Tianxia
| Tianxia “Under the Sky” |
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| Hanzi : 天下 |
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Standard Chinese Putonghua • Mandarin |
| Hanyu Pinyin : tiānxià |
| Further transcriptions |
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IPA : [tʰiɛn ɕia] Zhuyin : ㄊ ㄧ ㄢ ㄒ ㄧ ㄚ ˋ |
| Japanese |
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Kanji : 天下 Kana: て ん か, て ん げ, |
| Korean |
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Hanja : 天下 Hangeul : 천하 |
| Vietnamese |
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Vietnamese : thiên hạ |
Tianxia ( Chinese 天下 , Pinyin tiānxià - "literally: under the sky") is a sequence of words made up of two characters from the standard Chinese language. The term is ambiguous and is usually interpreted as “everything that is under the sky”, without geographical or spatial restrictions. Historically, this was also the name given to the emperor's claim to power.
Word meaning
Depending on the context, the word sequence can have the following meanings:
| context | Historical worldview |
|---|---|
| geographically and scientifically | entire, inhabited environment, ecumenism |
| religious-metaphysical | Relation between this world and the hereafter with deity in heaven |
| geopolitically, economically | ruled world empire, Chinese empire , otherwise room name , economic area |
| cosmological | square world "on earth" vs. round, starry sky |
| history of ideas | Confucian ecumenism, spiritually united, civilized, peaceful cultural world |
| Current reading | |
| socially, in everyday language | Sinosphere in East Asia, universal community of values, "all the world" |
| metaphorically | Factual entities, such as the "kingdom of minerals" (see text) |
The term stands for a comprehensive, old concept that, as an idea of the world in different contexts, has a different meaning. The words and groups of words for Tianxia are chosen with care and attention against the background of the historical circumstances of another cultural area . The European understanding has made do with the word combinations Celestial Empire (en.) And Céleste Empire (fr.) For a long time . However, “Himmlisches Reich” and “Himmelreich” as German would be very reminiscent of religious, holy, sacred content, which is why this translation is unusual in German. There is also a risk of confusion with the Heavenly Realm of the Great Peace of 1851.
Connotation of the characters
The word itself is made up of two Chinese characters : 天 ( tiān , "heaven") and 下 ( xià , "below"). Both words have their own connotations: in Chinese and German, heaven stands for the physically observable earthly atmosphere (see English sky ) as well as for the divine and the otherworldly (see English heaven ). In the latter sense, the concept of heaven is particularly important in Chinese in the dual pair of opposites heaven and earth ( Chinese 天地 , Pinyin tiāndì - "universe, world"), which is a multilayered philosophical concept in Daoism ; but also in the political meaning of the mandate of heaven , which legitimizes a “son of heaven” as divine ruler. The 下 ('below') is used as a single character both as a position description (in the compound word “below the sky”) and as a direction description (ie “from heaven downwards”). Thus the main interest of the phrase Tianxia is not in the sky itself, but in what goes on below.
Depending on the context, Tianxia can literally refer, in trivial observation, to everything that is in all directions between the surface of the earth and the sky - it is a pure statement. On the other hand, Tianxia becomes a claim in the political context, where “all the world” is under the rule of the world ruler legitimized by heaven.
Tian
The character 天 ("heaven") is considered to represent ancient Chinese ideas of natural order. It is made up of the characters 大 ( dà “big”) and 一 ( yī “one”), where 大 is also made up of 一 and 人 ( rén “man, person”). The top horizontal line of the 天 is not broken by the other lines, in calligraphy it is often only touched or remains completely unconnected. According to the common reading, this means that the top line is the meaningful element of this sign. In the much older oracle inscription , the bronze inscription and in some cases in the seal inscription , however, an anthropomorphic figure can be recognized in, which archaeologists also interpret as a deity.
Surrounded by political, military and climatic inadequacies, the powerful, self-contained cosmic order with its own regular processes appeared to be an exemplary framework for the human world. The course of the round sun and moon, as well as the circling of the stars around the central pole star, is the template for the calendar system that can be seen with the naked eye. This improved the farming culture and thus the food supply for the population. After the separation of heaven and earth (see myths below), the ideal, round, fatherly heavenly world was opposed to the maternal, earthly world with its rectangular fields, courtyards, cities and palaces. In times of drought, the heavens were asked for rain. Heaven was therefore viewed as a humanized, divine person. Since the people and heaven perceive and commission everything, only heaven gives the office of emperor (the establishment) only to the virtuous.
Accordingly, the Chinese emperor was also referred to as the "son of heaven" or " son of heaven" . Unlike the emperors in Roman tradition, the Chinese Son of Heaven combined the functions of both secular and spiritual leaders. He alone was allowed to rule and sacrifice to heaven as a deity, while the lower kings in the countries sacrificed their earth altars. Only he alone in the entire world empire Tianxia could ask for reparation with an atonement for wrongdoing of the people towards heaven. Ultimately, therefore, a good supply of food depended on these qualities of the emperor.
It so happened that the supreme ruler, as the son appointed by “Father Heaven”, played a mediating role for the people. The Chinese character wang王 for king explains this connection as a principle representation. In the vertical center, according to classical understanding, the emperor was the son of heaven and at the same time the bearer of the lordly heavenly mandate . In contrast to divine right , it could forfeit it through subjective inability or unfavorable objective framework conditions. Its moral quality was associated with possible or humanly blamed effects in heavenly events.
Xia
The sign 下 ( xià ) stands here in the context of the sky for the lower world, the lower land . In general, it is used as a position word simply below and as a directional word down or down .
In the context of the imperial claim to rule, the division into heaven and earth also meant a principle of order, which, from the divine principle of heaven downwards, comprised first the emperor, then his court with dignitaries and officials, then his country with all its inhabitants. This land was, quite sinocentrically , the land of the middle ( 中国 , zhōng guó ). Tianxia also referred to its own and neighboring countries as vassals and tribute states, subordinate to China. Generally speaking, it included limited and unlimited spaces. Outside of the Confucian bureaucracy, this self-contained world accepted anyone who accepted the Chinese emperor's heavenly mandate. A historically significant step towards this was the unification of the divided warring states under the first emperor of the Qin dynasty . The barbarians living in the outermost peripheral zones formed the limit of this worldview. There is the idea of unknown extreme regions where the round sky does not cover the square world. The sun doesn't rise and set properly there. No emperor left the empire to undertake an arduous tour of inspection in these remote areas.
The broader concept of Tianxia has primarily been associated with civilization and peaceful order. It formed the ethical and normative framework of the Chinese multiethnic world. This was based on the traditional Confucian family model and expanded it to include the dynasty, the court, i.e. the imperial “family” in the broader sense. At the same time, he also included legalistic views in the exercise of government.
The geographical expansion of the family model affected the other countries in terms of foreign policy. As the holder of the heavenly mandate, the emperor was able to assert his nominal claim to be ruler of the whole world. Consequently, the Son of Heaven expected that every ruler of an area of the known world would legitimize himself through his imperial authority , even if that area was not subordinate to the emperor. This expectation was not always fulfilled by the kings. As great kings or imperial heads, they created their own Tianxia concept and thus, in a sense, their own world. And yet the lasting cultural influence in the sense of a common, that is, Confucian, community of values united and connects the majority of the East Asians.
Other aspects
The prerequisite for all of this and the multiple meanings of Tianxia was the cosmological conception of the world in the various Chinese myths about the origins of the world . With the development of the two original principles of yin and yang , the exemplary, here “round” sky and the here “square” earth world with its four cardinal points within the four seas came into being.
In addition to the inner-Chinese, old world concept, Tianxia is still used in today's everyday language, parallel to the modern world term shijie世界. Tianxia as a generic term also stands for all people (all over the world). As a collective term, it describes the realm of signs, minerals, plants and animals. With this, Tianxia reminds of the "10,000 things" wanwu in the sense of everything that exists in the world.
Tianxia also refers to the traditional Korean martial arts wrestling Ssireum, a championship superior to the individual disciplines “at world level”.
In its importance as an empire, Tianxia offered material for the cinematic development of a conflict of conscience. The 2002 martial arts film Hero ( Yingxiong ) brought the word Tianxia to an interested global audience.
Historical and political development
antiquity
The Tianxia worldview had not yet fully developed under the Shang Dynasty . Only during the Zhou Dynasty , when the sky took on human-like (anthropomorphic) features, did the Tianxia concept become widespread. At least mentions and references to heaven appeared in the historical records. Terms like the “four cardinal points” sifang四方 and “10,000 states” wanbang万邦 appeared in the texts of the time. "Four cardinal points" means an area that was created by the royal court and ruled by the Zhou kings from the capital. However, it was populated by non-Han Chinese tribes on the outer borders in the periphery and Han Chinese in the center. The term "ten thousand states" refers both to the area and to the subjects who are resident in it, be they ethnic Chinese (Han) or "barbarians". According to the heavenly mandate, the Zhou kings received these "ten thousand states" with appreciation and gave them authority (appointments). This is one of the earliest signs to distinguish between Hua Chinese and Yi barbarians.
During the spring and autumn periods, as well as the Warring States period in the second half of the Zhou dynasty, the power of the feudal princes developed rapidly. Some non-Han regions became powerful states themselves. When many of these feudal states found a common denominator in cultural and economic matters, the concept of a great nation that was still fixated on the catchment area of the Yellow River gradually expanded . The term Tianxia began to appear in classical texts such as the Zuozhuan and the Guoyu .
Empire and divisions
The territory and feudal governments under the Zhou Dynasty and the Qin Dynasty were united after the conquest of the future First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty. The idea of Tianxia has been appropriately converted into a contemporary, actual geographic size. Indeed, Qin Shihuangdi's goal of uniting all of Tianxia is representative of his efforts to rule and expand Chinese territory.
With the establishment of the Han dynasty , the equivalence of Tianxia with the Chinese nation developed. The reason for this lay in the feudal approach to feuding nobles with land and independence. That way, military spending to keep them in check could be avoided. Although many areas enjoyed widespread independence, this practice solidified and spread the Chinese language and culture over an even wider territory.
After the period of the Three Kingdoms , China, which was briefly united in the period of the two Jin , was divided into many different political structures with the Southern and Northern Dynasties . This meant that the term Tianxia was temporarily empty as a purely nominal name. And yet all sub-orders saw themselves as “administrators” of the whole of Tianxia.
When Emperor Gaozu of the Tang Dynasty reunited China in the seventh century, some northern tribes referred to him as the " Khan of Heaven". The Battle of Talas laid bare that Tang China, although in size and strength to the Caliphate of the Abbasids was comparable, but did not have one the Tianxia as a single nation, as the Qin Dynasty and the Xiongnu . In the centuries that followed, Chinese rulers and dynasties had to place themselves repeatedly in multipolar world orders with external influences that ran counter to the Tianxia concept:
The approximately 50 years of the Five Dynasties in the 10th century was followed by a north-south unity under the Song Dynasty . Song China's northern borders met the Kitan Liao Dynasty , the Jin Dynasty, and the XiXia Dynasty . In particular, the Jin Dynasty and the Liao were and were themselves an influential state structure of the Ruzhen / Jurchen , who ruled a large part of what is now northern China. After facing the threat of these self-confident northeastern states, the Song rulers became aware of their inability to defend themselves against them. So the construction of alleged blood relationships with the Jurchen should help to improve the relationships. The Mongols divided during the Yuan Dynasty Chinese residents in two public classes: The Hanren the North with Kitan , Jurchen and Koreans and Manzu than the southern barbarians of the former Song Empire.
When the Ming Dynasty expelled the Mongols and reunited China under the rule of the ethnic Han Chinese, the concept of Tianxia returned and was again underpinned philosophically, with the use of the concept of the Han and Qin dynasties. With the end of the Ming Dynasty, for example, were Wang Fuzhi and his contemporary Gu Yanwu the Neo-Confucianism against critical. In the repeatedly recited ideas of Confucianism from the Daxue, The Great Learning , “Cultivate the moral self, keep the family well-ordered, zhiguo rule the state, keep Tianxia in peace and harmony”, a change took place. With the beginning of the Qing Dynasty , Wang Fuzhi said that “keeping Tianxia in peace”, which the Daxue deems to be worthy of all honor, was nothing more than simply “ ruling the land” zhiguo . This subordination of Tianxia cannot be reconciled with its initial status. With this marginalization and reduction of Tianxia to an interchangeable format as an argument, Wang was critical of the neo-Confucian doctrine of reason. On the other hand, the collapse of the Ming Dynasty and the establishment of the Qing Dynasty by the Manchu , that is, by a population group previously viewed as peripheral “marginal barbarians”, had a far-reaching influence on views of the Tianxia. Gu Yanwu wrote, for example, that a "falling / subjugated state" is not equivalent to a "falling Tianxia". He argued that the Manchu simply played the role of emperor, thus continuing the Tianxia of traditional Chinese culture.
Opening and change in the modern age
The idea of the absolute power of the Chinese emperor and the expansion of Tianxia through the assimilation of vassal states began to lose influence with Earl Macartney's diplomatic mission to China in 1793. Earl Macartney assumed that trade with China took place at the level of equally sovereign nations, just as Britain was used to other European nations of the time. He also hoped to be able to win over the emperor to sign a trade agreement. The Qianlong Emperor rejected his request. He stated that China was the number one and holiest nation on earth, had no interest in foreign goods and rejected the idea that Britain could enter into negotiations with China as an equal nation. In the 19th century Britain's victory over Qing China in the First Opium War forced China to sign an Unequal Treaty , although the Qing Court described this to the Chinese people as a simple act of generosity towards the Europeans and adhered to the concept of the towering Tianxia.
After its defeat in the Second Opium War , China was forced to sign the Treaty of Tianjin . This stipulated that Great Britain and France, as a "sovereign nation" , should turn to zizhu guojia in the same way that it referred to itself. This prevented China from continuing to negotiate diplomatically or economically with other nations within the framework of the traditional Tianxia system. It was necessary to create a main office for the general administration of foreign (trade) affairs with the various states, the Zongli Yamen .
Because the system of intergovernmental affairs of Western nations was based on the idea that sovereign nations met as equals, China's traditional Tianxia doctrine was continually being phased out. After China's defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War , the Japanese put an end to Korea's traditional status as China's wards. The feudal and vassal system that had been practiced since the Han dynasty was also left to decay. A circumstance that fundamentally changed attitudes towards the Tianxia concept.
At the end of the 19th century, Xue Fucheng , the Chinese ambassador to Great Britain, adopted the traditional Tianxia worldview. He transformed the idea of a Tianxia isolating Chinese (Hua) and barbarians (Yi) into a Tianxia that unites China and other countries as a category. In this, both sides should maintain equal relationships.
The move away from the - outwardly directed - central claim as the “Middle Kingdom” shows China's efforts to gain international recognition, its admission to the United Nations and the World Trade Organization . In addition to its interests in Africa and the Middle East, the China of today's reform age operates a decentralized balanced scheme of relationships with its partners in a multipolar world. On the other hand, efforts are being made with the One Belt, One Road initiative to bring foreign countries into China's sphere of influence through economic ties and dependencies. In addition to creating an economic and financial architecture centered on China, the focus is also on deepening mutual cultural and linguistic understanding. This modern and political interpretation is attributed to Zhao Tingyang , among others .
Non-Chinese Uses of Tianxia
Japan
The concept of Tenka in Japan is derived from the Chinese Tianxia.
References to Tianxia exist for the first time in Japanese history for the Kofun period . An excavated burial mound ( tumulus ) in the vicinity of Kumamoto contained an iron sword with engraved characters. The dating fell to the late fifth century. The characters on the sword refer to the contemporary King Bu , in Chinese Wu, as the "great king who ruled the Tenka / Tianxia." This find serves as evidence that the Japanese had begun their empire at least since the Kofun era to be regarded as a complete and heavenly-divinely assigned Tenka for its own reasons - separate from the Tianxia of the older and larger Chinese empire.
According to the Suishu , the Wa King of Yamato State sent a handwritten credential to Sui Emperor Yang in 607, calling himself “Son of Heaven of the Place of the Rising Sun”. This indicated that the Japanese notion of their independent tenka persisted at the time.
In the seventh century Japan, an ambitious introduction of penal laws and administrative ordinances took place, which are now called ritsu-ryō . At that time it was believed that the importance of Tenka was the sphere of influence of rules, ordinances and state control. Some essential features of the Tianxia concept, such as the empire, here as Heavenly Majesty Tennō , as Heavenly Son Tenshi , came to the fore in this context. The position of the citizens Tenka kōmin / Tianxia gongmin (天下 公民) as part of the free subjects was more clearly emphasized. The neo-Confucians took up this topic with the slogan that all citizens are equal under heaven.
In the chronicle diaries of Kujō Kanezane , an official of the Kamakura shogunate , whose journals became the Gyokuyo 玉 葉, the establishment of the shogunate by Minamoto no Yoritomo is described as the "beginning of Tenka". His use of the word Tenka (Tianxia) is essentially based on the ritsu-ryō . The phrase “beginning of Tenka” therefore refers in particular to the reorganization of the kokka / guojia nation and the legal system.
Be that as it may, even if Yoritomo intended to become a monarchical ruler, Japan's Tenka concept has by no means reached the Chinese level during this period, with an emperor ruling feudal kingdoms and the one of heaven with the order of all known world.
Gidō Shūshin recorded in the chronicle diaries a conversation he had with Ashikaga Yoshimitsu , in which the shogun repeatedly referred to his territory as Tenka. In the Muromachi period , the inhabitants gradually began to see the Shogun as the chief administrator as the ruler of the Tenka.
When the Muromachi shogunate lost its influence, regional warlords began to fight each other to gain control of the nation. More powerful aristocratic warlords, such as Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi , ruled large spaces and viewed their domains as Tenka / Tianxia. During this phase of the Azuchi Momoyama period , when the generals sought to reunify Japan, the term found increasing use and became more and more related to the country of Japan itself.
In the Edo period , the equality of the Tokugawa Shogun with the "man of Tenka" was emphasized. The shogunate was equivalent to the “court of Tenka”. The widespread adoption of the Tianxia concept proved helpful in influencing Japan's long period of isolation prior to the Meiji Restoration .
Korea
Because of China's longstanding cultural influence and dominance over the kingdoms of the Korean Peninsula, the term Tianxia has rarely, if ever, been used to refer to an independent Korean [Tianxia] thought pattern. However, in the ancient Korean kingdoms including Goguryeo , Baekje and Silla (especially Goryeo ), concepts similar to that of Tianxia existed, but independent of Chinese influence.
After all, the idea of Korea as an independent Tianxia with the introduction of neo-Confucianism received a lot of criticism from the Koreans by the 13th century at the latest, while the neo-Confucian idea of a Korea as "little China" (Hangul: 소중 화, Hanja:小 中華, a kind of Honorificum , praise from the Chinese side) was in progress. The Korean perception that China had submitted to the control of the Yi and Di barbarians with the rule of the Qing dynasty was later added to this.
Vietnam
The Vietnamese concept of Tianxia, as well as its cultural and national identity, began with the invasion of the Yuan Dynasty in the 13th century. After the followers of the Nhà Trần victoriously defeated the [Sino-Mongolian forces of the] Yuan, they introduced the reigning dynasty of Yue Nan to the concept of Tianxia. In the time after that, when they themselves officially took over the regular successor in the Kingdom of Nan-Yue, the Tianxia conception, which was then adopted from ancient times, proved to be helpful in dealing with territorial claims in the Lingnan region of the previous Chinese territory (the motherland of ancient Nan-Yue) in northern Yue Nan. Be that as it may, towards the end of the Lê dynasty at the end of the 18th century, the orthodox idea of Vietnam fell out of favor as the dynasty of the King of Viet. Until the European conquests of Southeast Asia, Vietnam was referred to as the “Great South” Dai Nam / Da Nan.
Mongolia and nomadic tribes
With Mongolia as a common projection surface representing the different nomadic peoples of North, Central and East Asia, the Chinese idea of the sky (Tian) is mirrored in that of the long-lived sky (Tengri / Chengli) . Worship of the Tengri was common among these tribes who inhabited a wide area. At certain times in history this stretched from the Kamchatka Peninsula to the Sea of Marmara . Adoration of Tengri continues to the present day in Central Asian Mongolian shamanism , although many tribes in the east have converted to Buddhism and Islam in the west. The shamans taught that the world, the universe, had three realms - heaven, earth and the underworld. - And Tengri was [also] a human [like] (anthropomorphic) deity who ruled in heaven. Shamanism says that Tengri would send a man to earth who would become a hero and savior and would be called the son of Tengri. Great leaders as the Hun kings with the title Chanyu of the ancient Xiongnu up to Genghis Khan were sometimes called the son of Tengri. They then used this authority to rule over their lands and sources of wealth.
literature
- Denis Twitchett , John K. Fairbank, and others: The Cambridge History of China . 15 volumes, (some in double volumes), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, London, New York, New Rochelle, Melbourne a. Sydney 1978-1999.
- Joseph R. Levenson, 'T'ien-hsia and Kuo and the “Transvaluation of Values”, in: Far Eastern Quarterly , No. 11 (1952), pp. 447-451.
- Peter Weber-Schäfer : Oikumene and Imperium, studies on the civil theology of the Chinese Empire . Paul List Verlag, Munich 1968. (Series of publications on politics and history).
See also
Notes and individual references
- ↑ cf. Entry in the printed editions of the New Encyclopædia Britannica, Micropædia under Celestial Empire .
- ↑ On the Mingtang Temple, the square as well as the round calendar house, which refers to the temporal dimension with the active influence of the emperor's rule, see Marcel Granet: The Chinese Civilization , p. 238.
- ↑ Li Gi , The Book of Rites, Morals and Customs . Exercise u. ed. by Richard Wilhelm, new edition, Diederichs, Düsseldorf, Cologne 1981, ISBN 3-424-00691-2 , I. 6. Chap. The book Dsong Dsï, Part I, K. The sky is round / Tiën Yüan 1. Round and square, p. 159, Schan Gü Li questioned the Dsong Dsï and said: “It is said that the sky is round and the earth is square ; is that really so? ”Longer footnote with explanation, pp. 159ff. and IV. 21. Chap. Bau Fu / The Imperial Teachers, 13. The holy chariot [similar to the turtle, a teaching aid for explaining the cosmos with heaven and earth].
- ↑ Cf. Vox populi vox dei , connection with the Bible, Prophet Isaias chap. 66, 6.
- ↑ On this, Mengzi Book 5, Section A, No. 5, in Mong Dsï: The Doctrinal Discussions of Master Meng K'o . Translated by Richard Wilhelm, 2nd edition of the new edition, Diederichs, Munich 1994, ISBN 3-424-00742-0 , pp. 141f., Where Wilhelm reproduces “heaven” as meaning “God” and in particular the chapter Shangtong , above align, in the Synoptic Discussions of Mo Ti: Of Heaven's Love for Man . Exercise u. ed. by Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer, Diederichs, Munich 1992, ISBN 3-424-01029-4 , p. 82ff., p. 85ff. and p. 95ff. and Odes No. 8 时 邁 passim from the first book of the fourth part of the book of songs, Shiji.
- ↑ According to the Christian view, the emperor was a secular, profane ruler by the grace of God in the Middle Ages and especially in modern times . The highest priestly function remained reserved for the Pope. The current Chinese government does not recognize this authority in relation to the Catholics in China.
- ↑ So the kings appointed by the emperor from the beginning and the dukes and grand dukes raised by him from distant countries as tribute-paying vassals - in stark contrast to the earlier kings of the Zhou dynasty, who as successors to the old Shang emperors themselves sons of heaven, were actually in the rank of emperor. Wolfram Eberhard: Chinas Geschichte ( China's history) points to the proximity between Di 帝 = emperor and = highest god for the Shang period as one of many . Several editions, here Francke Verlag, Bern 1948, p. 33. On the role of the prince, especially in Marcel Granet's: The Chinese civilization | Family • society • domination | From the beginning to the imperial era . Exercise u. a. by Claudius C. Müller, 2nd edition Suhrkamp, Frankfurt a. M. 1988, ISBN 3-518-28118-6 (Suhrkamp-Taschenbuch Wissenschaft 518), Third Book, Chap. 2, Der Fürst, pp. 111–124, from the Royal Son of Heaven of the Zhou period in Book Four, chap. 1, p. 235ff. in particular its function as, depending on the situation, nominal or factual military leader is emphasized.
- ↑ z. B. Alfred Forke: History of Ancient Chinese Philosophy . Vol. 1, Kommissionsverlag L. Friedrichsen, Hamburg 1927, p. 55.
- ↑ See e.g. B. Marcel Granet: The Chinese Civilization , p. 244.
- ^ For many Peter Weber-Schäfer : Oikumene and Imperium, studies on civil theology of the Chinese Empire . In a series of publications on politics and history. Paul List Verlag, Munich 1968. General p. 22. For detailed information on the characters, see p. 287 in particular.
- ↑ Wolfram Eberhard, Chinas Geschichte , p. 46: “There cannot be several sons of heaven because there are not several heavens. The imperial sacrifices ensure that everything is in order in the country, that the necessary balance between heaven and earth is maintained. Because according to the heavenly religion there is a strict parallelism between heaven and earth, and every sacrifice that is neglected or not carried out according to the regulations triggers a reaction in heaven. For these religious reasons, the feudal lords needed a central ruler. But they also needed it for practical reasons ... “Cf. Marcel Granet: Die Chines Zivilisation , p. 254f. to the ruling college of heaven and emperor, which must be well coordinated for the well-being of the people.
- ↑ James Legge understood the single character 下xià at several passages in his Shijing translation as this lower world .
- ↑ Joseph R. Levenson: T'ien-hsia and Kuo and the “Transvaluation of Values”, in: Far Eastern Quarterly , No. 11 (1952), pp. 447-451, 447.
- ↑ Li Gi , The Book of Rites, Morals and Customs , I. 5. Chapter. Kung Dsï san tschau, Part I, A. 3. The four assistants, f) The different types of people, p. 102f. [...] "The people in the eastern outskirts are called I. They are clever and cunning. Far in the distance there are those who do not know anything about cooked food. The people in the southern outskirts are called Man. You are honest and simple. Far in the distance there are those who do not know anything about cooked food. The people in the western outskirts are called [Rong] Jung. You are strong and tough. Far in the distance there are those who do not know anything about cooked food. The people in the northern outskirts are called Di. They are fat and raw. Far in the distance there are those who do not know anything about cooked food. [...] ".
- ↑ z. B. Herrlee G. Creel: The Origins of Statecraft in China . Vol. 1, The Western Chou Empire , The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, London 1970, pp. 93 and 239.
- ↑ Li Gi , The Book of Rites, Morals and Customs , I. 5. Chapter. Kung Dsï san tschau, Part I, A. 1. The order of the interior, p. 96 [...] "In a state of a thousand war chariots, which is appointed by the Son of Heaven, who carries out the connection within its four borders, who duly keeps the population documents, [...] ”.
- ^ Herbert Franke and Rolf wedding slip: The Chinese Empire . Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Frankfurt a. M. 1968. ISBN 3-596-60019-7 Fischer Weltgeschichte Vol. 19, p. 73.
- ↑ Otto Franke: The history of the Chinese empire . Volume IV, The Confucian State. II. Crises and foreign peoples , Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1948, p. 240. Comparison with the Verdun partition treaties . Characteristics and will to live of closed nation-states, own, self-aware nationality. To the overview Herbert Franke and Rolf wedding slip: The Chinese Empire , pp. 207–217, 209.
- ↑ According to Herbert Franke and Rolf Trauschein: The Chinese Empire , p. 230. Wolfram Eberhard, Chinas Geschichte , p. 261 mentions “Central Asian auxiliary peoples (Naiman, Uigurs, various other Turkish peoples, Tanguts, etc.)” as the superordinate groups . At the top are the numerically inferior Mongols themselves, who are therefore concerned with legal protection, "which in turn split into four subgroups (oldest Mongol tribes, white Tartars, black Tartars, wild Tartars)".
- ↑ For many Joseph R. Levenson: T'ien-hsia and Kuo and the “Transvaluation of Values,” in: Far Eastern Quarterly , No. 11 (1952), pp. 447–451, 449.
- ↑ Tobias Wenzel: Zhao Tingyang: "Everything under heaven". World peace in Chinese. In: Deutschlandfunk Kultur. January 21, 2020, accessed February 16, 2020 .
- ↑ Addition from the en-Wikipedia: At that time the Japanese rulers were respectful and devoted to the Chinese court. Chinese immigrants (then called torajin渡 來人) were warmly welcomed and courted for their knowledge of the Chinese language and culture.
- ↑ Because of the secondary engravings Wakatakeru mentions cn-Wikipedia the assumption that it could possibly be the Tennō Yūryaku 418-479, reg. 456–479 act, which should refer to Saitama Prefecture.
- ↑ Wa as an early name for Japan. On the Chinese view of Hanshu and Weizhi cf. John Whitney Hall: The Japanese Empire . Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Frankfurt a. M. 1968. ISBN 3-596-60020-0 Fischer Weltgeschichte Vol. 20, p. 31.
- ↑ See e.g. B. John Whitney Hall: The Empire of Japan , p. 56.
- ↑ Wolfram Eberhard, Chinas Geschichte , p. 335 gives a concise brief overview of the later Japanese politics from 1868–1945 on the meaning, purpose, scope and sources of their large-scale efforts, which were also divided into belts and zones, but differently oriented, until the end of the Second World War .