Joe Jonas

For other uses, see Stereotype (disambiguation).

A stereotype (from Greek: stereo + týpos = "solid impression") is a generalized perception of first impressions: behaviors presumed by a group of people judging with the eyes/criticizing ones outer appearance (or a population in general) to be associated with another specific group. Stereotypes, therefore, can instigate prejudice and false assumptions about entire groups of people, including the members of different ethnic groups, social classes, religious orders, the opposite sex, etc. A stereotype can be a conventional and oversimplified conception, opinion, or image, based on the assumption that there are attributes that members of the "other group" have in common. Stereotypes are sometimes formed by a previous illusory correlation, a false association between two variables that are loosely correlated if correlated at all. Though generally viewed as negative perceptions, stereotypes may be either positive or negative in tone.

Causes

Sociologist Charles E. Hurst of the College of Wooster states that, “One reason for stereotypes is the lack of personal, concrete familiarity that individuals have with persons in other racial or ethnic groups. Lack of familiarity encourages the lumping together of unknown individuals” . Different disciplines give different accounts of how stereotypes develop: Psychologists focus on how experience with groups, patterns of communication about the groups, and intergroup conflict. Sociologists focus on the relations among groups and position of different groups in a social structure. Psychoanalytically-oriented humanists have argued (e.g., Sander Gilman) that stereotypes, by definition, the representations are not accurate, but a projection of one to another.

Stereotypes are not accurate representations of groups, rather they arise as a means of explaining and justifying differences between groups, or system justification. Social status or group position determines stereotype content, not the actual personal characteristics of group members. Groups which enjoy fewer social and economic advantages will be stereotyped in a way which helps explain disparities, such as lower employment rates. Although disadvantaged group members may have greater difficulty finding a job due to in-group favoritism, racism, and related social forces, the disadvantaged group member is unjustifiably characterized as 'unmotivated' (he could find a job if he looked hard enough), 'unintelligent' (he's not smart enough to have that job), and 'lazy' (he would rather take hand-outs than work).

Stereotypes focus upon and thereby exaggerate differences between groups. Competition between groups minimizes similarities and magnifies differences. This makes it seem as if groups are very different when in fact they may be more alike than different. For example, among African Americans, identity as an American citizen is a more salient categorization than racial background; that is, African Americans are more American than African. Yet within American culture, Black and White Americans are often seen as completely different groups.

For as long as there has been a human species, individuals have been different from one another. Persons have gravitated to groups of other persons like themselves. People create and develop categories of qualities by which to classify the groups; some were based on ancestry. Many of these groupings have become the key factors in determining which groups have political, social, and economic power in the world.

Automatic stereotype activation can be totally involuntary, and is described as the activation of categorically associated "nodes", according to Leopold and Brown from the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

Psychology

Categorization and Association Categorization and Association are two fundamental concepts involved in stereotyping. Categorization- we tend to group people on the basis of easily identifiable characteristics such as age, race, and gender. This can happen outside of our awareness (Devine, 1989). Association- When we stereotype, we usually have sets of traits that go together, that is, are associated with groups of people.

The representative-ness heuristic: Our categorizations are based on the extent to which someone’s behavior represents a category we have of various social groups. Example: Is someone who is White, wealthy, and tough on crime a Republican or a Democrat?

The availability heuristic: We attempt to bring to mind examples of behaviors of people, and the easier we can imagine such examples, the more likely we will think those behaviors will occur. Example: If the only African American people who are portrayed in the media are criminals, then those who have little contact may vastly overestimate the number of African American criminals in the general population.

Effects, accuracy, terminology

For individual people there can be both positive and negative effects of a stereotype which is seen to apply to them. The overall effects of stereotyping are seen by many to always be negative.

Some people believe that stereotypes are generally based on actual differences. Others believe that they are always false generalizations (by definition).

For some individual people the effects of this might be positive or negative - a separate issue to whether they are positive or negative for society.

Stereotypes can be self-fulfilling to at least some extent.

Stereotypes can be deeply embedded in a culture. The term 'stereotype' is more often used once those perceived truths are put into arguments.

There are some complicating factors which arise when the accuracy of stereotypes is discussed. One of these is that a factor leading to stereotyping can be the existence of a group of people who do share a characteristic. For instance, there might be a reasonably significant number of men working in sales roles, and showing little integrity and honesty ('significant' in this context does not imply a majority). This can lead to the creation of a stereotype of a 'salesman' figure. In this limited sense it might be seen that the stereotype is based on a real group of people (i.e. salesmen who behave with little integrity).

Possible prejudicial effects of stereotypes are:

• Justification of ill-founded prejudices or ignorance
• Unwillingness to rethink one's attitudes and behavior towards stereotyped group
• Preventing some people of stereotyped groups from succeeding in activities or fields

Often the terms ‘’stereotype’’ and ‘’prejudice’’ are confused. Stereotypes are ‘’standardized’’ and ‘’simplified’’ conceptions of groups, based on some prior assumptions. Stereotypes are created based on some idea of abstract familiarity. Prejudices are more specific - they are predispositions to differential behavior patterns.

Role in art and culture

English prejudice in 1796 was fundamental

Stereotype is often used as a form of dramatic shorthand for "stock character". Stereotypes change with time. The unwitting use of some stereotypes appears awkward to a present-day audience which refuses to tolerate a representation of individuals based on that stereotype. Many other stereotypes pass unnoticed, sometimes even by those being stereotyped. Examples of active use are found in the work of Brecht and other dramatic styles which allow the actor to demonstrate a character's level of role distance, thus showing the active use. Retrospectively these stock characters have been illuminated by the work of Brecht, Dario Fo and Jacques Lecoq, despite their original reference to local Italian stereotypes in their early genesis. Importantly in drama the actor does not create a stereotype; rather their characterisation may be simple in that they represent an uncritical reflection of the stereotype, and it is this simplicity which aggravates a present-day audience. A subtle and detailed characterisation, especially of the commedia Dell'arte stock characters, results in a unique and immediate performance that will be enjoyed by an audience due to the clear active use of the characters by the actor.

In literature and art, stereotypes are clichéd or predictable characters or situations. Throughout history, storytellers have drawn from stereotypical characters and situations, in order to connect the audience with new tales immediately. Sometimes such stereotypes can be sophisticated, such as Shakespeare's Shylock in The Merchant of Venice. Arguably a stereotype that becomes complex and sophisticated ceases to be a stereotype per se by its unique characterisation. Thus while Shylock remains politically unstable in being a stereotypical Jew, the subject of prejudicial derision in Shakespeare's era, his many other detailed features raise him above a simple stereotype and into a unique character, worthy of modern performance. Simply because a feature of a character can be categorized as being typical does not make the entire character a stereotype.

Despite their proximity in etymological roots, cliché and stereotype are not used synonymously in cultural spheres. For example a cliché is a high criticism in narratology where genre and categorization automatically associates a story within its recognizable group. Labeling a situation or character in a story as typical suggests it is fitting for its genre or category. Whereas declaring that a storyteller has relied on cliché is to pejoratively observe a simplicity and lack of originality in the tale. To criticize Ian Fleming for a stereotypically unlikely escape for James Bond would be understood by the reader or listener, but it would be more appropriately criticized as a cliché in that it is overused and reproduced. Narrative genre relies heavily on typical features to remain recognizable and generate meaning in the reader/viewer.

The instantly recognisable nature of stereotypes mean that they are very useful in producing effective advertising and situation comedy. Media stereotypes change and evolve over time - for instance, we now instantly recognize only a few of the stereotyped characters shown to us in John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress. The teen sitcom, Saved By The Bell features a typical group of high school stereotypes such as a class clown (Zack Morris), a jock (A.C. Slater), a nerd (Samuel "Screech" Powers), a cheerleader (Kelly Kapowski), a feminist (Jessie Spano), and a superficial fashion plate (Lisa Turtle). Some observed the sitcom, like many teen sitcoms of that time, in addition to stereotyping people, stereotyping an institution itself, that of high school. TV stereotypes of high schools have often promoted a "typical American school" as football games, fashion styles, skirt chasing, and not much devotion to academics or studying.

In movies and TV the halo effect is often used. This is when, for example, attractive men and women are assumed to be happier, stronger, nicer people, explained by Greenwald and Banaji from Psychological Review.

Racial and ethnic stereotyping

Native Americans

See also: Stereotypes of Native Americans

The stratification and separation of groups, especially racial minorities, in the United States began in the nation’s earliest years of colonization. With the colonists’ first contact with the Native Americans, the stereotype of “the savage” was born. . Native Americans were portrayed in popular media as wild, primitive, uncivilized, dangerous people who continuously attack white settlers, cowboys, and stagecoaches and shout "Oowoowoowoowoo" while holding one hand in front of their mouths. They speak invariably in a deep voice and use stop words like "How" and "Ugh". In cartoons, comic strips and animated cartoons their skin color was depicted as deep red. In westerns and other media portrayals they are usually called "Indians". Examples of this stereotypical image of Native Americans can be found in many American westerns until the early 1960s and cartoons like Peter Pan (1953 film).

As colonization continued in the US, groups were separated into categories like “Christians” and “heathens” and “civilized” and “savage” . It took merely decades for these attitudes and ideas to firmly plant themselves in the minds of Americans; today’s stereotypes of Native Americans are rooted in the colonists’ initial thoughts. The media perpetuates these stereotypes by portraying Native Americans in a negative light, such as savage and hostile . Many Whites view Native Americans as devoid of self-control and unable to handle responsibility. Malcolm D. Holmes and Judith A. Antell hypothesize that such ideas about Native Americans form the ideology that is used today to justify the disparity between Whites and Native Americans . This very rigid, fixed framework on the perception of Native Americans and other stereotypical depictions of other races and nationalities has been continued in many books, films, cartoons, comic strips, plays and songs. Today, the 19th century stereotype of Native Americans lives on for the majority of people. Modern Native Americans as they live today are rarely portrayed in popular culture, one notable exception being Chief from One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest.

Black stereotypes

See also: Stereotypes of African Americans

Early stereotypes

Early minstrel shows lampooned the supposed stupidity of Blacks. Detail from cover of The Celebrated Negro Melodies, as Sung by the Virginia Minstrels, 1843

In centuries before and during the first half of the 20th century black people were often depicted as dumb, evil, lazy, poor, animalistic, uncivilized, un-Christian people. The early Anglo-Saxon colonists brought these initial thoughts with them to the US. White colonists commonly believed that black people were inferior to white people. These thoughts helped to justify black slavery and the institution of many laws that continually condoned inhumane treatment and perpetuated to keep black people in a lower socioeconomic position. . Black people were usually depicted as slaves or servants, working in cane fields or carrying large piles of cotton. They were often portrayed as devout christians going to church and singing gospel music. In many vaudeville shows, minstrel acts, cartoons, comics and animated cartoons of this period they were depicted as sad, lazy, dim witted characters with big lips who sing bluesy songs and are good dancers, but get excited when confronted with dice games, chickens or watermelons (examples: all the characters portrayed by Stepin Fetchit and black characters in cartoons like Sunday Go to Meetin' Time and All This and Rabbit Stew). A more joyful black image, yet still very stereotypical, was provided by eternally happy black characters like Uncle Tom, Uncle Remus and Louis Armstrong's equally joyous stage persona. Another popular stereotype from this era was the black who is scared of ghosts (and usually turns white out of fear). Butlers were sometimes portrayed as black (for example the butler in many Shirley Temple movies). Housemaids were usually depicted as black, heavy-set middleaged women who dress in large skirts (examples of this type are Mammy Two-Shoes, Aunt Jemima, Beulah and more recently the title character of Big Momma's House). Children are often pickaninny's like Little Black Sambo and Golliwogg. Black jive (dialect) was also often used in comedy, like for instance in the show Amos 'n Andy.

African black people were usually depicted as primitive, childlike, cannibalistic persons who live in tribes, carry spears, believe in witchcraft and worship their wizard. White colonists often trick them by selling junk in exchange for really valuable things and/or scare them with modern technology. A well known example of this image is Tintin in Africa. When white people are caught by African tribes they are usually put in a large, black cauldron so they can be cooked and eaten. Sometimes black Africans are depicted as pygmy's with very childlike behavior so that they can be ridiculed as being similar to children. Other stereotypical images are the male black African dressed in lip plates or with a bone sticking through his nasal septum. Stereotypical female black African depictions include the bare breasted woman with large breasts and notably fat buttocks (examples of this stereotype are the 19th century sideshow attraction Saartjie Baartman and Robert Crumb's comic strip character Angelfood McSpade) or the woman who wears multiple rings around her giraffe-like neck (note: this type of neck ornament is also common in Burma with women from the Kayan (Burma) tribe, but is generally associated with Africa (like in the Bugs Bunny cartoon Which Is Witch).

Secretary of State John C. Calhoun arguing for the extension of slavery in 1844 said "Here (scientific confirmation) is proof of the necessity of slavery. The African is incapable of self-care and sinks into lunacy under the burden of freedom. It is a mercy to give him the guardianship and protection from mental death."

Even after slavery ended the intellectual capacity of Black people was still frequently questioned. Lewis Terman wrote in The measurement of intelligence in 1916

"(Black and other ethnic minority children) are uneducable beyond the nearest rudiments of training. No amount of school instruction will ever make them intelligent voters or capable citizens in the sense of the world…their dullness seems to be racial, or at least inherent in the family stock from which they come…Children of this group should be segregated in special classes and be given instruction which is concrete and practical. They cannot master abstractions, but they can be made efficient workers…There is no possibility at present of convincing society that they should not be allowed to reproduce, although from a eugenic point of view they constitute a grave problem because of their unusual prolific breeding.)"

Modern black stereotypes

See also: Acting white

Since the 1960s the stereotypical image of black people has changed in some media. More positive depictions appeared where black people and African-Americans are portrayed as excellent sportsmen and superb singers and dancers. Black men are still often portrayed as excellent lovers with large genitals . In many films and television series since the 1970s black people are depicted as good natured, kind, honest and intelligent persons. Often they are the best friend of the white protagonist (examples: Miami Vice, Lethal Weapon,...). Some critics believed this political correctness lead to another stereotypical image where black people are often depicted too positive 1989 showed that blacks were more likely than whites to be described in demeaning intellectual terms. Political activist and one-time presidential candidate Rev. Jesse Jackson said in 1985 that the news media portray blacks as less intelligent than we are. Film director Spike Lee explains that these images have negative impacts. "In my neighborhood, we looked up to athletes, guys who got the ladies, and intelligent people,".

Even so-called positive images of Black people can lead to stereotypes about intelligence. In Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race, John Hoberman writes that the prominence of African-American athletes encourages a de-emphasis on academic achievement in black communities. In a 1997 study on racial stereotypes in sports, participants were shown a photograph of a white or a black basketball player. They then listened to a recorded radio broadcast of a basketball game. White photographs were rated as exhibiting significantly more intelligence in the way they played the game, even though the radio broadcast and target player represented by the photograph were the same throughout the trial. Several other authors have said that sports coverage that highlights 'natural black athleticism' has the effect of suggesting white superiority in other areas, such as intelligence.

Patricia J. Williams, writer for The Nation, said this of Jar Jar Binks, a character from the 1999 and 2002 Star Wars films The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones, respectively: "...intentionally or not, Jar Jar's pratfalls and high jinks borrow heavily from the genre of minstrelsy. Despite the amphibian get-up, his manchild-like idiocy is imported directly from the days of Amos 'n' Andy." Many aspects of Jar Jar's character are believed to be highly reminiscent of the archetypes portrayed in blackface minstrelsy.)

Arabic, North African and Middle Eastern stereotypes

See also: Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims

See also: Western stereotypes of West and Central Asians

They are often depicted as fanatical Muslims who are often out on the kill and shout out or chant gibberish with many "ch-"sounds. Their noses, mustaches and beards are often exaggerated in caricature. Popular images are the Muslim flying on a carpet, climbing on an erect rope, riding a camel, drawing out daggers or sabres or sitting in a tent smoking a water pipe. Arabic people are often depicted as rich oil sheiks with sun glasses and a turban (often mocked by comedians as being a towel or a diaper) on their head. Women are dressed in burkas and often carry a vase on their head. Young Arabic women are belly dancers. Since the 1970s and especially since the September 11, 2001 attacks the negative depiction of Arabic people as terrorists has increased throughout the world. In many Western countries they are seen as uneducated, aggressive, criminal, antisemitic, misogynistic and dangerous people who don't work but live on government funding, slaughter sheep in their kitchens, have many children and plot to take over the world. Many far right parties and organizations use this stereotypical image for propaganda uses. Just like Indian or Pakistani people Arabic people are often depicted as shop keepers or managers of supermarkets.

Indian, Pakistani, Hindu and other South Asian stereotypes

See also: Stereotypes of South Asians

They are often depicted as shopkeepers, supermarket store clerks, gurus, snake charmers etc. They ride on elephants, worship cows and eat a lot of hot spices and curry. Women are dressed in sari. They also have an obsession with Bollywood films. Another popular image is the near-naked fakir, hypnotist or illusionist who can stick knives in his body, fly on a carpet, climb on an erect rope, walk barefoot on burning coals, refuses all food, levitates, meditates, remains underground with his head or body and sit or sleep on a bed of nails. A famous example of a Indian stereotype is Apu Nahasapeemapetilon. However modern day Indian Americans are known to be either software programmers or students. In the US the stereotypical Gujaratis run motels, punjabis drive cabs and South Indians work in the IT arena.

East Asian stereotypes

See also: Stereotypes of East and Southeast Asians in the United States

See also: Japanese stereotypes

Asians have generally been portrayed in the media as intelligent, but unsociable. They have also been portrayed as having no peripheral vision (which attributes to poor motor skills such as "bad driving"), martial artists, geeks, exotic women, and foreigners. In westerns they are usually depicted as proprietors of laundries. Chinese people have often been portrayed in the media as rice eating, idiotically grinning people who have long queues, carry cymbal-like hats on their heads and walk around with their hands hidden in long robes. They usually mutter gibberish with many words that rhyme on "-ng"-sounds. In more modern media this image has changed and was replaced by the image of the Asian as a martial art expert. Japanese people are often represented as extremely polite and obedient but dislike foreigners. They bow extensively and are very good business people. Their stop words are: "honourable" (or honorable), "regrettable" and "please". Chinese and Japanese people are often depicted as replacing the letters "-l" and "-r" with each other. Old Chinese or Japanese people are often depicted as extremely wise, bearded men who speak in aphorisms and are forever trying to calm down their young, enthusiastic students (an example of this stereotype is the martial master in Karate Kid). In China, Japan, and Korea they are also noted to have lots of plastic surgeons/surgeries. Japan is also known to eat lots of fish typed foods, such as fish eggs and whales. In China they eat anything, and in Korea it's kimchi.

White stereotypes

See also: Stereotypes of White people

The social definition of "White" has changed over the years, and several White groups have at times been portrayed by the media as unintelligent. This includes ethnic groups such as the British, Irish, and Slavs.

White American stereotypes

Especially in European countries, Americans are stereotyped as brash, ignorant, self-important, unintelligent, decadent, prudish on sexual matters, and obese. The image of the obese American could be due to perception of the American diet, such as the popularity and global spread of American fast food franchises such as McDonald's and Burger King, which has fueled America's obesity crisis. Another popular American stereotype is the cowboy, the overconfident cigar chomping business man (see for instance Tintin in America, where both stereotypes are present) and the ignorant tourist couple who has no interest or respect for authentic culture (see for instance the American couple depicted in the Fawlty Towers episode Waldorf Salad and the one in Monty Python's Meaning of Life as well as the couple in the English Flushed Away). The international image of America and Americans changed drastically during the 1960s and 1970s at the height of the Vietnam War. Since then Americans are seen globally in a more negative light as arrogant, gung-ho, ruthless, imperialistic, capitalistic warmongers and destroyers of authentic international cultures and the natural environment.This negative stereotypical image has remained intact over the years, also due to negative foreign news or documentary reports that often show Americans who are either racist, obese, supporters of wars in foreign countries, gun crazy, obsessed with God and Jesus or reacting against sex or nudity in the media.

A lot of these American stereotypes are based on American sitcoms where characters like Al Bundy and Archie Bunker are seen as representative for the typical dumb, cultureless white American. There are many other examples throughout the media, but the classic example is Homer Simpson, the obese, lazy and dim-witted middle American from the cartoon, The Simpsons. The show itself parodies many aspects of American life, culture and society.

In the US itself white people from the Southern states are frequently used as comic characters. They are depicted as angry and/or dimwitted rednecks and/or yokels who are ultraconservative, devoutly religious, Ku Klux Klan members, still carry the Confederate Flag around, grab their guns when encountering strangers and speak in a typical slang. Sometimes incest relations between them and their siblings are suggested. Examples of these stereotypes are Cletus Spuckler, The Beverly Hillbillies, several characters in the films Deliverance and O Brother, Where Art Thou? and the Family Guy episode To Love and Die in Dixie.

Canadian stereotypes

Canadian people are stereotyped as beer-obsessed, tuque-wearing, somewhat slow-witted hockey-players who always end their sentences with "eh" (This last stereotype is based on the Bob & Doug act in the American 1970s sketch show SCTV). Canada is viewed as always cold. Canadians are often stereotypically represented as mounties. Films depicting stereotypical views of Canadians include Canadian Bacon and Strange Brew.

English stereotypes

The English people are stereotyped as inordinately proper, prudish, phlegmatic, stiff, polite and sophisticated. In many countries, especially on the European continent, they are seen as incredibly awful cooks, something that has been spoofed in Asterix in Britain (see also English cuisine). In Canada and the United States British people are often depicted as having bad teeth (for instance in the Simpsons episode Last Exit to Springfield, the Family Guy episode One If by Clam, Two If by Sea and the film Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery). In Eastern Europe, the English are stereotyped as being ugly and pale. A popular British stereotype is the upper class man dressed in bowler hat, black suit who always carries an umbrella, believes in tradition and the monarchy and interrupts everything for the sake of having his tea time. British stereotypes are often depicted as stiff business men, nannies (for instance: Mary Poppins), aviators, sailors, military commanders and gardeners. Typical expressions are: "I say!", "What?", "Old chap", "What ho!", "Hello governor!", "Isn't it?",...Characters in historical movies often have English accents even when the setting has nothing to do with England. Upper-class characters are also often given English accents. In more recent times, many movie villains, including Benedict from Last Action Hero, Scar from The Lion King, and Hannibal Lecter from The Silence of the Lambs, have all been portrayed by British actors or given English accents. They are usually represented as intellectual, eloquent, snobbish geniuses, who in the end are humiliated by someone who is more egalitarian. Colonials and military commanders are sometimes depicted as stiff, pompous British people (examples are Colonel Hathi in Disney's Jungle Book).

Notably, in Disney films from the 1990s onward, English accents are generally employed to serve one of two purposes: slapstick comedy or evil genius. Examples include The Lion King (Zazu and Scar, respectively), The Hunchback of Notre Dame (Victor the Gargoyle and Frollo, respectively), and Pocahontas (Wiggins and Ratcliffe, respectively, both of whom happen to be played by the same actor, American David Ogden Stiers).

Scottish stereotypes

Scots are often depicted as dour misers, grouchy red bearded people who are dressed in kilts and play bagpipes. They drink scotch whisky and eat haggis or deep-fried pizza. Sometimes they are depicted playing golf or Highland Games. Invariably they have names starting with "Mac...". Stereotypical words used are "aye", "laddie", "wee" and a strong emphasis on the letter "r". Scots are often depicted as being fatalistic and with chips on their shoulders. Examples of stereotypical Scottish people are Groundskeeper Willie, James Saksa, and Fat Bastard.

Welsh stereotypes

Welsh people are often regarded as stoic, if somewhat dull people with rare talents when it comes to singing. The Welsh are often shown as being a nation of druids and coal miners - insular, unwelcoming to outsiders and with an inferiority complex about the English. They are also known for their rather bland foods, their ability to hold their liquor. They are also crudely portrayed as having sexual relationships with sheep, which has led to the term "Sheepshagger".

Irish stereotypes

See also: Irish jokes

File:Irish-stereotypes.jpg

The cartoon above (New Physiognomy, New York, 1866), contrasts Florence Nightingale, the Crimean War nurse, with "Bridget McBruiser", the stereotypical Irish woman.

Scientific Racism from an American magazine, Harper’s Weekly, says that the Irish are similar to 'Negroes.'

Although the Irish, Germans, French, etc are considered ethnic groups today, the common term in the 19th century was "race". Much was made of Celtic versus Anglo-Saxon racial characteristics, regarding historic identity and behavior patterns. An analysis of nineteenth-century British attitudes by Mary J. Hickman and Bronwen Walter wrote that the 'Irish Catholic' was one viewed as an "other," or a different race in the construction of the British nationalist myth [of course this view no longer exists in any way, the Irish are now seen as fellow inhabitants of the British Isles]. Likewise the Irish considered the English "other" and fought hard to break away and create their own homeland, which they finally did in the 1920s.

One 19th century British cartoonist even depicted Irish immigrants as ape-like and as racially different. One American doctor in the 1850s James Redfield, argued that "facial angle" was a sign of intelligence and character. He likened the facial characteristics of the human races to animals. Thus Irishmen resembled dogs, Yankees were like bears, Germans like lions, Negroes like elephants, Englishmen like bulls, Turks like turkeys, Persians like peacocks, Greeks like sheep, Hindus like swans, Jews like goats, and Frenchmen like frogs. In the 20th century physical stereotypes survived in the comic books until the 1950s, with Irish characters like Mutt and Jeff, and Jiggs and Maggie appearing daily in hundreds of newspapers.

Gnomes and leprechauns sometimes speak with dubious Irish accents, probably due to the popular Irish folkloric image of gnomes and dwarves.

Contemporary stereotypes attempt to portray the Irish as drunkards, with an innate proclivity for brawling and misbehavior.

Australian stereotypes

A lot of these stereotypes are reflected in Crocodile Dundee and Monty Python's Bruces sketch and the character Sir Les Patterson. Australian stereotypical characters always use expressions like "Crikey!", "G'day, mate" and "Put another shrimp on the barbie."(despite the fact they use the term prawn) They are often represented as being unsophisticated and obsessed with beer and surfing, boomerangs and kangaroos. Australian men are often shown as being macho, misogynistic brutes. The 'Ozzie' woman is seen as a beach babe with a sexy accent. However due to people like Germaine Greer and Dame Edna they are also generally seen as independent, well educated and forthright to a fault. They are sexy, overbearing about world injustice and date foreigners.

French stereotypes

French people are often depicted as dirty, unshaven, curly moustached people wearing berets, striped shirts and carrying baguettes under the arm or as onion sellers. They are often depicted as being arrogant, dirty, rude to foreigners, lazy and always speaking English like Maurice Chevalier. Often, in reference to World War II, they are depicted as being cowards who surrender immediately when confronted with sudden danger. They will frequently be seemingly addicted to croissants or tarts, or, in a more positive image, are depicted as excellent cooks (Examples are Louis in The Little Mermaid and the cooks in Ratatouille). French stereotypes are used quite a lot in comedies or animated cartoons where these characters always talk in the same way: "the" and "this" are pronounced "zee" and "zis", the words "mais oui", "ami" or "mon chéri" are used non stop and the "w" is pronounced "ooweee". Examples are Inspector Clouseau, Lumière in Beauty and The Beast and Pepe Le Pew. Sometimes, like in the movie Shrek, people are depicted as being French for no apparent reason other than evoking laughs while using the accent.

German stereotypes

German people have been portrayed with a number of stereotypes that can be grouped into several categories.

Ubermensch Stereotype

One stereotypical rendition of German people portrays them as austere, humorless, hyper-organized, bureaucratic, and mechanical. In appearance, they are imposingly tall, often slender, though possibly portly, with sharply chiseled facial features. The "Ubermensch" is generally portrayed working as a scientist, professor, military leader, businessman, or generic aristocrat. In their speech, they normally tend toward a soft, wily tone of voice which quickly erupts into a harsh, guttural bark when they are provoked. At no time will they be given to excessive words. They may have subtle or overt racist tendencies harking not just to Nazism but Nietzcheian philosophy of the Ubermensch. Modern depictions of the "Ubermensch" extend to the enjoyment of harsh, austere forms of music such as industrial, Krautrock, and techno, and many German bands of these genres intentionally play up those stereotypical aspects.

Die Frau

Die Frau is essentially the female version of the Ubermensch. With her hair pulled back into a suffocatingly tight bun, she tends to bark her imperious will in a shrill, abrasive tone and is unvaryingly depicted in a dominant role. Die Frau is often used as the facade of Nazi female kommandants and BDSM dominatrices as such roles call for an extremely authoritative and domineering woman.

Bavarian Stereotype

In sharp contrest to the "Ubermensch", the "Bavarian" is portrayed as warm and cuddly. The males wear lederhosen, Tyrolean hats, and mustaches, while the women wear dirndls, and both sexes are clad in a mix of mostly white and green with red trim. This rendition of Germans sees them rejecting the austerity of the "Ubermensch" stereotype and enjoying the simple pleasures in life. Such Germans are seen drinking beer from steins in great quantity, feasting on schnitzel, sauerkraut, and sauerbraten, and dancing to oompa music. It should be noted that this stereotype derives from stereotypical views of southern Germans, the Bavarians, as well as the Austrians, but is invoked as a stereotype for all Germans today.

Beermaiden Stereotype

The "Beermaiden" is generally portrayed as a subset of the "Bavarian". "Beermaidens" are pretty but robust women with long blonde hair in pigtails, ample breasts, and powerful arms capable of delivering a dozen steins of beer, in accordance with "Bavarian" stereotypes (and to some degree, reality). This stereotype is an amalgam of various ideals of Teutonic women, ranging from the Nazis' view of the Aryan womanhood - capable of as much physical labor as men, but with very feminine and maternal physical characteristics to produce a new generation of Aryans - to Wagnerian depictions of the female warrior Brynhildr as portrayed in Der Ring des Nibelungen.

Recent and other Stereotypes

One new avatar of the German citizen becoming popular in Britain is that of the conscientious post-WWII German. This stereotype is popularly applied to German tourists who are depicted as being incredibly polite and respectful and growing nervous at the mention of the War. The stereotype derives from the intense and public guilt of the German people for war crimes committed in the '30s and '40s, as demonstrated by draconian restrictions on speech, and especially proscriptions against denying the Holocaust.

Other portrayals of Germans, usually applied in alliance with one of the above stereotypes, include pickelhaube-wearing warmongers (stemming from Germany's role in the two world wars, though other Axis/Central powers do not seem to share this stereotype), monocle-wearing mad scientists with generally more malicious ends than beneficent ones, and very robust opera singers playing the role of the aforementioned Brynhildr (Brunhilde in German).

Italian stereotypes

Italian people have evolved a diverse range of stereotypes stemming from a very regular and unwavering set of core characteristics, those being physicality, sensuality, melodrama, and most of all, Catholicism. Italians and Southern Europeans as a whole acquired a reputation as being rather alien to European American culture mostly on basis of their (from the WASP viewpoint) heretical spirituality. Thus traits of profligacy, hedonism, and loudness are usually depicted in stereotypical Italians. Excessively cerebral traits are usually not ascribed to Italians, the very noteworthy exception being art, as it stems from their sensuality. Thus Italians and Italian Americans are seen as first-rate singers, painters, fashion designers, and sculptors while seldom as professors, engineers, physicists, and computer programmers.

The Don

The Don stereotype depicts the storied old-world aged Italian male. Most often portrayed as a mafioso, the Don is late-middle-aged to elderly with a wisdom earned more from life experience than academia and as such echoes the portrayals of elderly Asian males. The Don exhibits a refined dignity in keeping with European values rather than the thuggish mentality of his equally caricatured Italo-American subjects, and speaks in a husky voice with his Italian accent intact. The Don, when not involved with the mafia or when retired, is shown to enjoy quintessentially Italian pastimes such as tending an olive or tomato garden at a villa against an iconic Tuscan backdrop. Vito Corleone of The Godfather is the best known example of the Don.

The Wop

The rank and file Italian stereotype, the Wop embodies the most basic and simplistic of traits ascribed to Italians. Most often wearing a mustache (and when portrayed in historical or humorous contexts, a waxed handlebar mustache), the Wop talks in a comical rendition of the Italian accent in which the schwa is inserted semirandomly into English speech such that it flows similarly to their native tongue, as in "I ain't-a gonna make-a pasta no more!" while illustrating his speech with exaggerated gesticulations. The Wop is often depicted as a chef with impeccable cooking skills, and indeed who lives for his cooking, or he may be portrayed as a market vendor selling fruit or ice cream (gelato). The Wop may display any combination of basic Italian stereotypes and lack others, ranging from hypermasculinity and an antediluvian attitude toward women to a short, angry temper. Famous examples of the Wop are the iconic Mario Bros. and the character portrayed by Chico Marx.

The Guido

The Guido is the Wop's American cousin. Generally at least a second generation American, or one with no first-hand knowledge of authentic Italian culture, the Guido practices a lifestyle based upon the Italian one but through an American lens, and speaks most commonly in an Italian-inflected New York accent. The Guido most frequently prizes machismo and physicality over delicate intellectualism, viewing women as potential conquests. While Guidos are seen as thugs in some contexts, they are as often revered for their coolness and masculinity, as in the culture of "greasers". The Guido frequently goes by the diminutive form of his often Italian first name, such as Johnny, Danny, Nicky, or Richie. In the post-50s world, the Guido culture remained alive and well with some changes and additions. The IROC Camaro gained infamy for its alternative acronym, "Italian Retards Out Cruising". Well-known avatars of the Guido include Danny Zucco of Grease, and Arthur Fonzarelli.

The Italian Stallion

Either Italian or Italo-American, the Italian Stallion is the personification of the Italians' reputation for sensuality, physicality, and masculinity. The Italian Stallion is as mysterious and exotic as the Guido is transparent and simple. Often, the Stallion will walk around in public with an open shirt to display his pectoral muscles and substantial chest hair as a peacock does his feathers. The Italian Stallion is generally of an economic status such that he can afford exquisite fashions such as Armani suits and ties, and Gucci loafers. He may be seen driving an ostentatious Italian sports car or stealthily tooling around town on a more modest yet classy Vespa. The Stallion is, of course, known best for his sexual prowess both in the bedroom and leading up to, and for his potent genitalia, the reputation of which rivals that of black men. Fabio is a real-life, though comically extreme, example of the Italian Stallion, while Marcello Mastroianni is another example.

The Bombshell

Based upon such real-world examples as Sophia Loren, Gina Lollobrigida and La Cicciolina, the Bombshell is the female counterpart of the Italian Stallion. Possessing a self-confidence and sensual character alien to that of Anglo-American women, the Bombshell also sports a buxom, curvaceous body clearly evolved to fulfill a singular need of sexual fulfillment. The Bombshell is mysterious and mildly predatory, a femme fatale, and thus is as much a metaphor for the dangers of succumbing to the appeal of a woman who is not of the protestant, Anglo-American culture as she is a character in her own right.

The Nona

Where the Bombshell represents the danger and mystery of Catholic Southern European people, the Nona represents their homey, familiar qualities. Universally an excellent cook, though less interested in concocting haute cuisine than in nourishing meals, the Nona talks in an Italian accent, and is indeed from Italy most often, and always has something baking in the oven for her grandchildren whom she spoils to no end. The Nona is a popular marketing icon for Italian food companies.

Swedish Stereotypes

Swedish people have a limited but varied number of stereotypes stemming from essentially two core sources: the Vikings of the Dark Ages and modern Sweden's liberal attitudes toward sex. As well, Swedish cultural fixtures figure into stereotypes, such as IKEA, the cradle-to-grave welfare state (and its attendant taxation), Volvos, and the singsong accent so hilariously parodied by The Swedish Chef.

The Blonde Babe

Inspired by real-life blonde babes, Victoria Silvstedt, Ulrika Jonsson, Britt Ekland, Agnetha Fältskog, the Blonde Babe of Sweden is universally blonde, blue-eyed, fair-skinned, and soft-featured. Blonde Babes are tall, slender, sexually precocious, and seldom known for their stunning intellect. Indeed, where the Italian Bombshell archetype is wily, seductive, and a solitary predator, the Blonde Babe is in a word, fun. Found in groups of giggling girls, Blonde Babes are interested in pleasing men - especially American ones whom they view as masculine and exotic. This stereotype has plenty of basis in reality, as evidenced by the Swedish Bikini Team despite curiously conflicting with Sweden's reputation for women's equality.

Sven

The archetypal Swedish male name, Sven is the basic Swedish male stereotype. As tall, fair-featured, and pretty as his female counterpart, Sven does not particularly prize virility as it is traditionally viewed. Interested in cerebral pursuits such as art and aesthetics, history, and culture, Sven is a sensitive intellectual who nevertheless enjoys sex, epecially with Blonde Babes. Sven doesn't worry too much about life for he lives in a comfortable flat with colorful, sleek IKEA furniture, is cared for by a welfare system, and can't be bothered with thuggish behavior.

The Viking

The Viking is just as often not actually a Viking. Ratherm the Viking represents the perception of Swedish males prior to the liberal welfare state. That is to say the Viking is tall, blue eyed, and blonde, but ruggedly built to survive Nordic winters in austere conditions. Obsessed with his country's pagan past and the stark beauty of the north, the Swedish Viking is a creature of the forest (in contrast to the Norwegian stereotype, Swedes are a sylvan people while Norwegians are maritime), rhapsodizing about trolls, kobolds, and elves and exploring as his medieval forebears once did. The Viking often practices Asatru, the traditional Norse paganism, can write in runic, and most likely wears a beard. The stereotype of the Viking inspires and is in turn inspired by the heavy metal community of Sweden, and indeed Sweden is as much known today for death metal as it is for IKEA and Volvo. Real-life examples of the "Viking" include Andreas Hedlund (Vintersorg), Tomas Lindberg of At the Gates, and the members of Einherjer.

Eastern European and Russian stereotypes

They are usually depicted as harsh, primitive, miserable, poor peasants or workers. Sometimes they cook soup, stew, goulash or eat yoghurt, paprika or salami. Men always have moustaches/beards and carry bearskin hats and women babushkas. When they have finished drinking a glass with strong liquor, they throw the glass over their shoulder while it crashes against the wall or the ground. The population is often involved in espionage or spied upon by the secret police. Many of these stereotypes still date back to the Cold War era and Dracula movies, who are often set in Romania. Men often shout with an angry, booming voice. Women are sometimes depicted as being more masculine than feminine. Gypsies are also often associated with Eastern Europe. More positive stereotypical depictions of Eastern Europeans and Russians are the excellent ballet dancer(s) and violinists. Their speech often puts a strong emphasis on the letter "r" and "g"-sounds are put in front of words beginning with the letter "h". Other popular cliché expressions are "njet" ("no") and "da!" ("yes").

Before (and long after) the Russian Revolution Russians were often represented as black bearded cossacks with heavy eyebrows, who dance trepaks, ride in troika's, play violin, eat caviar or drink vodka in snowy landscapes. During the Cold War Russians and Eastern Europeans were often depicted as evil or primitive in anticommunist propaganda. Since the 1990s the depiction of Russians as part of the Russian mafia has increased.

Jewish stereotypes

See also: Racial antisemitism

File:Gargamel and Azrael from the Smurfs.jpg

Gargamel and Azrael.

To this day Jewish people are sometimes stereotyped in media as being intellectually gifted,, nit-picky, and focused on money. Other stereotypes are the rabbi, the complaining and guilt inflicting Jewish mother stereotype, the spoiled and materialistic Jewish-American Princess and the Nice Jewish Boy.

In early films such as Cohen's Advertising Scheme (1904, silent) stereotyped Jews as "scheming merchants"

In many modern day comedy and films, Jews are often depicted as having curly hair, large noses, and wearing kippahs.

Hispanic, Latino, Middle and South-American stereotypes

See also: Stereotypes of Hispanic and Latino Americans

They are often depicted as hot-blooded, proud, lazy people who prefer to take siestas instead of working. Typical activities are playing guitar in group (often songs like La Cucaracha) or alone, while singing a serenade to their loved one. Most young latinos are often seen as gang related groups who often talk spanglish. Other activities are bull fighting, cooking olives or extremely hot food and drinking strong liquor. Typical expressions are shouting "Olé!" or "Ayayayayayayay" when they are excited about something. Everybody is called "señor" or "señorita". The men always have long black moustaches. Presidents in Latin American settings are depicted having short reigns and are deposed by "una revolución". Afterwards they are shot by firing squads. Men are frequently cast as drug dealers, dictators, soccer fanatics or cigar smoking guerrillero's. Women are usually loosely dressed and promiscuous, big breasted, long haired beauties. In recent popular culture Latinos are often depicted as illegal immigrants. Examples or these Hispanic stereotypes are: Bumblebee Man, Speedy Gonzales, and the characters in Asterix in Spain and Tintin and the Broken Ear.

Sex and gender stereotyping

See also: Gender roles

See also: LGBT stereotypes

Sex and gender stereotyping could be classified as a single idea. Although sex is usually defined as a person's biological traits, gender is defined as how a person identifies themselves to the world. Gender relates to those affectations that are attributed to men and those affectations that are attributed to women. It is important to understand that in this discussion it requires a social structure that tends to enforce a binary sex and gender role based on a person's biological characteristics.

Gender stereotypes are those ideas, usually imposed by society of what is expected of men and women in the social structure. In most modern Western cultures, men are expected to be assertive, risk-taking, tough, unfeeling, insensitive, combative, the owner or ruler of the home, whereas women are expected to be the nurturers, caregivers, demure, polite, the family homemaker. Younger men are often depicted as pimpish, boasting, prideful, obnoxious, promiscuous and sometimes violent. Younger women are often shown as unintelligent, emotional, afraid of things like spiders and snakes, saying the word "like" all the time and squealing a lot.

Etymology

The word stereotype is of Greek origin (στερεότυπος), literally meaning "solid-kind". It was invented by Firmin Didot in the world of printing; it was originally a duplicate impression of an original typographical element, used for printing instead of the original. American journalist Walter Lippmann coined the metaphor, calling a stereotype a "picture in our heads" saying "Whether right or wrong, ...imagination is shaped by the pictures seen... Consequently, they lead to stereotypes that are hard to shake." (Public Opinion, 1922, 95-156). In fact, cliché and stereotype were both originally printers' words, and in their literal printers' meanings were synonymous. Specifically, cliché was a French word for the printing surface for a stereotype.

The first reference to "stereotype", in its modern, English use was in 1850, in the noun, meaning "image perpetuated without change".

Specialised use in Ethology

In ethology, stereotyped behavior or fixed action pattern is an innate, pre-programed response that is repeated when an animal is exposed to an environmental innate releasing mechanism.

See also

• Archetype
• Animal stereotypes
• Counterstereotype (antonym)
• Ethnic stereotype
  • Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims
  • Stereotypes of East and Southeast Asians
  • Stereotypes of Hispanics
  • Stereotypes of Native Americans
  • Stereotypes of West and Central Asians
  • Stereotypes of blacks
  • Stereotypes of whites

• Intercultural competence
• LGBT stereotypes
• Milieu control
• Nurse stereotypes
• Prejudices
• Race and Inequality
• Racial profiling
• Role
• Stock character
• Social control theory
• Stigmatization
• Stereotype threat

• Psychology:
  • Negativity effect
  • Outgroup homogeneity bias
  • Physical attractiveness stereotype
  • Trait ascription bias
• Urban legend

Bibliography

• Stuart Ewen, Elizabeth Ewen, Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality. New York (Seven Stories Press) 2006
• Stereotype & Society A Major Resource: Constantly updated and archived
• Social Psychology Network Stereotyping
• Media Awareness Network. What is a stereotype? Definition, role of stereotyping in the media, more links
• Are Blonds Really Dumb? An article on Stereotyping
• Are Stereotypes True?
• Stereotype Susceptibility: Identity Salience and Shifts in Quantitative Performance, Margaret Shih, Todd L. Pittinsky, Nalini Ambady Research about the effects of 'positive' and negative stereotypes on encouraging/discouraging performance.
• Turner, Chris. Planet Simpson: How a Cartoon Masterpiece Documented an Era and Defined a Generation. ISBN 0-679-31318-4.

External links

• Social Psychology Network Stereotyping
• Understanding Stereotypes - Educational information about stereotypes.
• Short movie: Stereotypes in conflict - Reaction from people in shopping center on business men, weird & slutty types and goths.
• SEPARATING the GOLD from the DROSS: a guide to multicultural literature
• Media Awareness Network. What is a stereotype? Definition, role of stereotyping in the media, more links
• Dictionary - Stereotype Online Dictionary