declined: it was suddenly seen as an embarrassing, backward relic. In addition, the association split after internal disputes.
It was a stroke of luck that in 1884 the Meiji-tennō hosted a sumo tournament. His example made sumo a national symbol that has now returned to its old popularity. The nationalist mood after the military successes against Korea and China may also have contributed to this.
Women have been allowed to attend tournaments since the 19th century and the sport has largely had its current form. The innovations introduced by the Japanese Sumo Association , which was reunified in 1926 , included increasing the number of tournaments from initially two to four and in 1958 to six per year, as well as extending the number of tournaments from ten to 15 days in 1949.
Rules and procedure
The basic rules of sumo are very simple and immediately understandable for everyone, while the details of the execution are precisely regulated and open up a cosmos of details, the comprehensive knowledge of which, however, is not a prerequisite for the enjoyment of the viewer. The most elementary principle is that an encounter is decided by a fighter first either stepping on the ground outside the circular ring or otherwise touching it or touching the ground inside the ring with a part of the body other than the soles of the feet. The wrestlers try to achieve this by pushing, hurling, throwing, hitting and often by outwitting the opponent. The Japanese sumo association Nihon Sumō Kyōkai currently distinguishes 82 winning techniques, some of which come from judo . A list can be found in the list of techniques in sumo . Which are not allowed Kinjite ( 禁じ手 , "Forbidden handles"), so choking, hair pulling, bending the finger grips simultaneously in the step area, kicking, pushing the eye and punches and blows to both ears. The most common basic forms are grabbing the opponent by the mawashi (belt) and then pushing it out ( 四 つ 相撲 , Yotsu-zumō ) or pushing out of the ring without a firm grip on the opponent ( 押 し 相撲 , Oshi-zumō ).
The ring (Dohyō) , for the construction and maintenance of which the Yobidashi is responsible, consists of a raised pedestal on which a 4.55 m diameter circle is delimited. Sand is scattered outside the demarcation so that it is easy to see when a wrestler has stepped out of the ring. In the middle of the circle there are two starting lines (Shikirisen) , behind which the wrestlers line up for the attack at the beginning of the fight (Tachi-ai) . The management of the fight is incumbent on the Gyōji , a referee who is supported by five judges or shimpans .
The maximum length of the following fight varies depending on the league. In the top division it is limited to four minutes, but usually only lasts a few seconds. If the match is not over after the time has elapsed, a short break (mizu-iri) is inserted, after which the wrestlers continue the fight from the previous position. If after another four minutes there is still no winner, the fight with Tachi-ai starts again after another break . If this does not result in a decision, the outcome is considered a draw. This course is very rare.
One of the special attractions of sumo is the variety of ceremonies and traditions, some of which have remained unchanged in connection with the sport for centuries. These include the impressive ring entry ceremonies (Dohyō-iri) at the beginning of each fight day, in which the wrestlers appear in the ring in magnificent Keshō-mawashi ( 化粧 回 し ), but also details such as the striking throwing of salt into the ring by the fighters, which the serves symbolic cleaning of the Dohyō , or rinsing the mouth with Chikara-mizu ("power water") before the fight, which is similar to the ritual before entering a Shinto sanctuary.
The sumo wrestlers
General
In Japan, the sport is practiced commercially and professionally. In special sumo schools ( heya ) , in which they both train and live, boys are trained to become sumo fighters. They are also known as rikishi ( 力士 , literally: " strong man") or simply sumōtori ( 相撲 取 , "someone who fights sumo").
They begin their careers in the lowest division around the age of 15. An increasing number of wrestlers are also being recruited from the ranks of successful amateur athletes, especially from Japanese university sports. These are given the opportunity to “cross-entry” into the third ( Makushita ) division. Between the ages of 30 and 40, a wrestler's career comes to an end.
The most successful then have the prospect of a functionary position and work as referee or trainer, others earn their living in the restaurant specializing in chankonabe (see also next paragraph).
In addition to their physique, sumo wrestlers can be recognized by their chonmage hairstyle, as was common with samurai during the Edo period, as well as by their traditional Japanese clothing, which depends on their rank.
anatomy
In sumo, a high body weight combined with a relatively low center of gravity is considered the best possible physical condition. For this reason, the typical appearance of a Sumōtori is usually dominated by its enormous body dimensions, primarily in the abdomen, hips and legs, as this represents the best approximation of the ideal body shape. In order to achieve a high body weight, a special fattening regimen is carried out. This includes exercising on an empty stomach after getting up in the morning. For lunch and dinner, the sumo fighters eat a high- protein and high-fat stew ( chankonabe ), which they prepare themselves. A midday nap after eating is said to promote weight gain. As a result of this way of life, the Sumōtori are considered to be obese according to their appearance, but this is only partially true. In order to be successful at sumo, in addition to an advantageous physique, high explosiveness and stability are necessary. Therefore the fighters must have sufficient speed and agility. Sumo fighters not only have very well developed muscles, even if they are barely visible, but are also unusually flexible for their high body weight. Quite a few of them, for example, have mastered the balancing act .
Naming
The names by which sumo wrestlers are known are adopted battle names or Shikona ( 四 股 名 ), which they have often received from coaches or other people close to them. These names often have meaning or are the names of previous fighters. The custom is often found that parts of the name are "inherited" from the old battle name of the stable master. Wrestlers from the same heya or wrestling stable can then be identified by their names beginning with the same name. The sumo wrestlers Kotoōshū , Kotomitsuki and Kotoshogiku are all members of the Sadogatake-beya, whose leader as a wrestler was called Kotonowaka , which he in turn received from his predecessor Kotozakura , who in turn followed Kotonishiki .
Obesity and its consequences
Since there are no body weight restrictions, sumo fighters are usually very heavy. Over the past few decades, the average body weight of wrestlers has risen steadily. The average weight of the Sumōtori increases between 1990 and 2020 by 15 kg to 160 kg. The heaviest sumo fighter to date, who competed in the top Japanese division, the Makuuchi division, was the Hawaiian Konishiki , who at the end of his career had reached a fighting weight of over 280 kg at a height of 1.84 m. The problem of obesity is not limited to commercial sumo wrestling. Also among the amateurs there are sumo fighters with a body weight of 150 kg and more. With the American Emmanuel Yarborough , the amateurs even had the world's heaviest known sumo wrestler in their ranks. With a height of 2.04 m, he weighed more than 320 kg, and his maximum weight was allegedly 372 kg.
With the increase in body weight, the sumo wrestlers also saw a noticeable increase in clinical pictures that are a typical consequence of overweight ( obesity ). Quite a few sumōtoris suffer from joint problems or cardiovascular diseases.
Non-Japanese wrestlers in commercial sumo
The (professional) Ōzumō in Japan itself has been practiced by more and more foreigners (Japanese 外人 , Gaijin ) in recent years . However, the Sumo Association has limited the number of non-Japanese rikishi to one per stall. Nevertheless, the number of foreigners is constantly increasing. In the ranking for the May 2006 tournament, five of the ten highest-ranking rikishi were born abroad, more than ever before.
The largest group by far are the Mongols , who often come from traditional Mongolian wrestling . The first foreigner to make it into the high ranks and win a tournament in the highest sumo league was the Hawaiian Takamiyama . The most famous foreigners in sumo are the Hawaiians Konishiki and Akebono , who was the first foreign yokozuna, and the Samoan Musashimaru and their Mongolian successors Asashōryū , Hakuhō , Harumafuji and Kakuryū . Some successful rikishi also come from Eastern Europe , such as Aoiyama (Bulgaria), Roho and Hakurozan (both Russian Federation), Baruto (Estonia) or Tochinoshin (Georgia). Other active and formerly active foreigners, albeit with moderate or less success so far, come from various countries around the world.
The increasing success of foreigners was a hotly debated innovation, precisely because sumo emphasized its role as a traditional Japanese custom and had even been nationalist since the Meiji period. Even US wrestlers were accepted relatively early in the makuuchi division, but the appointment of a non-Japanese yokozuna was still a significant step because, according to the official understanding, special character requirements are placed on holders of this title, which Gaijin can meet was initially controversial. In the 1990s there was a scandal about Konishiki's denied boarding due to alleged racist motives. Meanwhile, however, the more liberal view has taken hold and foreign yokozuna are more the rule than the exception.
The Japanese league system
Structure and functionality
Although there are amateur leagues inside and outside Japan, the only professional sumo league system exists in Japan: the Ōzumō. In this, the sumo association carefully monitors compliance with the rules, which affect not only the immediate sport, but the entire life of the wrestler in the heya . Even things that seem so irrelevant, such as their everyday clothes, are precisely prescribed. In some cases, the association interferes considerably with the personal freedom of the rikishi. For example, in response to a car accident caused by a fighter, a regulation was passed prohibiting wrestlers from driving an automobile.
The top Japanese sumo league is the Makuuchi division. It is divided as the only Division again in combat classes, namely ascending in "ordinary" maegashira that sanyaku -Ränge komusubi , sekiwake and ozeki and yokozuna grand master ranking.
The fighters in the maegashira rank are numbered according to their level of performance, and a distinction is made in all ranks between an eastern and western group, with fighters from the eastern group of the same rank being considered higher. The cardinal points have nothing to do with the origin of the fighters, but rather designate the wing of the building in which their cabins are located.
The fighters in the lower leagues are also numbered according to their level of performance. The lower leagues are in ascending order: the Jonokuchi Division, the Jonidan Division, the Sandanme Division, the Makushita Division, and the Juryo Division. The fighters of the last-mentioned, second highest league form the sekitori with those of the makuuchi division . A sekitori (“someone who has made the breakthrough”) enjoys all kinds of special privileges in the regulated everyday life of a sumo fighter. He is relieved of chores, has the right to a tsukebito (assistant) and his own room in the heya , he is also subject to less restrictive rules and is paid much better.
In tournaments or basho there is a fight for promotion and relegation. If a wrestler achieves more wins than losses ( kachi-koshi ) , he rises in the rankings called banzuke . If there are more defeats than wins ( make-koshi ) , he is relegated. The only exceptions are the highest ranks: an Ōzeki only loses his rank after two make-koshi in a row, and he gets it back immediately if he immediately afterwards reaches a kachi-koshi with at least 10 wins. The title of yokozuna is awarded for life. This award is therefore associated with the obligation to withdraw from active sumo in the event of declining performance.
The basho
Since 1958, six tournaments have been held annually at set locations in sumo. A basho has been held every two months since September 1957, three of them in Tokyo (January, May, September), as well as in Osaka (March), Nagoya (July) and Fukuoka (November).
Every tournament begins and ends on a Sunday. The last day is named after the playwright Zeami Motokiyo Senshuraku , "the joy of a thousand autumns". This is the day when the all-important fights often take place. If two or more fighters are tied, they will fight for the tournament victory that day.
The lower divisions begin their fighting in the morning and forenoon of a fighting day. The rikishi of all lower leagues only fight seven days of the basho, while the sekitori have to fight for their daily fight on all 15. Already in the morning the yobidashi calls the audience with his drum, the yagura-daiko , from a 16 m high tower-like wooden frame in front of the hall. The Makuuchi fighters do not compete until the afternoon. In silk keshō-mawashi , the rikishi enter the ring for the dohyō-iri , the common ceremonial appearance before the fights, and then disappear back into their changing rooms in the east and west wings of the hall. The yokozuna then holds their own ceremony. Then the first encounters take place. Again, the lowest-ranking wrestlers fight first.
An awards ceremony takes place at the end of the last day of a basho. In addition to the tournament victory (Kaiser Cup), various prizes will be awarded among all Makuuchi fighters who are neither yokozuna nor Ōzeki and have achieved kachi-koshi, including a. for a special fighting spirit or outstanding fighting technique. An overview of all winners since 1958 can be found in the list of tournament winners in sumo .
pay
The merits in sumo are difficult to calculate for outsiders. The salaries, which are graduated according to rank, are publicly set and in 2001 were between 1,030,000 yen (approx. 7,500 euros ) a month for a juryo wrestler and 2,820,000 yen (approx. 20,500 euros) for a yokozuna, but due to a network of special prices , Bonuses and sponsorship money, the actual income is much higher. Each tournament winner receives a one-time bonus of 10,000,000 yen (approx. 72,500 euros) in the makuuchi, for example, the victory of a maegashira over a yokozuna ( 金星 , Kinboshi , "gold star") is awarded an additional 40,000 yen (approx. 250 euros) rewarded per basho until the end of the active career. In addition, sponsors can offer prizes for an encounter. These are given in envelopes to the winner immediately after the fight; the amount of a bonus is set at 60,000 yen. There are also a number of other bonuses, the amount of which is usually based on the rank of the wrestler.
Members of the leagues under Juryo, ie all non-sekitori, only receive pocket money from the association that is well below the rates of the upper leagues. Beginners fighting in the lowest division received the equivalent of 360 euros in 1996, while makushita wrestlers received around 1,800 euros. Everyone else was somewhere in between.
International amateur sport
In the second half of the 20th century, sumo wrestling also spread outside of Japan. However, here, unlike in Japan, sumo is a marginal sport and is only operated on an amateur basis. The umbrella organization is the International Sumo Federation (ISF), which has organized international competitions since 1980 and annual world championships since 1992. Besides Japan, the leading nations here are primarily Germany and various Eastern European countries. Sumo has also been part of the World Combat Games program since 2010 . The ISF continues to support international cooperation to promote amateur sport, for example by enabling non-Japanese amateurs to participate in training camps in the motherland of sumo. Subordinate to the ISF are the continental associations of Europe, Asia, Africa, Oceania, as well as North and South America. A total of 77 national associations are organized here (as of September 2007). The European Sumō Union (ESU), which is currently based in Berlin, acted as the European umbrella organization .
Events in the top management of the ESU led to the ISF distancing itself from its European continental association. As a result, the European Federation Sumo (EFS) was founded with its seat in Lausanne . The EFS is now the European continental and umbrella organization recognized by the IFS. Dariusz Rozum from Poland, General Secretary of Este Riho Rannikmaa, has been President of the EFS since April 2016.
The Sumo Association Germany (SVD) acted as the German umbrella organization for sumo sport . The SVD belonged to the German Judo Association and awarded Budo grade. Since the top management of the SVD did not initially accept the changed situation to the disadvantage of the ESU, a number of clubs left the SVD and founded the German Sumo Association (DSB) based in Brandenburg an der Havel in 2015 . The German Sumo Federation was accepted as a full member of the European Sumo Federation under its first President Michael L. Huebner on November 6, 2015 during a regular EFS congress in Rakvere , and as the only legitimate representative of Germany for the sumo sport on the subsequent cogress in Krotoszyn confirmed. As a result, a member of the presidium of the DSB, Vice President Dr. Torsten Kastner, elected to the position of Medical Director and thus to the board of the continental umbrella organization EFS.
Sandra Köppen-Zuckschwerdt has been President of the DSB since December 8, 2017 .
The amateur sumōtori are largely recruited from active or former judōka.
The fighting rules of amateur sumo wrestling are largely identical to those of traditional Japanese sumo wrestling. But there are also major differences. One concerns the conduct of the competitions. In contrast to the Japanese events, the focus in the amateur area is exclusively on the actual sporting competition. The ceremonies or rituals customary in advance are therefore largely left out. This rational view is also reflected in the dress code. The fighters do not wear gorgeous mawashi, and the referees do not dress in the colorful gyoji costume, but wear white clothes and gloves and a black bow tie, following the example of referees in boxing. The fights themselves can be carried out on sports mats, in addition to classic clay Dohyos. The amateurs also have championships in different weight classes , the division of these classes depending on the age group. The men (over 21 years of age) will fight in the categories up to 85 kg, up to 115 kg and in the open class. These measures give relatively light wrestlers the opportunity to succeed.
The most important difference to the Japanese sumo is the fact that amateurs also women have the opportunity to take part in competitions (see section Women in Sumo ). World championships for women have been organized annually since 2001. This is part of the efforts of the world association to make sumo an Olympic sport.
Women in sumo
General
Although women make up a not insignificant proportion of sumo fans and have played a certain role in the history of sport, they do not appear as athletes in professional sumo to this day. Although the wives of the oyakata (stable masters) are an indispensable part of the organization of every heya , not even high-ranking politicians are allowed to enter the Dohyō for the award ceremony . Originally this is related to the Shinto idea that women are "impure" because of their menstrual periods . Only in amateur competitions do women appear as active players. They wear a wrestling suit in addition to their mawashi. The Japanese women's sumo association Shin Sumo Renmei ("New Sumo Association", founded in 1996) is a sub-organization of the Japanese Sumo Association.
History of the women's sumo
Wrestling matches involving women have been performed as parodies for the entertainment of the audience since around the 17th century . This Onna-zumō ( 女 相撲 ) found both fights among women, partly prostitutes , as well as between women and z. B. instead of blind men. These spectacles were extremely popular, even though they were repeatedly banned as immoral until the 20th century because of their actual or presumed proximity to the red light district . In 1624 Chikamatsu Monzaemon processed the erotic women's wrestling in a play by the Joruri theater, and the subject already appeared in the poet Ihara Saikaku . Most of the time, however, it was not a real sports competition, but rather animation or curiosity shows.
Minister Sanjō Sanetomi forbade the "disreputable" performances in 1873 completely. However, in the Meiji period, many women became seriously active in sumo. In 1872, female spectators were first admitted to professional fights. In times of male shortage in World War II, there were women's sumo events, but interest waned in the post-war period and by the 1960s, women's sumo had completely disappeared. Only since 1997 has the sport officially started again, at least at the amateur level.
Todays situation
There are around 300 active female sumo wrestlers in Japan and there are 17 national associations internationally, of which the Russian one is one of the strongest in terms of personnel and sport. One of the most successful wrestlers was the German Sandra Köppen and the German national team for women is also top class in international comparison.
Like the male amateurs, the women fight in weight classes (up to 65 kg, up to 80 kg and over 80 kg), apart from the open class (no weight limit). Parallel to the 8th World Cup in 1999 in Riesa , a women's competition took place for the first time. The Women's World Cup has existed as an independent event since 2001.
See also
- List of yokozuna
- Category: Sumo Wrestlers
- Tegata
- Nakizumo
- Chonmage , the hairstyle of sumo wrestlers
Individual evidence
- ↑ a b c 草 田 男 : 相撲 . In: Daijisen at kotobank.jp. Shogakukan, accessed December 6, 2011 (Japanese).
- ↑ 紙 相撲 . In: Daijisen at kotobank.jp. Shogakukan, accessed December 6, 2011 (Japanese).
- ↑ 大 相撲 . In: Daijisen at kotobank.jp. Shogakukan, accessed December 6, 2011 (Japanese).
- ↑ DER SPIEGEL: Body mass index of more than 47 - Japan's sumo wrestlers are getting heavier. June 16, 2020, accessed June 16, 2020 .
- ↑ amateursumo.com/champions/yarbrough.htm. Archived from the original on August 7, 2011 ; Retrieved October 25, 2016 .
- ↑ Japan Omnibus
- ↑ Membership list of the International Sumo Federation ( Memento of the original from October 17, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ^ German Sumo Association. German Sumo Association V., July 20, 2016, accessed on July 21, 2016 .
literature
- Marianne u. Harald Keller: Sumo. The traditional Japanese wrestling match. Berlin 1981, ISBN 3-87892-040-7 .
- Jörg Möller (Ed.): Sumō. Publication of the Society for Nature and Ethnology of East Asia, Tokyo Munich 1994, ISBN 3-89129-295-3 .
- Jörg Möller: Sumo - fight and cult. Historical and Religious Aspects of Japanese Wrestling. Sankt Augustin 1990, ISBN 3-88345-573-3 .
- Clyde Newton, Gerald J. Toff: Dynamic Sumo. Kodansha International, ISBN 4-7700-1802-9 .
- Bill Gutman: Sumo Wrestling. Capstone Press, Minneapolis 1996, ISBN 1-56065-273-X .
- Mina Hall: The big book of Sumo: history, practice, ritual, fight. Stone Bridge Press, Berkeley 1997, ISBN 1-880656-28-0 .
- Lora Sharnoff: Grand Sumo: the living sport and tradition. Weatherhill, New York Tokyo 1989, ISBN 0-8348-0283-X .
- Alexander von der Groeben, Simone Mennemeier: SUMO - Battle of the Giants. Verlag Dieter Born, Bonn 2000, ISBN 3-922006-16-7 .
- Manfred Deutschländer, Berthold Steinschaden (Ed.): Fascination Sumo . Verlag Dieter Born; Bonn 2013, ISBN 978-3-922006-33-6 .
Web links
- Introduction to the world of sumo, overview of all yokozunas, pictures and biographies of individual sumo fighters
- Sumo discussion forum
- Sumo website of Saarbrücken University
- Live-Stream and Video-on-Demand of the Grand Sumo Tournament on NHK Japan (English)
- Japanese Sumo Federation website , English version
- Takayama Shigeru: "Sumo" . In: Encyclopedia of Shinto. Kokugaku-in , February 20, 2007 (English)
- Website of the World Amateur Federation ISF
- European Sumo Union website
- Website of the German Sumo Association
