Viscose fiber

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

As viscose fibers (to be regenerated ) from regenerated cellulose refers to that both filament yarn as a staple fiber can be produced. They are industrially spun using the viscose process , the most common wet spinning process .

The regenerated cellulose is chemically identical to the native fiber cellulose, such as cotton , but has a different elementary lattice in the ordered areas, namely that of cellulose II or hydrate cellulose . The state of order is only about half as great as in native cellulose.

The production takes place in three main stages:

  1. Generation of the spinning solution, the viscose,
  2. Spinning the filaments and
  3. Post-treatment of the spun threads.

By modifying the manufacturing parameters and the aftertreatment, viscose fibers can be adapted very well to the intended processing and uses. The simplest adaptation to later processing stages is the cutting or tearing of the filament tow drawn from the spinning bath into staple fibers with lengths predominantly between 2 and 130 millimeters. The fineness of viscose fibers can be set between 0.5 and 30  dtex , which, assuming a round cross section, corresponds to a diameter of 6 to 30 µm.

Further modifications compared to the normal type are z. B. highly crimped, high wet strength, color fast spun-dyed and flame retardant fibers.

By varying the fiber length and the crimp, the viscose fibers of the cotton fiber (B types: 50 - 60 mm, slightly crimped) and wool (W types: 30 - 150 mm, heavily crimped) can be adapted, which is useful for the production of mixed yarns matters.

Previously, viscose filament yarn as rayon or rayon , the fibers as rayon referred. According to the Textile Labeling Ordinance, these designations may no longer be used to label textile products.

Production (viscose process)

Scheme of the production of "viscose solution" from cellulose (above). In the example all hydroxyl groups are esterified.
When “viscose solution” is spun in an acid bath ( sulfuric acid ), viscose filaments ( artificial silk ) are obtained; when pressed through a narrow gap, cellophane is obtained .

The currently existing viscose fiber production plants have a very different structure. A comprehensive presentation is therefore not possible here. A general overview is to be given of the processes common to all viscose fiber manufacturing processes.

Generation of the spinning solution

Chemical pulp , which is obtained from various types of wood from beech , spruce , eucalyptus , pine , bamboo , annual fiber plants or cotton linters is used as the starting material for the production of viscose fibers . This pulp quality differs from pulp for paper production in that the chain length of the cellulose polymers is shorter and the purity is higher. The pulp for viscose production contains less residual lignin and less hemicelluloses or pentosans . It has a better reactivity towards caustic soda and carbon disulfide and a better solubility in caustic soda after the xanthogenation reaction .

For the production of viscose fibers according to the classic viscose process, a spinning solution, the viscose, has to be generated. For this purpose, the pulp sheets delivered from the pulp production are first soaked in an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH). The cellulose swells ( mercerization ) and is converted into alkali cellulose. The swollen sheets of alkali cellulose are pressed out and then mechanically shredded into fine particles in order to enlarge the surface and thus allow the subsequent reaction of the alkali cellulose with carbon disulfide to proceed more quickly and more evenly. The shredded alkali cellulose is then placed in a special container through what is known as pre-maturation (also known as aging). At constant temperature and humidity, the degree of polymerisation of the cellulose is reduced under the influence of atmospheric oxygen, so that a spinnable viscosity of the spinning solution can later be set. Carbon disulfide (CS 2 ) is allowed to act on the pre-ripened alkali cellulose particles. This produces sodium xanthate ( xanthate ). The orange-yellow xanthate forms a viscous solution in dilute aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. The terms viscose solution , and ultimately viscose fiber , are derived from this description of the state of the solution in this reaction stage . The spinning solution, which has a consistency similar to that of warm honey, is filtered two or three times. During the successive filtrations, the solid impurities and the swollen, not completely dissolved polymer particles are removed from the solution with increasing care. The remaining particles must not be larger than the spinneret holes in order not to endanger the subsequent filament formation. Air bubbles are also removed by applying a vacuum. The viscose solution then matures over a longer period in special containers. In contrast to pre-ripening, the degree of polymerization is only slightly reduced. Rather, the aim of post-ripening is a completely uniform viscose solution; In order to achieve better mixing, the solution in the maturing container is often agitated. As it ripens, the cellulose xanthate is gradually hydrolyzed, reducing the degree of esterification. There is usually a further filtration and deaeration of the spinning solution. At the same time, carbon disulfide and water vapor are extracted. The finished spinning solution is fed to the spinning kettle via a pipe.

Spinning the filaments

The alkaline spinning mass is pressed out of the spinning vessel by means of gear pumps through spinnerets into a precipitation bath (spinning bath). The diameter of an individual hole in the spinneret is between approx. 25 µm and 250 µm, depending on the target specification for the fiber fineness to be achieved later . The number of bores per spinneret for viscose filaments is between 15 and 120, depending on how many filaments the filament yarn is to consist of. For the production of viscose staple fibers, spinnerets with a number of boreholes between 3000 and 60,000, in special cases even up to 100,000.

A sulfuric acid spinning bath is used for the viscose fibers in the classic manufacturing process, which contains sodium sulfate almost up to the saturation limit and a small amount of zinc sulfate to delay the cellulose precipitation reaction. By neutralization, the sulfuric acid from the sodium xanthate forms both sodium sulfate and the inconsistent cellulose xanthogenic acid, which in turn breaks down immediately into cellulose and carbon disulfide. The re-formed (regenerated) cellulose coagulates into filaments which are drawn off from the precipitation bath. The filaments, which are still soft and malleable, are immediately drawn (stretched) in a drawing device, i. H. remaining stretched. The total draw for standard fibers (normal type) is approx. 20% and for high-strength fibers up to 200% and more. The stretching leads to an increased orientation of the chain molecules of the fiber, whereby z. B. the abrasion and tensile strength can be increased. In the normal type of viscose, the chain molecules in the core of the fiber are still relatively disordered. One therefore speaks of a core-shell structure.

The spinning baths are regenerated for safe fiber production, because of the need to save chemicals and to protect the environment. The removal of the small amounts of carbon dioxide and the foul-smelling hydrogen sulfide , which has to be removed in an expensive gas scrubbing process, is very important for the regeneration of the precipitation bath . Alternatively, the biotrickling filter process ( Lenzing AG ) can be used, a simple and reliable biological cleaning technology. The water and sodium sulphate are removed from the spent bath in the recovery for reprocessing the spinning bath. Sodium sulfate is therefore a by- product in the classic viscose process and is largely sold to the detergent industry. The carbon disulfide released in the spinning process is sucked out of the spinning systems and either directly recovered by absorption on activated carbon or burned to produce sulfuric acid .

Post-treatment of the spun filaments and assembly

The number and sequence of the aftertreatment steps depend on the desired product quality and the aftertreatment equipment available. There are differences e.g. B. when cutting the filament tow into staple fibers, which in some systems takes place immediately after the drafting system, in others only at the end of the wet post-treatment stages after the filaments have dried. There are also variants for the aftertreatment of filament yarns: both intermediate storage prior to aftertreatment and continuous passage of the filament yarn through the aftertreatment systems are in use. Essential post-treatment steps to remove impurities adhering to the fibers are necessary if the sequence in the production plants is different. When the fresh tow is drawn, the CS 2 is directly recovered by being driven out of the fibers by means of steam and the subsequent condensation of the vapors and returned to the process; its complete recovery is sought.

The filaments must then be washed intensively. The removal of the sulfuric acid residues is of particular importance, as they would destroy the cellulose fibers during drying. Elemental sulfur produced as a result of side reactions during filament formation can stick to the filament surface as a yellowish discoloration and make further processing difficult. Hot washing removes a large part of the sulfur, but treatment with desulfurization chemicals such as alkali salts may also be necessary. To increase the whiteness of the filaments, bleaching takes place, which is chlorine-free, at least in Europe. As a final wet treatment, the filaments are coated with oily substances in order to make them smoother, smoother and more storable. The dried viscose staple fibers are then collected in bales of around 250 to 350 kilograms with a recapitulation (commercially available residual moisture) of around eleven percent. Viscose filament yarns are wound with spool weights of around 1.5 to 6.0 kilograms. The fineness is usually between 40 and 660  dtex .

Modified viscose fibers

The normal type of viscose fiber has properties that are not optimal for all purposes. The production of the viscose fibers by a wet spinning process offers good modification possibilities. In order to better adapt the properties of the fibers to the intended use, solid and liquid additives can be mixed into the spinning solution and, in addition, the precipitation baths (regeneration baths) as well as the production speeds and drawing can be varied.

Highly crimped viscose staple fibers

Examples of textured filaments

The normal viscose fibers have too little crimp to allow z. B. to be processed with wool into bulky yarns. Texturing processes such as those used for thermoplastic synthetic fibers to create crimped arcs cannot be used for viscose fibers. In order to obtain highly curled fibers, the manufacturing conditions are changed: For example, the viscose is allowed to mature longer; The coagulation of the filaments can also be changed by the composition of the spinning bath, which influences the uniformity and thickness of the fiber sheath. Compared to the fiber core, the increased shrinkage of the sheath in the hot washing bath and during the subsequent drying then causes constant crimping of the fiber filaments of 90–140 sheets / 10 cm. The crimped filaments are then cut to the desired length.

Cross-section modified viscose fibers

Profiled viscose fibers can be produced with the help of profiled spinneret bores. The fiber cross-section shows compared to the "round" (cloud-shaped) of the normal type z. B. flat (ratio thickness D / width B 1: 5), trilobal (three-lobed) (D / B 1: 5) or ultra-flat (D / B 1:20 to 1:40) shapes, which the fiber surface compared to the normal type increased to 150%, 240% or 260 to 360%, whereby z. B. the properties of the filters made from these fibers change. By using viscose fibers with star-shaped and tri- or multilobal profiles in diapers and tampons, the cavity structure is increased by 30 to 40% compared to tampons made of normal-type or cotton fibers with the same fiber usage. If viscose fibers with a flat cross-section and a corrugated surface are used in nonwovens, these fibers can break up on contact with larger amounts of water and thus improve the flushability of disposables made from them and ensure their environmentally friendly disposal.

Viscose hollow fibers

If sodium carbonate is added to the viscose solution , when the spinning jet comes into contact with the acidic spinning bath, gaseous carbon dioxide develops: combined with the normal gases that are released in the spinning process, enough pressure is created to inflate the sheath of the filament being formed. The result is a continuous cavity in the longitudinal direction of the filament. The fibers that are created in this way are softer and fuller than normal types and have improved thermal insulation. There are also hollow fibers with a segmentation in the longitudinal direction due to membrane-like partitions. The cross-sectional structure of such fibers is collapsed when dry, but these fibers swell when they come into contact with liquid. The liquid is stored in the cavities. The swelling is reversible. Stored water is discharged as humidity. These types of hollow fibers are used in filter materials and in hygiene products.

Flame retardant viscose fibers

It is relatively easy to make viscose fibers flame-retardant by adding flame-retardant substances to the viscose solution. Such flame retardants are z. B. phosphoric acid esters, phosphates or phosphonates. If they are added as finely divided powder or polymeric liquids to 18-25% in the viscose (based on the cellulose mass), sufficient flame retardant properties can be guaranteed for the fabrics made from such fibers. The flame-retardant viscose fibers are extremely comfortable to wear. Pure or mixed with, for example, aramid, kermel or PBI fibers, they can be processed into flame-retardant clothing, curtain fabrics or seat covers in public transport. The incorporation of the flame retardants in the fiber has the advantage that the textiles made from them remain flame retardant even after many washes.

Colorfast, spun-dyed viscose fibers

The finishing of textiles can be simplified if the fibers are already dyed during manufacture. For this purpose, dyes can be added to the viscose spinning mass. Inorganic and organic pigments (e.g. azo pigments ), which must be insoluble and stable in viscose and in the spinning bath as well as in the washing and bleaching baths, are suitable as dyes . With the pigment dyes a wide range of bright, strong colors can be achieved.

High-strength viscose filaments

High-strength viscose filaments are achieved through a modified spinning process with "braked" coagulation in the precipitation bath and greater stretching of the coagulated threads. This creates a high degree of orientation of the cellulose molecules along the fiber axis. The strength is two to three times higher than normal viscose filaments, the elongation at break in the dry state is 12 to 17% lower than that of normal viscose. The high-strength viscose filament yarns are resistant to brake fluids and can therefore be used to manufacture brake hoses. These filaments are very important as tire cords and as reinforcing fibers in PP compounds.

Highly wet strength viscose fibers

A modified spinning solution (e.g. less matured, modifying additives) and more zinc sulfate in the precipitation bath enable the production of fibers with high wet strength. In addition, the filaments are spun at a lower spinning speed and stretched more strongly than normal viscosity filaments. The resulting full sheath fibers have a higher strength with a lower swelling value. One application is reinforcements in conveyor belts . These high-strength viscose fiber types were also the forerunners of modal fibers.

similar products

Just like the viscose fibers, the modal, lyocell and cupro fibers belong to the regenerated cellulose fibers. They consist of 100 percent cellulose II (see introduction).

Modal fiber

Modal fibers (abbreviation: CMD) are structurally modified viscose fibers with a higher degree of polymerization (over 400 to 700) than normal viscose fibers. The modification takes place through changed spinning conditions, changed precipitation baths and the addition of spinning aids. The elongation of modal fibers has to remain below 15% with a tensile load of 22.5 cN / tex when wet, which is not achieved by normal and numerous high-strength viscose fibers. Unlike other regenerated fibers, the pulp used for production is mainly obtained from beech wood . Modal fibers were developed as PN types (Polynosic) or as HWM types (High Wet Modulus) . These are particularly similar to cotton, in contrast to normal viscose fibers, which have a lower durability and higher shrinkage behavior. Modal fibers give clothing and home textiles a high degree of dimensional stability, even when they are wet. While the HWM types have a higher elongation at break and transverse strength, Polynosic fibers are more alkali-resistant, which enables them to be mercerized together with cotton. Modal fibers also have a higher loop and abrasion resistance than normal viscosity fibers. Polynosic fibers are now mainly produced in China, HWM types mostly in Europe.

Lyocell fiber

The fibers of the Lyocell genus (abbreviation: CLY) (trade name e.g. TENCEL) are produced by a solvent spinning process in which the cellulose is dissolved directly in an organic solvent without the formation of a derivative and the solution is spun. As the organic solvent on a commercial scale NMMO (is N -Methylmorpholin- N oxide ) is used, which is not toxic. The manufacturing process for lyocell fibers is characterized by excellent environmental compatibility compared to viscose fiber technology. Wood pulp is mostly used as cellulose.

Lyocell fibers exceed the standard types of all other regenerated cellulose fibers in terms of strength (dry and wet), wet modulus, and thus dimensional stability, of the standard types of all other regenerated cellulose fibers, but they also have a lower elongation. The textile properties are comparable to those of long-staple cotton. The NMMO process also enables the production of bioactive, absorbent or thermoregulatory Lyocell fibers by adding additives to the spinning solution.

Cupro fibers

Short- fiber cotton, cotton linters or noble cellulose (high proportion of alpha cellulose) dissolved in Cuoxam are used as the starting material for the production of cupro fibers (abbreviation: CUP) . The viscous mass (so-called blue mass) resulting from the dissolution process is spun into cuprofilaments in a precipitation bath using the wet spinning process. The properties are similar to those of normal viscosity, only the wet elongation at break is higher. The silky sheen (origin of the name artificial silk) is required in the clothing sector, but also in technical textiles. The cupro fibers are still of little economic importance.

Usage and wearing properties

The properties of the viscose fibers vary over a wide range due to structure-changing measures (e.g. modifying additives, changes in cross-section, etc.); the tensile strength in the dry state is e.g. B. between 16 and 70 cN / tex and the water swelling between 45 and> 300%. The moisture absorption of the viscose fiber is between 11% and 14% in a normal climate and thus exceeds that of cotton, which is why it has good hygienic properties (e.g. sweat absorption) and can be dyed and printed extremely well. The high water retention capacity, however, leads to relatively long drying times. The viscose fiber is temperature-regulating and skin-friendly. There may therefore be risks of skin irritation due to the dyeing or finishing of the fibers.

Fabrics made from viscose fibers have a soft, flowing drape (drape - see note on drapability ). However, the high liquid absorption also means that the wet tensile strength only reaches 45 to 65% of the dry tensile strength (mean value between 20 and 24 cN / tex). There is an essential difference to cotton, whose wet tensile strength is higher than the dry tensile strength. A simple hand test can be used to determine whether a fiber is viscose or cotton. For this purpose, the thread section used for the test is moistened in the middle. If the piece of yarn breaks in the area of ​​the damp section when the ends are pulled, it is a viscose yarn.

The mean elongation at break in the dry state is 20 to 25%, in the wet state even 25 to 30%. Since viscose has a low elasticity, it wrinkles heavily. Their abrasion resistance is low when dry and very low when wet, which is why strong mechanical loads should be avoided. The acid and alkali resistance is relatively poor. When wet, it is sensitive to microorganisms, which leads to mold stains .

use

Viscose fabric.

The use of viscose fibers is similar to that of cotton fibers because of the common basis of cellulose and the associated physiological properties of clothing . Due to the much greater possibility of variation of the fiber geometry (length, crimp, fineness, cross-sectional shape), it surpasses those of cotton fibers in many application properties. It is also important for processing and thus for use that not only staple fibers are available from viscose, as is the case with cotton, but filaments (continuous fibers) can also be made.

  • Examples of use in the apparel and home textile sectors are:
    • Yarn of 100% viscose staple fibers or in a mixture with cotton, wool, polyester or - polyacrylonitrile fibers are
      • on fabrics for outerwear such as dresses, blouses, shirts, suits and coats,
      • Because of their high absorbency, they can also be used as fabrics for underwear items,
      • processed into decorative and upholstery fabrics as well as fabrics for bed and table linen.
    • Viscose filament yarns are used in particular for clothing, blouse and skirt fabrics as well as for lining fabrics, the fabrics being primarily woven fabrics, but also knitted and knitted fabrics
    • Viscose short fibers (fiber length 0.5 to 1 mm) are used for flocking z. B. T-shirts with plastic motifs
    • When mixed with polyester fibers, viscose fibers are also used in the clothing sector for sewable and fixable interlining nonwovens
  • Examples of use in medical and hygiene products are:
    • Bandage and compression materials such as gauze made of viscose fiber yarn fabrics, viscose fiber bandages, viscose fiber nonwovens for compression and absorbent pad production, viscose fiber nonwovens as a secretion distribution layer (acquisition layer) in multi-layer absorbent compresses, gauze bandages made of viscose knitted yarns, cross-banded tubular and cross-banded viscose fiber knitted fabrics made of viscose fiber yarns
    • Hospital textiles such as multi-layer mattress toppers with viscose fiber / cotton fiber terry cloth as an absorbent layer, binder-bonded viscose fiber nonwovens as an absorbent layer in multi-layer surgical drapes, hydroentangled polyester / viscose fiber nonwovens as surgical gowns
    • Hygiene and personal care products such as
      • Dry and wet cleaning wipes made of differently consolidated nonwovens (increasingly through consolidation with water jets; also referred to as spunlace nonwovens) based on 100% viscose fibers or mixtures with polyester fibers or defibrillated cellulose
      • Absorbent cores of tampons , which are made from strips of needle- punched or hydroentangled nonwovens, whereby 100% cross-section-modified (multilobal) viscose fibers can be used to increase the suction power
      • cotton swab
  • Examples of technical applications are:
    • The cord fabric made from high-strength viscose filaments (viscose cord) produced using a special spinning process as radial carcasses in tire construction, hoses, such as for fuel and lubricating oils in cars, fabrics for conveyor belts as well as cords and cords
    • High-strength viscose filaments, but also cut as short fibers for reinforcement fibers in PP compounds that are processed by injection molding, extrusion or impact molding (e.g. for components in vehicle interiors)
    • Binder-strengthened viscose fiber nonwovens as filter materials in liquid filtration (waste water, cooling lubricants, milk)
    • Tea bags and paper for banknotes

Manufacturer

The xanthate process for viscose production comes from Edward John Bevan and Charles Frederick Cross (1892), who also implemented this industrially. The Viscose Spinning Syndicate was created to implement the patents in Germany, France and the USA, while Courtaulds took over the exploitation in Great Britain .

Hugo Küttner has been producing artificial silk in Pirna near Dresden since 1908/09 , first using the Chardonnet process and from 1910 onwards using the viscose patent. In 1911, the 1899 joined Max Fremery and Johann Urban founded United Glanzstoffabriken AG , headquartered in Elberfeld (today Wuppertal ), which had the year before, the "Prince Guido Donnersmarckschen rayon and Acetatwerke" in Sydowsaue in Szczecin and then the Viscose patents had been taken over to improve them further.

The world's largest viscose producer is now the Indian Grasim Industries , meanwhile the largest viscose production lines are operated today by the Indonesian South Pacific Viscose in Purwakarta (Indonesia) with a daily output of around 150 tons and by the Austrian Lenzing AG with almost 170 tons . The latter can claim to be the world's largest manufacturer of cellulosic fibers, i.e. viscose, modal and Tencel or Lyocell fibers taken together.

Other important European companies in the viscose sector include: B. the German Kelheim Fibers as the world's largest manufacturer of viscose specialty fibers , the likewise German Cordenka based in the industrial center Obernburg as the world's largest manufacturer of high-strength viscose fibers for production and a. of carcasses and tire cord as well as the German Enka in Wuppertal as the largest European manufacturer of textile viscose filament yarns. Another large manufacturer of filament viscose is the company Glanzstoff Industries (formerly Glanzstoff Austria ) with a production site in Lovosice in the Czech Republic.

Literature on the history of viscose

  • Lars Bluma: "L 'substitute is not a substitute" - The creation of trust through technology transfer using the example of German rayon. In: Lars Bluma, Karl Pichol, Wolfhard Weber (eds.): Technology mediation and technology popularization . Historical and didactic perspectives. Waxmann, Münster 2004, ISBN 3-8309-1361-3 , pp. 121-142.
  • Lars Bluma: History of fabrics: rayon, fashion and modernity 1920–1945. In: Elisabeth Hackspiel-Mikosch, Birgitt Borkopp-Restle (ed.): Intelligent connections. Volume 1: Interactions between technology, textile design and fashion. (online at: intelligent-verbindungen.de ) , accessed on December 29, 2011.
  • Hans Dominik: Vistra, the white gold of Germany. The story of a world-shaking invention. Koehler & Amelang, Leipzig 1936, DNB 572897405 .
  • Kurt Götze: Artificial silk and rayon using the viscose process. Springer, Berlin 1940, DNB 573503486 .
  • Jonas Scherner: Between the state and the market. The German semi-synthetic man-made fiber industry in the 1930s. In: Quarterly for social and economic history. 89, No. 4, 2002, pp. 427-448.
  • Kurt Ramsthaler: The chemical worker in the rayon and rayon factory (viscose process): An auxiliary book for chemical workers, foremen and shift supervisors. Volume 2: From the spinning solution to the finished product. Konradin-Verlag, Berlin 1941, DNB 453910629 .

Web links

Wiktionary: Viscose  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

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  2. ↑ Thomas Gries, Dieter Veit, Burkhardt Wulfhorst: Textile manufacturing processes - An introduction. 2nd, revised and expanded edition. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich 2014, ISBN 978-3-446-44057-9 , p. 57.
  3. ^ Walter Roggenstein: Viscose Fibers With New FunctionalsQualities. In: Lenzinger reports. 89, 2011, pp. 72-75.
  4. ↑ Ursula Völker, Katrin Brückner: From fiber to fabric - Textile materials and goods. 35th, updated Edition. Publishing house Dr. Felix Büchner, Hamburg 2014, ISBN 978-3-582-05112-7 , p. 61f.
  5. ↑ Walter Loy: Chemical fibers for technical textile products. 2., fundamental revised and exp. Edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2008, ISBN 978-3-86641-197-5 , p. 25.
  6. ↑ Hans-J. Koslowski: Chemical fiber lexicon. 12th, expanded edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-87150-876-9 , p. 242.
  7. ↑ Thomas Lange, Wolfgang Quednau: Commentary on the European Textile Labeling Ordinance. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2014, ISBN 978-3-86641-278-1 , p. 59.
  8. ^ Siegfried Hauptmann : Organic chemistry. 2nd, revised edition. German publishing house for basic industry, Leipzig 1985, ISBN 3-342-00280-8 , p. 652.
  9. ↑ W. Burchard: Polysaccharide - Properties and Use. Springer-Verlag, 1985, ISBN 3-540-13931-1 , pp. 91-93.
  10. ↑ Dong Zhang (edit.): Advances in Filament yarn spinning of textiles and polymers. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge 2014, ISBN 978-0-85709-499-5 , pp. 177f.
  11. ↑ Zakhar Aleksandrovič Rogowin: Man-made fibers: chemistry - technology. Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart / New York 1982, ISBN 3-13-609501-4 , pp. 80f.
  12. ↑ Zakhar Aleksandrovič Rogowin: Man-made fibers: chemistry - technology. Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart / New York 1982, ISBN 3-13-609501-4 , p. 90.
  13. ↑ Menachem Lewin (Ed.): Handbook of Fiber Chemistry. 3. Edition. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton 2007, ISBN 978-0-8247-2565-5 , p. 741.
  14. ^ Alfons Hofer: fabrics. Part 1: Raw materials: fibers, yarns and effects. 8th, completely revised and exp. Edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2000, ISBN 3-87150-671-0 , p. 151.
  15. ^ Alfons Hofer: fabrics. Part 1: Raw materials: fibers, yarns and effects. 8th, completely revised and exp. Edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2000, ISBN 3-87150-671-0 , p. 172.
  16. ↑ Ursula Völker, Katrin Brückner: From fiber to fabric - Textile materials and goods. 35th, updated edition. Publishing house Dr. Felix Büchner, Hamburg 2014, ISBN 978-3-582-05112-7 , p. 60.
  17. ↑ Thomas Gries, Dieter Veit, Burkhardt Wulfhorst: Textile manufacturing processes - An introduction. 2., revised. and exp. Edition. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich 2014, ISBN 978-3-446-44057-9 , p. 59.
  18. ↑ Menachem Lewin (Ed.): Handbook of Fiber Chemistry. 3. Edition. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton 2007, ISBN 978-0-8247-2565-5 , p. 742.
  19. ^ Rogowin, Zakhar Aleksandrovič: Man-made fibers: chemistry - technology. Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart / New York 1982, ISBN 3-13-609501-4 , p. 145.
  20. ↑ Ursula Völker, Katrin Brückner: From fibers to fabrics - Textile materials and goods, 35th, updated edition. Publishing house Dr. Felix Büchner. Hamburg 2014, ISBN 978-3-582-05112-7 , p. 60.
  21. ↑ Hans-Karl Rouette: Manual Textile finishing - technology, processes and machinery. Volume I, Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2003, ISBN 3-87150-728-8 , p. 414.
  22. ↑ Zakhar Aleksandrovič Rogowin: Man-made fibers: chemistry - technology. Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart / New York 1982, ISBN 3-13-609501-4 , p. 140.
  23. ↑ Menachem Lewin (Ed.): Handbook of Fiber Chemistry. 3. Edition. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton 2007, ISBN 978-0-8247-2565-5 , p. 746.
  24. ↑ Philipp Wimmer: Viscose special fibers for filtration applications. In: F & S Filtration and Separation. Volume 28, No. 1, 2014, pp. 14-21, accessed on February 9, 2018].
  25. ^ Walter Loy: Textile products for medicine, hygiene and wellness. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2006, ISBN 3-87150-913-2 , p. 106 f.
  26. ↑ Walter Loy: Chemical fibers for technical textile products. 2., basic revised and exp. Edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2008, ISBN 978-3-86641-197-5 , p. 26.
  27. ↑ Calvin Woodings (edit.): Regenerated cellulose fibers. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge 2001, ISBN 1-85573-459-1 , p. 252.
  28. ^ VB Gupta, VK Kothari: Manufactured Fiber Technology. Chapman & Hall, London 1997, ISBN 0-412-54030-4 , p. 499.
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  30. ↑ Philipp Wimmer: Viscose special fibers for filtration applications. In: F & S Filtration and Separation. Volume 28, No. 1, 2014, pp. 14-21, accessed on March 31, 2018.
  31. ↑ depatisnet.dpma.de "EP 2 459 782A Regenerierte Celluloseefaser" (registered on July 9, 2010)
  32. ↑ Menachem Lewin (Ed.): Handbook of Fiber Chemistry. 3. Edition. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton 2007, ISBN 978-0-8247-2565-5 , p. 762.
  33. ↑ Walter Loy: Chemical fibers for technical textile products. 2., fundamental revised and exp. Edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2008, ISBN 978-3-86641-197-5 , p. 26.
  34. ↑ Ursula Völker, Katrin Brückner: From fiber to fabric - Textile materials and goods. 35th, updated edition. Publishing house Dr. Felix Büchner. Hamburg 2014, ISBN 978-3-582-05112-7 , p. 62.
  35. ↑ Zakhar Aleksandrovič Rogowin: Man-made fibers: chemistry - technology. Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart / New York 1982, ISBN 3-13-609501-4 , p. 141.
  36. ↑ Walter Loy: Chemical fibers for technical textile products. 2., fundamental revised and exp. Edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2008, ISBN 978-3-86641-197-5 , p. 27.
  37. ↑ Walter Loy: Chemical fibers for technical textile products. 2., fundamental revised and exp. Edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2008, ISBN 978-3-86641-197-5 , pp. 84/85.
  38. ↑ Ursula Völker, Katrin Brückner: From fiber to fabric - Textile materials and goods. 35th, updated edition. Publishing house Dr. Felix Büchner. Hamburg 2014, ISBN 978-3-582-05112-7 , p. 61.
  39. ↑ Hans-J. Koslowski: Chemical fiber - Lexicon. 12th, expanded edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-87150-876-9 , p. 142.
  40. ↑ DIN EN ISO 2076, March 2014 edition: Textiles - man-made fibers - generic names, p. 8.
  41. ↑ Modal fibers on materialarchiv.ch, accessed on March 3, 2017.
  42. ↑ Hans-J. Koslowski: Chemical fiber - Lexicon. 12th, expanded edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-87150-876-9 , p. 142.
  43. ↑ Modal - all the facts about the modern feel-good fiber . ( bonprix.de [accessed on July 26, 2017]).
  44. ↑ Menachem Lewin 1918-, Eli M. Pearce: Handbook of fiber chemistry . 2nd, revised and expanded edition. Marcel Dekker, New York 1998, ISBN 978-0-8247-9471-2 .
  45. ↑ Graz University of Technology - types of fibers. (PDF) February 22, 2016, accessed July 26, 2017 .
  46. ↑ Herbert M. Ulrich: Handbook of the chemical investigation of textile fibers. Springer, 1968, ISBN 978-3-7091-7968-0 , p. 816.
  47. ↑ A. Ernst: The various possible uses of modal fibers. In: Lenzinger reports. 52, 1982, online (PDF; 865 kB), at lenzing.com, accessed on March 3, 2017.
  48. ↑ Calvin Woodings (ed.): Regenerated cellulose fibers. Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge 2001, ISBN 1-85573-459-1 , p. 248.
  49. ↑ Walter Loy: Chemical fibers for technical textile products. 2nd, fundamentally revised and expanded edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2008, ISBN 978-3-86641-197-5 , p. 27.
  50. ↑ Hans-J. Koslowski: Chemical fiber - Lexicon. 12th, expanded edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-87150-876-9 , p. 142.
  51. ↑ DIN EN ISO 2076, March 2014 edition: Textiles - chemical fiber generic names, p. 7.
  52. ↑ Austrian utility model AT 006 807 U1: Cellulosic fibers of the Lyocell genus. Utility model owner: Lenzing Aktiengesellschaft, issue date: April 26, 2004, p. 2.
  53. ↑ Hans-J. Koslowski: Chemical fiber - Lexicon. 12th, expanded edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-87150-876-9 , p. 127 f.
  54. ↑ Walter Loy: Chemical fibers for technical textile products. 2nd, fundamental revised and expanded edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2008, ISBN 978-3-86641-197-5 , p. 28 f.
  55. ↑ DIN EN ISO 2076, March 2014 edition: Textiles - chemical fiber generic names, p. 7.
  56. ↑ Walter Loy: Chemical fibers for technical textile products. 2nd, fundamental revised and expanded edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2008, ISBN 978-3-86641-197-5 , p. 30.
  57. ↑ Hans-J. Koslowski: Chemical fiber - Lexicon. 12th, expanded edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-87150-876-9 , p. 57.
  58. ↑ Menachem Lewin (Ed.): Handbook of Fiber Chemistry. 3. Edition. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton 2007, ISBN 978-0-8247-2565-5 , p. 708.
  59. ↑ Hans-J. Koslowski: Chemical fiber - Lexicon. 12th, expanded edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-87150-876-9 , p. 242.
  60. ↑ Ursula Völker, Katrin Brückner: From fibers to fabrics - Textile materials and goods, 35th, updated edition. Publishing house Dr. Felix Büchner. Hamburg 2014, ISBN 978-3-582-05112-7 , p. 67 f.
  61. ↑ Fabia Denninger, Elke Giese: Textile and Model Lexicon . 8th, completely revised and expanded edition. Deutscher Fachverlag GmbH, Frankfurt am Main 2006, Vol. L - Z, ISBN 3-87150-848-9 , p. 762.
  62. ↑ Walter Loy: The chemical fibers - their performance profile in clothing and home textiles. Fachverlag Schiele & Schön, Berlin 1997, ISBN 3-7949-0618-7 , pp. 37-41.
  63. ^ Walter Loy: Textile products for medicine, hygiene and wellness. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2006, ISBN 3-87150-913-2 .
  64. ↑ Walter Loy: Chemical fibers for technical textile products. 2., fundamental revision. and exp. Edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2008, ISBN 978-3-86641-197-5 , p. 84 f.
  65. ↑ Walter Loy: Chemical fibers for technical textile products. 2., fundamental revision. and exp. Edition. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2008, ISBN 978-3-86641-197-5 , p. 182.
  66. ↑ deutsches-strumpfmuseum.de: Kunstseide ( Memento of the original from August 29, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.deutsches-strumpfmuseum.de