Swaddle (child)

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Swaddled baby
Diana of Poitiers after a painting by François Clouet ; on the left a nurse with a baby, 1570
Wrapped baby Jesus ; Detail of the Adoration of the Shepherds by Georges de la Tour (ca.1644)

As wrapping , also Fatschen (or Faschen , from Latin fascis , bundle '), one describes a millennia-old practice of baby care . The baby is tightly wrapped in cloth so that it can no longer move. It is then referred to as a “baby in a baby”. This tight binding is called tight swaddling in English - or swathing . In German, the term swaddling is currently being used for this practice, mostly meaning heavily modified versions of the original method. Traditionally, the child was wrapped for several months, sometimes lasting around a year.

Tight swaddling was common in numerous and very different cultures and is still very common today. Main areas of distribution are Eastern Europe, Russia, China, the Middle East and North and South America (for indigenous groups). The practice appears to be unknown in sub-Saharan Africa.

Psychological and physiological effects of modern swaddling

Today's attitudes and evaluations of this nursing practice are extremely diverse, especially with regard to the use of swaddling in normally developed babies. In the advisory literature, changing diapers is recommended on various occasions to calm the baby, while the childhood historian Lloyd deMause rates it as extremely harmful to the child's emotional development. A standard work on the diagnosis and therapy of regulatory disorders in infants does not mention the measure of diapering.

Two studies on Indian cultures showed that in the tightly winding cradle board (English: cradleboard ) not delayed the start of running over a period of about a year. In contrast, a Japanese study provided evidence of a delay in starting a run due to changing diapers. A study on Albanian children showed a clear delay in the onset of crawling and fine motor development through swaddling. There is therefore a need for scientific clarification with regard to the effect of months of tight diaper changing on the start of toddlers' running. The influencing of higher psychological functions, such as the development of the self or the experience of effect, have generally been very insufficiently researched. This also applies to the long-term emotional consequences of changing diapers.

Today's medical and psychological studies on changing diapers almost always refer to a modified form of this practice with a narrow time limit, usually carried out under medical supervision. Today's swaddling in the west is usually carried out in a modified form on premature babies. But also normally developed newborns are sometimes swaddled tightly, which is indicated in the advice literature on baby care. Often the justification for this measure is the empirically well-proven fact that swaddled babies are motorically calmer and sleep more than unwrapped babies. Changing diapers increases the proportion of non-REM sleep (quiet sleep), as well as the total duration of sleep. The effect of swaddling on the regulatory disorder Excessive crying is only temporarily higher than the classic treatment of this problem by introducing more regularity into the child's daily routine. In this respect, this effect does not justify the unknown risks associated with swaddling.

Changing diapers and cot death

The effect of swaddling on sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is controversial. Sudden infant death syndrome, the most common cause of death in babies after the neonatal phase, is when a child dies without a medical explanation being found. Death mostly occurs during sleep. Pediatricians found that sleeping babies on their tummy was a risk factor for sudden infant death syndrome. As a result, babies were promoted to sleep on their backs, and the number of sudden infant deaths fell sharply as a result. Since changing diapers limits the baby's ability to move almost completely, it was recommended by pediatricians that babies be swaddled and allowed to sleep on their backs. The swaddling itself is not seen as a protective factor in sudden infant death syndrome. Changing diapers actually increases the risk if babies also sleep in the prone position; it reduces the risk of sleeping in the supine position. A recent empirical study shows that diapers can be a risk factor for sudden infant death syndrome. The risk of overheating of the child is increased by changing diapers, especially if the baby is sick with febrile infections. A case is described in the literature in which a swaddled child died of overheating. And this overheating effect also has a negative effect on the risk of sudden infant death.

Empirically proven negative effects of swaddling

Empirically proven negative effects of swaddling relate to the following problems:

  • Traditional forms of swaddling increase the risk of hip dysplasia
  • The risk of developing respiratory infections was four times higher in one study
  • By lying quietly for a long time, there is a risk of the back of the head flattening
  • Swaddling leads to delayed weight gain after birth in normally developed babies. The authors of the study attribute this effect to the reduced direct skin contact between baby and mother
  • Maternal relationship behavior, affective affection and reciprocity are made more difficult by changing diapers, as was found on the basis of a study of mother-child dyads in one-year-old babies
  • Changing diapers is associated with reduced physical contact between child and mother.

Babies' reactions to swaddling

The reactions of babies to being swaddled are different: many initially resist being swaddled, but then quickly give up and become passive. Crying outside the cradleboard occurs as well as refusal to use the cradleboard after a long period of time outside.

Changing diapers in premature babies

Swaddling for premature babies is done differently than traditional swaddling. Because of their physiological immaturity (especially of the lungs , kidneys and heart ), premature babies present a whole range of massive medical problems. Their motor deficit can be considerable and they tire quickly. Numerous medical interventions are carried out in the premature infant wards to maintain and facilitate the lives of these tiny children.

The "swaddling" of these premature babies (very low birth weight infants, VLBW infants) is very loose and serves to keep the weak and poorly mobile arms on the child's body. As a result of this help, the precocious baby can make certain movements. The aim of this type of wrap is to facilitate movements. Therefore, this form of "winding" must be distinguished from actual winding. The extremely retarded motor development of these children requires the simulation of the previously “weightless” state of the arms in the aqueous medium of the uterus . Therefore, the children's arms are wrapped in flexion (not in extension as described in Soranus ) and the hands are placed close to the mouth. This position allows for self-soothing, something that is just prevented with ordinary swaddling.

History of winding

Swaddled children. Jewelry and grave goods from Agia Triada (Crete) , pre-palace period, 2600–2000 BC BC, Heraklion (Iraklion), Crete. Heraklion Archaeological Museum
Idol with baby, 2500–1950 BC BC (Bronze Age), terracotta with a red, polished coating from Hagia Paraskevi , Cyprus, Badisches Landesmuseum Karlsruhe
Dacian baby and mother, 113 AD, Trajan's Column , Rome, after a plaster copy from the 19th century, (Museo della Civiltà Romana, Rome)
Wet nurse with swaddled child, 2nd century AD, Roman votive statuette, State Archaeological Collection, Munich
Birth of Christ, 6th century AD, ivory relief on the bishopric of Maximianus of Ravenna
Wrapped Jesus in front of an ox and a donkey, 1291, " Birth of Christ ", mosaic by Pietro Cavallini (approx. 1250–1330), Santa Maria in Trastevere , Rome
Nativity, 1310, fresco (detail) by Giotto di Bondone , San Francesco , Assisi
Madonna and Sleeping Child, 1465–70, painting by Andrea Mantegna (1431–1506)
Swaddled baby, excerpt from “The Temptation of St. Anthony” 1505–1510 (central panel of a triptych) by Hieronymus Bosch (approx. 1450–1516). Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga , Lisbon
A swaddled baby is given to the wet nurse, 1549, title page of Bartholomäus Metlinger's “Regiment of Young Children” in the 1549 edition
The Swaddled Prince of Urbino in the Cradle, 1605, painting by Federico Barocci (1528–1612)
Mother and child look away from each other while changing diapers, after 1721, "The Winter" by Giuseppe Gambarini (1680–1725)
Swaddled child in the "changing bed", 1878: from Rittershain (1878), p. 24

Prehistoric times and antiquity

Various authors suggest that the practice was invented as early as the Paleolithic . In Europe, there is first evidence of this practice from prehistory in the form of votive offerings , idols and grave goods: the oldest images of wrapped children come from Crete and Cyprus. The votive offerings and idols are 4,000 to 4,500 years old.

About 600 years before Christ, the prophet Ezekiel wrote about salting and swaddling the newborn. According to Hippocrates (approx. 460 - approx. 370 BC) the Egyptians changed their babies. So far, however, there is no further evidence for this information.

In ancient Greece and Rome , diaper changing was the usual treatment for the newborn. By far the most detailed description of a winding method in antiquity comes from the Greek physician Soranus of Ephesus (around 100 AD), a central medical authority of antiquity. He practiced in Rome . After the birth, the child was washed, cut off and sprinkled with salt. Then followed the changing of the child, which is essential for Soranus. According to ancient beliefs, the baby's body was soft and malleable. Therefore, the child should be physically shaped by the swaddle. Every single limb of the child was wrapped in antiquity, then the whole body, which was brought into an immovable stretched position. It was then placed in a cradle that was used in ancient times. According to Soranus, the baby should be swaddled for around 40 to 60 days. Soranus described the winding process as follows:

“Take the end of the bandage and place it on your forearm, then wrap it around your extended fingers, forearm, elbow and upper arm, pulling it tightly at the knuckles, but more loosely on the remaining parts to the armpit. Do the same with the wrapping of the other extremity; The torso is wrapped with a wider bandage in such a way that the bandage is pulled evenly taut everywhere in the case of male children, while the area of ​​the nipples is tied a little tighter in the case of female children, while the hip area is left loose. Because this method is better suited for women. (...) The wrapping in the bandages should extend to the fingertips, it should be loose on the thighs and calves, but compress on the areas of the knee and hollow of the knee, on the back of the foot and ankles. In this way, the feet become wider at the top and the metatarsus becomes narrower. Then put your arms at your sides, your feet together and then wrap the whole child from chest to feet with a wide bandage. The fact that the hands are locked in, they get used to the stretched position. "

Swaddling seems to have been part of ancient birth rites. In addition to the ritual function of giving the child a form, it should make it possible for the newborn to stand upright and thus for an animal being to become a human being in a magical-symbolic way. Already in ancient times, winding was a subject of fine arts (votive offerings, idols, representations of legendary figures ).

middle Ages

Swaddling was common throughout the Middle Ages . It has been associated with wet nursing since ancient times . Even in the Middle Ages, many children were looked after by wet nurses. Swaddling was an easy method for the wet nurses to immobilize the child. The medical authorities of the Middle Ages were still largely influenced by Soranus' views. When they justified swaddling, they also argued that the newborn's body was soft and malleable and therefore needed to be shaped. Bartholomaeus Anglicus wanted to prevent twisting of the limbs by winding. Around the year 1250 he wrote in his work On the Order of Things :

"Because of their tenderness, the child's limbs have a flowing structure and take on different shapes, and therefore the child's limbs must be tied with diapers or other suitable bandages (sunt liganda) so that they do not completely deteriorate or suffer any other deformation."

Vincent von Beauvais also recommended shaping the head, nose and forehead. Heinrich Laufenberg and Paulus Bagellardus came out very similarly in favor of changing diapers. In the first German-language work on pediatrics , Regiment of Young Children from 1473, the Augsburg doctor Bartholomäus Metlinger (approx. 1440 – approx. 1491) recommended : “If you want to fatten the child, you should gently touch the child's limbs. Whatever is to be stretched should be stretched like the arms to the length of the body. Likewise the feet and then wrap the same way. "

The duration of changing diapers, measured against the age of the child, can hardly be reconstructed for the Middle Ages. In the lives of saints there are indications that it was carried out for a good year. The practice of swaddling has been thematized in contemporary paintings, poems, and theological literature. This is how the mystic Birgitta Birgersdotter (1303–1373), called Birgitta of Sweden , very precisely described the wrapping of the Baby Jesus after a vision at Christmas in 1372. This famous vision was the starting point for a new type of image in which the newborn Baby Jesus lying on the cold floor described. Only after this scene did the swaddling take place. Other mystics also engaged in this practice. A vision is reported from the mystic Mechthild von Hackeborn (1241–1299) in which the newborn and swaddled Jesus said:

“Since I was born in the world, from the hour I was tied with a handkerchief, so that I did not want to move, as a sign that I was whole with all the goods I brought with me from heaven Violence given to man for his own benefit. Because whoever is bound has no power and cannot defend himself, and everything he has may be taken from him. "

Not only in literature, but also in the fine arts, there are numerous reflections on the practice of diapering. Giotto di Bondone (1266–1337) portrayed the painful formation of the nose of the wrapped baby Jesus, and Hieronymus Bosch (approx. 1450–1516) painted a baby wrapped in the claws of a frightening mother figure.

Perhaps the most graceful depiction of a swaddled child comes from Andrea Mantegna (1431–1506).

Modern times

The practice of winding has been continuously maintained in Europe since ancient times, but the respective justifications for the winding practice changed. For example, the French doctor François Mauriceau (1637–1709) wrote in 1668:

“The child must therefore be swaddled, so that his little body is given a straight shape that is most appropriate and proper for man, and so that he is accustomed to standing on his feet; because without this measure it would move on all fours like most other animals. "

In the early modern times , the idea seems to have arisen that swaddling should keep the baby warm. No explanations have come down from the Middle Ages that emphasize keeping the child warm or calming down. The French poet de Sainte-Marthe first described the warming function of wrapping in a poem in the 16th century (here in the English translation of the originally Latin text): T 'enwrap the babe, by many circling fold, In equal lines, and thus defend from cold.

To wrap the baby, wrap it in evenly- spaced circles to protect it from the cold.

In the 16th century , the Swiss surgeon Felix Würtz (approx. 1500 to approx. 1598) provided the first critical examination of diaper changing and its immediate consequences for babies with his “Children's Booklet”:

“It is therefore (as I also wrote before) to lie on your back and kick the very best for all children, regardless of whether they are young or a little older, after the time when they are no longer in front of their hands and feet frighten. But when they are (so) young that they still fear their own little hands and feet and are frightened of it, these children should not be left lying there untied. "

Although Würtz advocated a moderate form of swaddling, his work represents the prelude to the abolition of swaddling. He let the nurses show him how to swaddle and deduced the damage that could result for the child. He argued taking into account the child's sensibility. For a long time, Würtz's views had no practical consequences. It was not until the end of the 17th century that the English philosopher John Locke spoke out against swaddling. A fundamental shift in attitudes towards diapering began. 150 years after Würtz's death, the English doctor William Cadogan (1711–1797) advocated the complete abolition of diapers. In his treatise "An Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children, from their Birth to Three Years of Age" from 1748, he expressed his view of modern care for young children:

"But besides the Mischief arising from the Weight and Heat of these Swaddling-cloaths, they are put on so tight, and the Child is so cramp'd by them, that its Bowels have not room, nor the Limbs any Liberty, to act and exert themselves in the free easy Manner they ought. "

“Aside from the damage caused by the weight and heat of these swaddling clothes, they are put on so tightly and the child is so constrained by them that neither his entrails nor his limbs have any freedom to act and move will be in the free and easy way that they should have. "

Numerous doctors agreed with his opinion, for example the Swedish doctor Rosén von Rosenstein . Jean-Jacques Rousseau was probably influenced by the medical discourse and compared swaddling with shackles in his 1762 educational novel Emile , which he took directly from Buffon . Even in antiquity, Pliny the Elder had Ä. compared swaddling to shackles.

Doctors played an important role in the abolition of swaddling. From the 18th century they wore observations derailed winding forms together and provided a picture of the immediate physical damage that dysfunctional wrap can do: Rosén Rosenstein described in 1761 the case of a baby whose arm was cut off by winding, Gilibert described 1770 inflammation Skin as a result of seldom changed diapers. The German doctors Johann Friedrich Zückert and Christian Augustus Struve argued similarly in the 18th century. The position of the Enlightenment was represented by Johann Georg Krünitz in the Economic Encyclopedia . He was of the opinion that after birth children first had to be swaddled in order to give the body support, but not in the way of "constricting" that was common at the time:

“It is the greatest cruelty to pound a child into tight bonds for several hours in order to take away the freedom of movement of the limbs. (...) The pale face, the lean body, and the ailing life of the children who were imprisoned in gangs prove enough how much damage the bowels suffer as a result (...) It is not surprising when the children are in these Shackles are sad all day, and besides sleeping, spend their time crying. "

Krünitz recommended that after about two weeks the baby should only be swaddled loosely so that it could move. The changed attitudes of doctors and intellectuals led to the fact that, from the 18th century, diapers were gradually abolished in various countries and regions of Western Europe. England certainly took a leading role in the abolition of winding. Much of the population of England and immigrant people in America stopped diapering in the late 18th century, France followed in the 19th century and Germany in the 20th century, with rural areas maintaining the practice for considerably longer. Despite the enlightening criticism of tight diapers, it lasted a particularly long time in Germany. In 1877 an article appeared in an English magazine in which a German baby is described as a "pathetic object" that is wrapped up like a mummy until it is six months old and is only released from its bandages briefly to change its diaper . The pillow, a kind of padded linen sleeping bag, was still in use in Germany in the second half of the 19th century. The baby was "put in", the body and arms wrapped tightly. At the beginning of the 20th century, the arms were finally left free. There were isolated cases of traditional diaper changing in Germany in the 1970s.

Todays situation

The prevalence of tight swaddling of healthy and mature babies in families in Western Europe today is unclear. It is said that diapering is growing in popularity in the United States, Great Britain, and the Netherlands. A UK sample showed that 19.4% of babies were swaddled at night. In Germany, swaddling newborns is not used as a routine nursing measure and is not widely accepted.

Outside of Western Europe, diapers are still very common. Statistical information on this is rare, however. For Turkey, it is known that 93.1% of all children in 1978 were swaddled in the traditional way. Based on the analysis of the Human Relations Area Files (HRAF), scientists came to the conclusion that 39% of all documented contemporary non-industrialized cultures practice diapering; another 19% use other methods of restricting movement in young children.

Swaddling

Wrapping babies is now often referred to as "swaddling". However, there are no guidelines on the duration of this maintenance practice or on the strength of the execution. Practitioners such as midwives and authors of guidebooks describe very different approaches to wrapping. Some guidebook authors recommend “swaddling” for normally developed babies up to a year, others for a maximum of six months and then only for so-called screaming children. In the popular advisory literature, such procedures are also often recommended for mature babies, usually without scientific evidence. Statements about the use of this procedure in brain-damaged babies or premature babies appear more reliable. Here, the winding is extremely modified compared to the traditional forms. Traditional swaddling was mainly done by actually wrapping the baby in long strips of fabric. The use of these textile aids is no longer mentioned in Western Europe and the United States. Cloths and textiles with Velcro are used. Since sometimes only the use of sleeping bag-like textiles is referred to as “swaddling”, it ultimately remains unclear what exactly this new German word creation means.

The new German term "pucken" is a word of unclear provenance that is beginning to establish itself in the German-speaking world. This is less likely to refer to the historically well-known tight swaddling of the baby, but rather to modified versions of this practice and even the use of sleeping bag-like textiles without the child's immediate movement restrictions. The word “swaddling” could come from Low German. The verb “pucken” means (1) dabbing with a little bag containing flour, and (2) falling to the ground with a dull sound (especially fruit). The "swaddling" (noun) means (1) packing or bundles and (2) things that are wrapped in a cloth. In Middle Low German, “puck” or “puicklaken” meant this very cloth. The modern word "swaddling" was probably formed from these etymological components.

Changing immature or health-endangered babies

In particular, to prevent sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and to calm excessively crying babies with so-called "colic", changing diapers is used in newborn care in some places.

In an extremely modified form, changing diapers is used if there is a medical indication (e.g. in premature babies). As explained above, this swaddling is completely different in terms of its execution and intended effect than tight or traditional swaddling: The bent arms are positioned so that the hands are on the baby's mouth and in this way self-soothing is possible.

See also

swell

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Web links

Commons : Wrap  - album with pictures, videos and audio files

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Evidence for the ubiquitous spread of tight swaddling can be found in: Ploß (1911), pp. 232-293, Lipton et al. (1965), p. 522 ff .; Barry & Paxson (1971), p. 474 ff .; deMause (1989 a), p. 62 ff. and (2002), p. 325 ff .; Etienne (1976), p. 144 (here also images); Ewing (1977), pp. 13-21; Shahar (1983), p. 292 et al. (1993), p. 100 ff., Murken (2005), p. 3 ff. See also Peiper (1966), keywords: Wickeln, Wickelkind
  2. ↑ See the tabular overview in Frenken (2011), pp. 341–349.
  3. ↑ See Blom (2005)
  4. ↑ DeMause (1989), pp. 62-65; (2002), p. 325 ff.
  5. ↑ See Papousek et al. (2004)
  6. ↑ See Dennis (1940 a), p. 107; Chisholm (1983), p. 83
  7. ↑ See Sofue et al. (1957) cit. n. Lipton et al. (1965).
  8. ↑ See Danzinger & Frankl (1934), p. 235; see. also Frenken (2011), p. 44 ff.
  9. ↑ See Short et al. (1996), p. 25; Illustration p. 27
  10. ↑ See Lipton et al. (1965), p. 560 ff
  11. ↑ See Franco et al. (2005), pp. 1307 ff .; Chisholm (1983), p. 83
  12. ↑ See van Sleuwen et al. (2003), (2006) and (2007)
  13. ↑ See Long (2007)
  14. ↑ See Task Force on Infant Sleep Position and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (2000), p. 650 f
  15. ↑ See Gilbert (1994), p. 445
  16. ↑ See Gerard et al. (2002)
  17. ↑ See Thach (2009), p. 461, Richardson et al. (2009), p. 475 ff
  18. ↑ See Blair et al. (2009)
  19. ↑ See Cheng & Partridge (1993), p. 238 ff
  20. ↑ See van Gestel et al. (2002)
  21. ↑ See Kutlu et al. (1992), pp. 598 f., Akman et al. (2007), p. 290. See the literature review by Mahan & Kasser (2008)
  22. ↑ See Yurdakok et al. (1990), p. 878
  23. ↑ See Bloch (1966). P. 645
  24. ↑ See Bystrova et al. (2007 a), p. 29 ff
  25. ↑ See Bystrova (2008), p. 46
  26. ↑ See Barry & Paxson (1971), p. 487
  27. ↑ Danzinger & Frankl (1934), p. 229; Lipton et al. (1965), p. 534; Chisholm (1983), p. 166, Gerard et al. (2002 b), p. 398; Blom (2005), p. 148
  28. ↑ See the discussion in Dennis (1940 a), p. 213 f. and 216, Dennis (1940 b), p. 96 ff
  29. ↑ See Short et al. (1996), p. 25
  30. ↑ See the figure in Short et al. (1996), p. 27
  31. ↑ See Hudson & Phillips (1965), p. 15, deMause (2002), p. 328
  32. ↑ Ezekiel 16: 3-4. Compare also Job 38, 9 and Luke 2, 7 and 7 12 for swaddling Jesus as a baby
  33. ^ Corpus Hippocraticum : On the Environment 20.2.
  34. ↑ Soranus (1894), p. 60 f.
  35. ↑ See Soranus (1894), pp. 58, 61, 82.
  36. ↑ See Zglinicki (1979), Fig. 404
  37. ^ Soranus (1894), p. 60.
  38. ↑ See Köves-Zulauf (1990), p. 13, Dasen (2008), p. 50.
  39. ↑ Bartholomäus Anglicus (1492), Book 6, Chapter 5; translated by Dinzelbacher from the unpaginated Nuremberg edition. In: Frenken (2011), p. 155.
  40. ↑ Cf. Goodich (1975), p. 77 (from: Bartholomaeus Anglicus, Book 6, Chapter 4); Vincent of Beauvais (approx. 1250), cited above. according to Arnold (1980), p. 114 f.
  41. ↑ See Laufenberg (1429), n. Arnold (1980), p. 144 f .; Bagellardus (1472), cit. n. Ruräh (1925), p. 35 f.
  42. ↑ Metlinger (1473), 2 v - 2 r. New High German transmission according to Frenken (2011), p. 165 f.
  43. ↑ See Shahar (1983), p. 292
  44. ↑ See Birgitta (1888), p. 269 f. (Book 7, Chapter 21)
  45. ↑ Mechthild von Hackeborn (1880), p. 44 (Book I, Chapter 5)
  46. ↑ See Frenken (2011), pp. 141 ff.
  47. ↑ Mauriceau (1736), p. 311.
  48. ↑ Sainte-Marthe (1797), p. 67
  49. ↑ Würtz (1563), p. 726 f.
  50. ↑ Cadogan (1748), p. 10.
  51. ↑ See Rousseau (1963), p. 120; Buffon (1771), p. 680; Pliny the Elder Ä. (1828), p. 9. Pliny lived approx. 23–79 AD.
  52. ↑ Cf. Rosén von Rosenstein (1756), p. 9; Gilibert, cit. n. Badinter (1984), p. 96
  53. ↑ See Zückert (1771), p. 40; Struve (1803), p. 57
  54. ↑ Oeconomische Encyclopädie von Krünitz (1786), Article Kind , p. 565 f.
  55. ↑ See Shorter (1975 a), p. 228; (1975 b), p. 273; deMause (1989), p. 64
  56. ↑ See Robertson (1989), p. 571
  57. ↑ Cf. Mayhew (1864), p. 492 (illustration).
  58. ↑ See Sidgwick (1908), p. 7 f.
  59. ↑ See Hirsch (2005), p. 70
  60. ↑ See van Sleuwen (2007), p. E1097
  61. ↑ See Bacon et al. (1991), p. 630
  62. ↑ See Meyer & Erler (2009), p. 24
  63. ↑ See Caglayan et al. (1991), p. 117
  64. ↑ Nelson et al. (2000), p. E75
  65. ↑ See critically Frenken (2011), pp. 307 ff.
  66. ↑ Frenken (2011), p. 41 ff.
  67. ↑ See Schambach (1858), keyword “pucken”.
  68. ↑ Cf. Bewermeyer (2011), p. 89, keywords "pucken" and "der Pucken"
  69. ↑ See Lübben (1888), p. 285.
  70. ↑ See van Sleuwen et al. (2003), (2006) and (2007)
  71. ↑ See Short et al. (1996), p. 27