Space colonization
In the space colonization is about ideas and concepts for the creation and development of colonies ( lat. Colonia : settlement) in habitats outside the Earth .
The topic includes both stations that are in free space and stations on celestial bodies with or without an atmosphere . The basic requirement is manned space travel .
Demarcation
The operation of the space station is considered to be the beginning of space colonization. In contrast to temporary room laboratories, the Soviet Salyut 6 (1977–1982) is often viewed as the first full-fledged space station , as it has a second coupling nozzle a. was also provided with tank facilities, for the first time the supply and disposal was carried out by other spaceships. In addition, the regular crews were visited by other space travelers or could be relieved on board the station. The first translation between two space stations took place in 1986 between Mir and Salyut 7 by Soyuz T-15 .
In the public eye, however, space colonization is more likely to be assigned to science fiction , which marginalizes existing approaches because of the global definition of the term and visions from books, films and magazines.
Space colonization can also be categorized based on the distance to earth. The distance can also be used as an indicator of the level of technology required. Space colonization can be done:
| Step 1: | in the earth system | Distance: | Light seconds |
| Level 2: | in the inner solar system | Distance: | Light minutes |
| Level 3: | in the outer solar system | Distance: | Light hours |
| Level 4: | in the Milky Way system | Distance: | Light years |
| Level 5: | in the universe | Distance: | Expansion ≈ 78 · 10 9 light years |
If the definition of space colonization is taken into account, mankind is at level 1. The first approaches and projects for level 2, such as the manned flight to Mars , were proposed or supported by Wernher von Braun at the time of the Apollo program . So far, there has been no political will to implement this step, but this could happen in the next few decades. Levels 3–5 are science fiction . Mankind could reach level 3, taking into account the existing technologies and their continuation within a reasonable time frame. Levels 4 and 5 cannot be estimated, however, since the technological development level is missing in particular.
Current situation
To assess the current situation, it makes sense to take a look at the official announcements, which mainly come from the USA:
In January 2004, the 43rd US President G. W. Bush published the new US space plans with the aim of landing on the moon in 2020. The establishment of a human presence on the moon can drastically reduce the costs of subsequent space explorations, this enables further ambitious missions, ... The program became known under the name Constellation .
In 2005, NASA Administrator Michael Griffin stated that space colonization was the ultimate goal of current space programs: “ ... the goal is not just scientific exploration ... it is also about expanding human habitats outside the earth in our solar system in the future ... for a long time Sight, a planet-bound species will not survive ... If humans want to survive hundreds of thousands or millions of years, we absolutely have to colonize other planets. ... There may even be people building habitats on asteroids ... I know that humans will colonize the solar system and one day will go beyond it. "
At the beginning of 2010, the 44th US President Barack Obama announced the new budget for the USA and ended the Constellation program in the process. Furthermore, an extension of the ISS financing until 2020 was promised. The justification of the commission for the exit from the Constellation program is the lack of innovation in the technologies and the underfunding of the program, so that a target achievement by 2020 is unlikely.
The following April, President Obama presented his plans for American space travel at the KSC in Florida. According to this, a spaceship should be available for a manned flight to Mars by 2025. The US wants to send an astronaut to an asteroid for the first time and a flight to Mars without landing is to take place in mid-2030.
In addition to the United States, other nations are also moving into space. In addition to building its own space station from 2021, China's space program also aims for a manned moon landing from 2030. With the achievement of the desired goals, China could become the second largest space nation. The Aurora program of ESA sees similar trends in relation to a Mars mission before as the US, however, is questionable, as the milestones to be achieved from 2024 with the available financial resources (Aurora budget 2005-2009 ~ 900 million Euro; ISS Columbus module with test facilities around 1.4 billion euros). ESA Director General Dordain (2008) sees one possibility in Europe's entry into manned space travel. Other (future) space nations are currently not playing a special role due to their space budget.
There are various research projects for interplanetary internet to improve communication in space and possibly as a pioneer for connections between several planets .
Space law
The area of space law is of particular importance for space colonization. While there are already various laws and agreements on the national and international level for the earth as a living space, the number of these for the area of space is relatively small. Many questions that affect the actors (states, organizations, companies, private individuals), their liability or their rights of use have not yet been fully clarified and implemented in international agreements.
The stages of space colonization
Space colonization means, as shown in the definition, the construction and establishment of habitats or colonies and societies. This means that people have to be provided with the basic needs for their survival. An overview is given by Maslow's hierarchy of needs . It should be noted, however, that in the early days of space colonization, only the first two levels "physiological needs" and "safety" are of great relevance:
Physiological needs:
- Protection against harmful environmental influences, such as E.g .: radiation, UV light, temperature extremes ...
- a people-friendly atmosphere, such as E.g .: pressure, oxygen, humidity, ...
- Gravity (necessary for long-term operations)
- Food, water, ...
- ...
Safety:
- medical supplies
- Technology reliability
- Rescue systems
- ...
The physiological needs are essentially met by the habitats. A distinction can be made between three habitat types:
- habitable planets
- planetary stations
- orbital stations.
In our solar system there are no habitable planets besides Earth, so that this type of habitat is out of the question for the first three stages. Although it is theoretically thought to create an environment through terraforming on planets such as Mars or Venus that enables humans to survive without artificial habitats, there are some arguments against such geoengineering . Above all, such interventions are not foreseeable in the near future for reasons of cost and technology. The second form are planetary stations, which share the existence of resources with habitable planets. Through in-situ technologies, numerous resources necessary for survival can be obtained in the vicinity of the habitats, whereas with orbital stations such as the ISS, all resources, except for energy, have to be made available through logistical processes.
Stage 1 - colonization in the earth
The colonization in the earth system can be described in two stages: on the one hand the construction and expansion of orbital stations and on the other hand the construction of planetary stations on the earth's moon. Due to past and present missions, some nations have already gained some experience in the area of orbital stations. So far, however, only the US (with the Apollo program ) has managed to land humans on the moon. The creation of an appropriate space infrastructure , d. H. the establishment and operation of spaceports and transport systems is a basic requirement for space colonization and an essential part of the first stage of colonization.
Orbital stations
At the beginning of the development of space stations and laboratories, the focus was on using them for espionage purposes. This changed with the advancement of the development of electronic components and the accompanying construction of spy satellites . The habitats have since been used for research purposes, to exploit the environmental conditions of space such as microgravity and vacuum. The disadvantage of the orbital stations is the logistical supply of all goods that are needed for survival, such as water, oxygen, etc. Appropriate technological developments in the area of life support systems, such as water and breathing air treatment, have significantly reduced consumption in this area become.
- Space stations:
-
Stations :
- current: ISS
- former: Saljut (DOS) , Kosmos 557 , Skylab , Mir , Tiangong 1 , Tiangong 2
-
Laboratories :
- former: Manned Orbiting Laboratory , Saljut (Almas)
- Conditions:
- Required technologies:
- Living rooms, work rooms, hygiene facilities , locks
- Life support systems (breathing gas and water treatment)
- Thermal control systems
- Communication systems
- Pathway and attitude control systems (AOCS)
- Protective shields against small meteorites and space debris
- etc.
- Visions:
In addition to existing systems, there are a large number of visions, including: the Bernal sphere , the O'Neill cylinder or the Stanford torus . Due to the current level of development (technology level), these systems are still science fiction and will not be considered in detail in this context for the time being.
- Space elevator
The concept of a space elevator or elevator for the faster and more efficient transport of people and materials into orbit and beyond, however, is already being seriously worked out. In addition to NASA , various private companies are working on plans, such as the Japanese construction company Ōbayashi , which wants to build a space elevator with a station at an altitude of 36,000 km. The US company LiftPort Group has even set itself the goal of building a lift between the surface of the earth and the surface of the moon and a space station located at an altitude of 55,000 km. For this purpose, a 250,000 km long rope is to be anchored in the lunar surface and led to a Lagrangian point (equilibrium point) in orbit .
Planetary stations
The only program so far that could have led to a lunar colonization was the Apollo program. However, this was discontinued due to budget cuts and the controversial benefits for science after the 6th moon landing ( Apollo 17 ). In addition to the US program, a Soviet lunar program was also operated. This was delayed due to technical deficiencies, so that the manned flights with Apollo 8's orbit around the moon were canceled.
Conditions:
- Lack of protection of the earth's magnetic field / the magnetosphere (depending on location)
- vacuum
- two-week “day”, then two weeks “night”, resulting in high temperature differences on most of the lunar surface with the exception of some areas at the lunar poles , where light is constantly incident
- Presence of resources.
Technologies:
- see orbital stations (without AOCS)
- additional radiation protection, such as B. energy shields or accumulation of material
- In-situ technologies.
Before humanity advances to Stage 2, many plans provide for a settlement on the moon. Practical investigations are currently being carried out on Earth in relation to stations on Mars , but only a real field test can verify the relevant foundations. The moon offers ideal conditions for this. A flight to the moon only takes a few days, so that in the event of an accident, a rescue mission can be started, either from earth orbit or from the earth's surface (an evacuation can also take place from the surface of the moon). One of many possible accidents occurred on Apollo 13 . Here one of the oxygen tanks exploded after being shot into a transfer orbit to the moon. This accident would have had fatal consequences for a Mars mission.
On the moon, on the side facing the earth, earth observation systems or, on the side facing away from the earth, radio telescopes can be installed, which can be serviced by the station crew. Due to the lack of seismic activity and the lack of atmosphere, the moon offers excellent conditions for observation systems, but the costs for such an installation are high. In addition to all the arguments listed or neglected, colonization on the moon is important, especially from the point of view of field tests on station construction and operation and in dealing with the resources available on site. There are numerous reasons for the advantages of such a mission, sketches and concepts, but such an undertaking is only possible in an international context. See the section on cost analysis . Only when this step has been taken can mankind reach level 2 with a clear conscience.
Stage 2 - colonization in the inner solar system
In addition to the Earth system, the inner solar system also includes the planets Mercury , Venus , Mars with its moons Phobos and Deimos and the asteroid belt , as the border area of the inner solar system. Due to the properties of Mercury (−173 ° C to +427 ° C) and Venus (+497 ° C, 92 bar), from a technical point of view, colonization is currently only feasible on Mars or in the asteroid belt. There are visions of a Mercury and Venus colonization , but the establishment of habitats and the use of resources, which allows the colonies a certain independence from transport goods, is easiest to guarantee in relation to the current state of technology on Mars and possibly in the asteroid belt .
The planet Mars
In contrast to a flight to the ISS or the moon, which takes a few days, a trip to Mars or the other planets of the inner solar system takes several months. This means that in addition to the local planetary habitats, the transport system (orbital habitat) also plays a special role.
Orbital Stations - Transport System
Due to the short duration of the mission, the space requirement in terrestrial transport systems was and is rather small (see Soyuz and Apollo ). Such a transport system cannot be used for a Mars mission. To solve the problem, science fiction literature often makes use of cryonics or hibernation , in which the crew members spend the flight to Mars or other planets in a kind of "sleep phase". Given the current state of technology, this is not possible, which means that the crew must be provided with enough space, employment and all the necessary resources for the duration of the flight; in contrast to a transport in the sleep phase. For this purpose, the Mars 500 project was carried out, which was supposed to simulate a manned flight to Mars . In addition to the physical exertion of the crew, psychological issues should also be examined more closely. Critics accuse the project of being somewhat unrealistic, as some mission parameters cannot be compared with a real Mars mission. In addition, many questions regarding the connection between organism, microgravity and long-term missions have not yet been clarified, so that an orbital habitat may have to provide artificial gravity (through a centrifugal force ), which is accompanied by an increase in the mass of the habitat.
- Conditions:
- lack of protection of a magnetosphere
- lack of gravity
- Vacuum.
- Mission parameters:
- Communication path max. 2 × 20 minutes
- Duration approximately one year, depending on the mission
- Rescue options (none / limited).
- Required technologies:
- Components of a space station
- Micrometeorite protection
- Radiation protection
- optional: artificial gravity.
Once the psychological, physical and technological questions relating to the transport to Mars have been clarified , further questions that have not yet been adequately resolved arise after entering a Mars orbit (possibly by braking using an aerobraking maneuver).
- Should the orbital habitat orbit Mars manned or unmanned?
- Which technologies and instruments are needed for the planetary habitats?
- What research can be done?
- ...
Planetary stations
The structure of the planetary habitats essentially depends on the mission parameters. In “Entering Space: Creating a Spacefaring Civilization” Robert Zubrin suggests sending several habitats to Mars in consecutive Earth years and stationing them at a distance of 100 km. The habitats have in-situ technologies for the production of fuel and oxygen, which start automatically as soon as the habitat has landed. The manned mission starts when at least one habitat has a full resource pool and a second habitat is available as an emergency or rescue habitat. To research possible technologies for planetary habitats, the Mars Society started the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station (FMARS) experiment on the Canadian island of Devon Island . The aim of the simulation is to determine the habitat facility, crew size, equipment and procedures for planetary exploration missions. The FMARS station is one of four facilities planned by the Mars Society ( Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS) , European Mars Analog Research Station and Australia Mars Analog Research Station (MARS-OZ) ). The missions provided numerous insights into the structure and environment of planetary activities.
- Conditions:
- lack of protection of a magnetosphere (local magnetic fields present)
- Atmosphere of 0.006 bar
- Gravity
- Presence of resources.
- Findings from FMARS, DMARS, MARS-OZ
- several Mars rovers and electronic navigation aids for EVAs (field operations) necessary
- a “garage” for repairs that cannot be carried out on the rover in an EVA suit
- contamination with Martian dust can hardly be avoided (technical / health risks?)
- Suggested changes to EVA suits
- Proposals for the uniform investigation of microbiological cultures
- Framework conditions for mission processes.
- Other technologies:
- In-situ technologies for resource extraction
Although there are still numerous questions unanswered, there are already some suggestions as to what a mission to Mars could look like, in the form of a sketch, a book or a paper. With such mission concepts, the cost consideration usually remains open.
The asteroid belt
The asteroid belt extends between Mars and Jupiter from 2 to 3.6 AU . This forms the boundary between the inner and outer solar systems and comprises more than 500,000 known objects. A "colonization" of the belt in which objects of a few meters to kilometers are present should be viewed critically. In addition to the lack of gravity and possibly unevenly distributed resources, a collision of an asteroid (and its colony) with other objects cannot be ruled out. The asteroid belt and other near-earth objects (near Earth Asteroid, NEA) are of particular importance, taking into account the available resources. The concentration of platinum group metals in earth mines is said to be around 4–6 ppb , whereas the concentration in asteroids is estimated at 40–60 ppb. To what extent the estimates agree with reality and whether the higher concentration allows more cost-effective extraction is another question. However, this aspect offers an opportunity called asteroid mining, which is of particular importance to space colonization:
- Favors economic interest in developing space-related mining that benefits colonization.
- Represents a resource pool for the colonization of the outer solar system.
- Conditions:
- missing magnetosphere
- vacuum
- Microgravity
- Presence of resources
- Solar radiation 105–340 W / m².
- Required technologies:
- analogous to the orbital stations for a Mars colonization
- In-situ technologies.
The distance of the asteroid belt from the sun leads to a lower solar radiation output per area than that of Earth (≈1360 W / m²) or Mars (≈600 W / m²). As a result, the power-to-mass ratio of solar panels is so low (today's technology) that other energy supply systems have to be considered. This environmental condition is particularly important for the following stages.
Stage 3 - Colonization of the outer solar system
An essential difference between the inner and outer solar system is the available radiation power of the sun per irradiation area. From a technical point of view, this leads to a change in the energy supply of space probes. All previous space probes to the outer solar system used radionuclide batteries instead of solar panels . In addition to the restriction in technical energy generation, all processes based on photosynthesis are also impaired. This affects the transport system (orbital stations) and the planetary stations.
- Missions to the outer solar system:
Orbital Stations - Transport System
A transportation system for travel to the outer solar system is inevitably more complex than a transportation system for Mars. In addition to a different energy supply, the mission duration is also longer. For the energy supply, this means that, in addition to nuclear fission and radioactive decay, nuclear fusion will also be considered for future missions . Antimatter is also conceivable as a source of energy, but cannot currently be produced in sufficient quantities. With all sources, the resource for energy generation must be taken with you at the start of the mission and can then possibly be mined at the destination (the main component of the upper layers of Jupiter is hydrogen with 89.8%). While a trip to Mars takes about nine months (see Viking missions), a trip to Jupiter with today's technology takes one and a half years (see Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 ). The habitat must therefore (optional for a Mars mission) provide artificial gravity. Only at the destination are the moons of the gas planets or large objects of the Kuiper Belt available again with sufficient gravity. Even a mission to Mars (⅓ of earth's gravity) is viewed as critical with regard to the lack of gravity during the outward and return flight and the lower gravity during the stay. Some studies therefore deal with the structure of such a transport system or with habitats that provide artificial gravity.
Planetary stations
If the planetary habitats are examined more closely, the question of an acceptable destination arises. The gas planets Jupiter and Saturn can be colonized in the distant future analogous to the idea of a Venus colonization ("flying cities"). Jupiter offers its own magnetic field, which could protect the habitats from the effects of radiation from the sun. However, the necessary technologies for this cannot yet be estimated, so that the moons represent a cheaper destination based on today's technology. In the lists of natural satellites , moons of a corresponding size (> 2000 km, Earth's moon diameter at 3476 km) are of particular interest (resource availability and provision of "acceptable" gravity):
Jupiter's moons: Europe , Ganymede and Callisto
Saturn's moon: Titan
Neptune moon: Triton
Dwarf planet: Pluto .
Ganymede, the largest moon in the solar system with a diameter of 5262 km, offers not only gravity, but also water ice and its own magnetic field (in addition to planetary bodies such as Earth and Mercury). The magnetic field and gravity are much lower than on Earth, but under these conditions Ganymede could be a suitable destination for a planetary habitat. Europe and Callisto, on which water ice also occurs, could also be suitable for colonization. In Europe, scientists suspect an ocean 100 km deep beneath the ice crust. While the Neptune moon Triton and the dwarf planet Pluto have similar characteristics as Callisto, Ganymede and Europa, the Saturn moon Titan has a special position. This was examined more closely during the Cassini-Huygens mission. As the second largest moon in the solar system, it has an atmosphere that is five times denser than that of the earth. Furthermore, this consists for the most part of nitrogen and contains hydrocarbons, so that titanium is considered to be the most Earth-like in the solar system.
While the moons of Jupiter still have a surface temperature of around 50–150 Kelvin, the temperature decreases towards the edge of the solar system (Pluto 33–55 Kelvin). The mean density of the moons also varies from 1.5–3 g / cm³, which could indirectly indicate the availability of resources (earth's moon 3.3 g / cm³ and earth 5.5 g / cm³). As already indicated, the assumption of oceans under the surfaces of the moons Ganymede, Callisto, Europa and Titan is interesting for a settlement .
Despite favorable factors, such as the presence of z. Due to the lack of sufficient solar radiation and the low temperatures, colonization of the outer solar system is a technological challenge that increases with the distance from the sun, for example a magnetic field, water ice and other resources. The colonization of the outer solar system, with the research and testing of the necessary technologies, represents the preliminary stage to interstellar space travel.
Stage 4 and 5 - leaving the solar system (extrasolar colonies)
.jpg)
The last two stages include interstellar space travel and intergalactic space travel . From the perspective of manned space travel, these two stages are currently still pure science fiction. However, there are various works that deal with this topic. This topic is not too far-fetched, since the Voyager 1 space probe is located in interstellar space, according to NASA . If an artificial object leaves the inner area of the solar system, it must have its own energy supply (see level 3). If you leave the solar system with a conventional drive, the energy supply must be maintained for decades. A closer examination of the interstellar space in the vicinity of our solar system could one day reveal whether it is necessary to take raw materials with you to generate energy or whether the interstellar matter could be used as a resource.
Besides the energy supply, the distance is the biggest problem. The closest star " Alpha Centauri " is 4.3 light years away, which corresponds to 4.1 · 10 16 m (41 trillion km). If a spaceship were to be accelerated to a speed of 0.1 c , it would take at least 43 years (without taking the acceleration times into account) to reach Alpha Centauri. Voyager 1, on the other hand, flies at 17 km / s, at this speed Alpha Centauri would be reached after around 76,000 years.
Due to the long flight time, interstellar spaceships are usually also referred to as generational spaceships , as the next generation is born on the spaceship (when the crew starts the journey under normal living conditions). If one day space propulsion systems are developed and built with which a spaceship can easily reach a relativistic speed, then another effect would occur due to the relative speed to interstellar matter: the bremsstrahlung . Due to the high speed, the impact of interstellar particles would generate ionizing radiation that would have to be shielded. In addition, there are numerous other questions, such as crew size, crew condition (fully functional, sleeping, as embryos, ...), necessary skills of the crew (as a society), resources, tools, spare parts ... so that the spaceship can last for several decades and under the Account of accidents can remain functional.
While a flight to the next star system is still imaginable, even if it is a pure vision, journeys to the next galaxy are no longer tangible. The Andromeda Galaxy is the closest galaxy to the Milky Way , 2.5 million light years away. Even the most daring visions cannot foresee a transport system at the moment, as even light takes 2.5 million years to get to the Andromeda galaxy.
Cost consideration
A cost analysis of such missions can only be done indirectly, since many project expenditures for research and development are also used interdisciplinary and apart from the Apollo program no other missions (e.g. flight to Mars) have taken place. An indirect method can be used by referencing the costs via the drive requirements (transport costs of material).
Estimation of effort
In order to be able to make an initial estimate of the cost of a space mission, the drive requirement is examined more closely. The drive requirement can be calculated using the Vis-Viva equation and the determination of the escape speeds . The second cosmic speed is important here (speed of escape from the gravitational field). Alternatively, there are also overview tables (see figure) that show the drive requirements. The drive requirement Δv can be viewed as a type of "energy requirement":
This enables a summation of the demands if the conditions of the rocket equation are met.
In order to be able to assess the effort of a lunar base , the escape speeds from the earth at 11.2 km / s and 2.3 km / s for the moon (summation 13.5 km / s). For a comparison, however, only the demand from the lower earth orbit ( LEO ) to the lunar surface is of interest (see cost estimate). A drive requirement of 5 km / s (approximate value) is therefore assumed if a drive requirement from the earth's surface to the LEO of 10 km / s is assumed (plus drive requirements for orbit maneuvers). The construction of a moon base the size of the ISS (mass of 455 t), with a uniform engine exit speed of 4000 m / s (approximate value for chemical engines) would result in a fictitious take-off mass of 1,588 t, which would have to be transported into the LEO . This would require 76 launches with the Ariane 5 launcher (note: simple rough calculation). This only includes the construction of a station with the mass of the ISS on the moon (one-way transport). The necessary mass in the LEO is then 3 to 4 times that of the ISS.
In order to calculate the effort of a Mars base , the figure shown can be used to simplify the calculation by means of the rocket equation as a reference for the Δv (the calculation of the drive requirement is somewhat more complex). A summation of the Δv from the figure results in a drive requirement of approximately 10 km / s. If a reference station with the mass of the ISS and an exit speed of 4000 m / s is used as a reference value, a fictitious take-off mass of 5,543 t is required in the LEO. This corresponds to 10 times the mass of the ISS.
Cost estimate
The ISS has cost between $ 35 billion and $ 100 billion since it began operating as Space Station Freedom in 1985. Taking into account a project time of approx. 20 years, this results in an annual budget of around US $ 1.5–5 billion / year. The ISS is in the lower earth orbit (LEO). The transport costs for the Ariane 5 launch vehicle are € 7,000 / kg for the LEO and € 16,000 / kg for the geostationary orbit ( GEO ). Alternatively, the costs can be calculated from the number of launches (~ 22 × for 455 t) with the Ariane 5 launcher, the cost of which is € 114 million. In mathematical terms, the transport costs alone would be around € 3 billion (4.2–12% of the total costs, at an exchange rate of 1: 1.4), which is still relatively low in relation to the total costs.
Note: For the most part, the space station modules were transported with the space shuttle , which means that the transport costs are significantly higher than in the rough calculation.
The Apollo program cost by today's standards, i. H. taking into account the inflation rates, approx. 120 billion US $ (85.7 billion € at an exchange rate of 1: 1.4) and extended approximately over 10 years, which corresponds to a budget of 12 billion US $ / year Consequence.
The cost of building a lunar base (example calculation 1,588 t in the LEO) amounts to around 8.7 billion euros for an Ariane 5 launcher (76 launches in the LEO). The theoretical transport costs are three times higher than for orbital stations in the LEO. If the cost ratios (transport / overall project) of the ISS are used, the lunar base would be in the order of 73–207 billion euros (see estimated costs of the Apollo program of 85.7 billion euros). Spread over 20 years, this results in an annual budget of € 3.7–10.4 billion per year. Taking into account NASA's budget of US $ 19 billion (2009; € 13.6 billion at an exchange rate ratio of 1: 1.4) and the fact that further investments in transport and infrastructure are necessary, such a mission implementation is (of the order of magnitude) can only be achieved internationally. Of course, smaller missions could take place with smaller planetary station dimensions (see Constellation program ), but then it is questionable whether the missions provide for permanent colonization.
For a Mars base the size of the ISS (5,543 t in the LEO), 264 launches with Ariane 5 are required. The total costs for the transport then amount to € 30 billion. This corresponds to ten times the transport costs for an orbital LEO station. Taking into account the theoretical share of the transport costs of the ISS, such a mission would cost between € 250 and € 714 billion.
| Project | Mass in LEO | Transportation costs | T factor | Project costs * |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ISS | 455 t | € 3 billion | 1 | € 35-100 billion |
| Moon base | 1,588 t | € 8.7 billion | 3 × -4 × | € 73–207 billion (Apollo: € 85.7 billion) |
| Mars base | 5,543 t | € 30 billion | 10 × | € 250–714 billion |
* The reference base is the estimated project costs of the ISS
The cost analysis shown here is a rough estimate and only serves to show the approximate cost of such a mission. This can also be seen from the fact that inflation rates have tended to be neglected. The calculation can therefore not provide any information as a cost-benefit calculation, as many research results obtained on the ISS are used for basic research .
However, the rough calculation can be used to evaluate the statement made by President Obama, who is canceling the Constellation program due to excessive costs, poor project progress and a lack of innovation.
literature
- Colonization of space . Time-Life Books. Time-Life, Amsterdam 1991, ISBN 90-6182-474-5 .
- Robert Zubrin : Entering Space: Creating a Spacefaring Civilization. Tarcher, New York 2000, ISBN 1-58542-036-0 .
- Gregory L. Matloff: Deep-space probes - to the outer solar system and beyond. Springer, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-540-24772-6 .
- Rachel Armstrong: Star Ark - A Living, Self-Sustaining Spaceship. Springer, Cham 2017, ISBN 978-3-319-31040-4 .
Web links
- American visions . (PDF; 3.6 MB) In: Raumfahrt Konkret , issue 46, issue 1/2007
- Space Settlements: A Design Study. NASA, accessed August 11, 2011 .
- S. Bednarzik, A. Gerlach, K. Pingler: The orbital space station - yesterday - today - tomorrow . (PDF; 6.2 MB) Staatliches Herder-Gymnasium Nordhausen, seminar paper 2001 (as an overview)
- S. Fasoulas: Human payload . ( Memento from January 24, 2005 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 3.21 MB) TU Dresden, Institute for Aerospace Technology, Professorship for Space Systems / Space Use, July 2001
- Space Colony Art from the 1970s (English)
- freitag.de , April 12, 2017, Dan Tynan: The earth is not enough
Individual evidence
- ↑ a b Stefan Deiters: Obama has asteroids and Mars in his sights. on: Astronews.com - The German-language online service for astronomy, astrophysics and space travel. accessed on January 15, 2011
- ^ Bush unveils vision for moon and beyond. ( Memento of October 9, 2010 on the Internet Archive ) at: CNN.com. January 15, 2004, accessed January 19, 2011
- ↑ NASA's Griffin: 'Humans Will Colonize the Solar System'. In: Washington Post. September 25, 2005, sighted January 16, 2010
- ↑ a b Stefan Deiters: "Yes to the ISS, no to the Constellation program" , Astronews.com - the German-language online service for astronomy, astrophysics and space travel, accessed on January 19, 2011
- ↑ a b Obama cancels moon mission. on: In: Zeit-Online , February 1, 2010. Source: dpa, Reuters, accessed on January 19, 2011
- ↑ ESA boss: "We need manned spaceflight in Europe." on: handelsblatt.com January 14, 2008, accessed on January 19, 2011
- ↑ Crowdfunding US company wants to develop space elevator - Article at Golem.de , from August 28, 2012 (accessed on: September 6, 2012)
- ↑ Dr. Davis R. Williams: Apollo 18 through 20 - The Canceled Missions (English) , NASA.gov, released on 11 December 2003, called 27 January 2011
- ^ Mathias Grafe: The exploration of the moon - historical development as well as present and future missions. (PDF; 863 kB) July 2003, archived from the original on November 19, 2003 ; accessed on September 24, 2015 .
- ↑ A. Herbertz, M. Ortelt, H. Hald: concept study of lunar transportation system with the use of in-situ oxygen as oxidizer. (PDF; 1.1 MB) DLR Stuttgart, May 2009, accessed on May 15, 2011 (English).
- ↑ Prof. Oliver Ullrich : Function of the Immune System in Space - A Challenge for Space Medicine. In: Swiss Journal for Military and Disaster Medicine, March 2009.
- ↑ Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station in the English language Wikipedia
- ^ A b Jan Osburg: Crew Experience at the 'Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station' during the 2003 Field Season . (PDF) Mars Society Georgia Chapter, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, SAE-2004-01-2369, January 2004, viewed February 5, 2011
- ^ J. Clarke, R. Persaud, S. Rupert-Robles: Preliminary Results of a Multi-Goal Mars Analogue Expedition (Expedition Two) to the Arkaroola Region, Australia . (PDF) Mars Society, Australia, January 13, 2005, viewed February 5, 2011
- ^ Kristian Pauly: In Situ Consumable Production for Mars Missions . (PDF; 34.4 MB) TU Munich, Chair of Space Technology, January 17, 2002, viewed on February 27, 2011
- ^ D. Willson, J. Clarke: A Practical Architecture for Exploration-Focused Manned Mars Missions Using Chemical Propulsion, Solar Power Generation and In-Situ Resource Utilization . (PDF) SEMF Pty Ltd Tasmania 7000 and Australian Center for Astrobiology Macquarie University NSW 2109 Australia, February 11, 2007, viewed February 5, 2011
- ^ Gaurav Misra: The “Tesla” Orbital Space Settlement . (PDF; English; 444 kB) Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS) -Pilani, Goa, India, on AIAA 2010-6133, 10. – 15. July 2010, sighted February 5, 2011
- ^ Leslie A. Wickman: "Human Performance Considerations for a Mars Mission". ( Memento of November 9, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; English; 166 kB) Center for Research in Science, Azusa Pacific University, Canada, October 10, 2006, viewed on February 27, 2011
- ^ B. Kent Joosten: "Preliminary Assessment of Artificial Gravity - Impacts to Deep-Space Vehicle Design". (PDF; 2.9 MB) Exploration Analysis and Integration Office, NASA, Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, May 11, 2005, viewed February 27, 2011
- ↑ Student project: Clarke Station: An Artificial Gravity Space Station at the Earth-Moon L1 Point . (PDF; 328 kB) University of Maryland, College Park, Department of Aerospace Engineering Undergraduate Program, April 16, 2002, viewed on February 27, 2011
- ^ Alan Boyle: What's the cost of the space station? MSNBC, August 25, 2006, accessed January 23, 2011 .
- ↑ a b Arianespace orders 35 Ariane 5 ECA launchers from Astrium