Gender Pay Gap

Gender Pay Gap (from English gender "social gender"), abbreviated GPG or wage gap , or gender-specific wage gap describes the difference between the average gross hourly wage of women and men in social economics and sociology ; the gap (“gap”) is given as a percentage of the average gross hourly wage of men. A distinction is made between the unadjusted and the adjusted gender pay gap.

According to a publication of the Directorate General Justice of the European Commission from 2014 located in the countries of the European Union the unadjusted gender pay gap at 16%. The gender pay gap is differently pronounced in the individual countries. Together with Austria, Germany is one of the countries in which the gender pay gap is highest. In all occupational classes, women in Germany earn less than men, but the difference is greatest in occupations that are usually occupied by women (so-called women's occupations). The unadjusted gender pay gap in female professions is just under 27%, but only 13% in professions that are usually occupied by men (so-called male professions). When adjusted, the average wage gap is 6% (or 2% without taking into account time off work for women). The regional differences are considerable and range between 17% in favor of women and 38% in favor of men.

Wage differentials between women and men have repeatedly been the subject of public controversy in all industrialized countries since the 1970s. The World Economic Forum (World Economic Forum) published the annual Global Gender Gap Report to more than 150 countries, the income disparities between the sexes compares (see also Gender Pension Gap : pension gap).

Unadjusted gender pay gap

The unadjusted gender pay gap is the difference between the average gross earnings of women and men. The calculation of the average gross hourly earnings not only includes information from full-time employees, but also the earnings of (retirement) part-time employees, marginal part-time employees as well as trainees and interns. In the unadjusted calculation of the GPG, wage-determining factors are therefore not taken into account in the study.

According to the OECD employment outlook for 2008 , the unadjusted gender pay gap in the member states of the OECD was 17%.

In December 2020, the Federal Statistical Office announced that the unadjusted gender pay gap in Germany in 2019 was around 19%.

According to the Federal Statistical Office, current European comparative figures are only available for 2018. Of the 28 EU states at that time, only Estonia performed worse than Germany in terms of the unadjusted gender pay gap . Austria , the Czech Republic , the United Kingdom , Slovakia and Latvia were at a comparable level to Germany . The EU countries with the lowest gender-specific differences in gross hourly earnings were Luxembourg (one percent), Romania (two percent) and Italy (four percent).

Adjusted gender pay gap

The adjusted gender pay gap allows statements to be made about the difference in gross hourly earnings between women and men with comparable characteristics. In the case of the adjusted gender pay gap, the part of the earnings difference that is based on structural differences (equipment effects) such as educational levels, occupations, qualifications, work experience, etc. is deducted. Ä. Of men and women, is based. Therefore, the adjusted gender pay gap is normally smaller than the unadjusted one. In addition to the observable differences in equipment mentioned, there may be other differences that are unobservable or difficult to measure (e.g. work motivation) and also explain part of the wage difference. Accordingly, the adjusted gender pay gap should be understood as the maximum extent of wage discrimination. On the other hand it can be that the distribution of men and women according to certain characteristics (e.g. qualifications, business sector) may itself be the result of socially disadvantageous structures and thus the extent of the disadvantage may be underestimated. (See alsoGender bias ).

The adjusted GPG is approx. 2–7%. This means that, on average, women earn 2-7% less per hour than men, provided they have comparable work and the same qualifications.

In the OECD calculations, around two thirds of the unadjusted GPGs could be explained by differences in equipment. The remaining wage differentials can therefore be traced back to other unobserved factors as well as discriminatory practices in the labor market . In 2014, the Federal Statistical Office also came to the conclusion that around a quarter of the unadjusted gender pay gap could not be explained by observable equipment effects.

Statistical analysis

Analyzes of the gender pay gap are often based on regression analyzes . The Federal Statistical Office (Destatis) used based thereon Oaxaca Blinder decomposition , in which the determining factors of the salary as simultaneous equation system of two equations, are modeled for each sex, each with an equation. The regression coefficients and absolute values ​​determined in this way then indicate the gender-specific contributions of the influencing variables (also known as “ explanatory variables ”) on wages.

The difference in the absolute values ​​of the individual equations is then referred to as the adjusted gender pay gap . In the Oaxaca-Blinder component breakdown (named after Ronald Oaxaca and Alan Blinder ) , empirical studies on the question of what proportion of the gender pay gap is due to discrimination are primarily carried out with the help of this procedure. The breakdown is based on the assumption that the pay difference is made up of two components, one of which is based solely on differences in certain explanatory variables such as qualifications and industry (the so-called equipment effect), while the second is based solely on a different treatment of groups of employees with otherwise the same characteristics (the so-called group effect ).

The group effect measures the different wages of people who are identical except for their gender and is often interpreted in the literature as a measure of discrimination. This procedure is similar to the residual method for measuring discrimination .

A Eurofond report from 2010 put forward the thesis that the wage difference adjusted for the effects of equipment is not the only component of discrimination. Rather, factors such as career choice and labor market segregation are themselves signs of discrimination insofar as they are based on gender stereotypes .

A DIW study showed that the gender wage gap is particularly pronounced in those areas in which long working hours are particularly financially beneficial, i.e. salary increases disproportionately with working hours, since women work disproportionately often part-time. According to the authors of the study, this is the case, for example, in sales and in company organization. In areas in which income does not rise disproportionately with working hours, the gender wage gap is smaller - for example in care, in the public service and in areas where collective agreements stipulate equal wages for the same working hours.

In 2017/18, a study by economists from the Universities of Stanford and Chicago examined the differences in the remuneration of Uber drivers. The study found that male drivers earned about 7% more per hour than females using the pay algorithmof the operator take into account, among other things, the length of the driven distance, travel time, number of people taken and current supply and demand situation, but not the gender of the driver, whether they work full or part time or whether they have been with Uber for a long time or only recently . The difference in earnings per hour arises from the fact that men, on average, have more experience due to longer work at Uber, who, depending on the current supply and demand situation, select better paid jobs and lead them faster. The authors concluded that such a difference in earnings per hour between the sexes could arise without any discrimination (see: Gender Bias ).

causes

The wages of men and women are influenced by various factors. One reason is that men are more involved in the labor market. Men work far more overtime with high wage supplements than women do, and work with fewer career breaks.

The explanation of the income differences is made even more difficult by the observation that the gender pay gap is significantly higher for the self-employed than for dependent employees. Employers are ruled out as a source of discrimination; The role of the client remains to be examined here. Studies suggest, however, that any prejudiced behavior on the part of customers and investors does not seem to play a significant role in self-employed women. The analysis calculated on the basis of a very large sample for Germany an unadjusted gap of 44% for the self-employed, of which only a good half can be traced back to the known influencing factors. The causes of the remaining high income gap of around 20% have not yet been explained.

Another reason for the gender pay gap is the underrepresentation of women in management positions, which is linked to the structural problem of how women get into management positions and how the work-life balance is achieved.

With the help of an Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition , it was possible to show that women on average have lower earnings not only because they work in women's professions that are low paid, but because these professions have work content that is associated with female characteristics and is devalued in monetary terms , whereas men more often work in more prestigious male occupations, which are associated with characteristics that are considered male and which are monetarily upgraded.

Labor market segregation

The labor market segregation , d. H. Women and men tend to work in different economic sectors or industries , and the undervaluation of women’s work is cited by the European Commission as one of the main reasons for the gender pay gap. Studies show that jobs that are predominantly carried out by women are paid less on average than jobs that are dominated by men.

In a study from 2008 it was empirically investigated whether jobs that were either in an industry associated with women or with men were assigned different wages. Test subjects first had to state whether they considered occupations to be “male” or “female” (e.g. teachers for handicrafts and household science-Teacher or editor for the auto or delicatessen department) and had to evaluate these professions in terms of requirements, working conditions, required training and responsibility. The result of the study was that the test participants rated the occupations as equally demanding, but devalued the occupations perceived as "female" and assigned them significantly lower wages than the "male" occupations.

In a study from 2013, data from the socio-economic panel2000–2010 analyzed with the result that employment in a female occupation has a negative effect on earnings for both women and men. Work with male connotations, which have a high prestige on the labor market and are valued, have the effect of increasing earnings, whereas work with female connotations, which have a low prestige on the labor market and therefore experience a monetary devaluation, reduce earnings. Whether the conclusion that women's occupations have lower earnings because they are predominantly carried out by women or because those occupations have certain work contents that tend to be ascribed to women is causal on the basis of correlationshowever not deducible; the causal connection could also exist in the other direction or not at all.

Assessment of competence

A 2012 study by Princeton University showed that academic employees at universities who were asked to select candidates for a position on the basis of bogus written applications considered an applicant to be more suitable if the applicant's first name was male. From the statistical analysis, this effect could be attributed to the fact that the candidates in this case were rated as more competent. This effect has been demonstrated for scientific employees of both sexes.

Procedure for salary negotiations

Researchers from the University of Bielefeld, the University of Konstanz and the DIW took part in three representative population surveys in 2008 and 2009to the result that different pay for men and women in the population is fundamentally rejected. If, however, the specific ideas are asked how high a fair wage should be in a specific individual case, a woman is awarded a significantly lower wage than a man with the same qualifications. Not only men are of this opinion, but women themselves have lower demands on the level of their earned income and also grant their female counterparts a significantly lower income than comparable men. For example, Stefan Liebig, Peter Valet, Jürgen Schupp from DIW came to the conclusion that women, when asked what they would perceive as a fair wage for their work, stated sums that were around a quarter lower than the sums whom men had considered righteous for themselves. The amount indicated by women as fair was lower than the amount actually achieved by men. The researchers suspect that women, due to their lower income expectations, make lower demands - for example in salary negotiations. The gender pay gap cannot be reduced through individual efforts alone, but rather through greater transparency in pay systems. If differences in wages between the sexes are more visible, it is to be expected that women will also have higher wage and salary demands. that women make lower demands - for example in salary negotiations - due to their lower income expectations. The gender pay gap cannot be reduced through individual efforts alone, but rather through greater transparency in pay systems. If differences in wages between the sexes are more visible, it is to be expected that women will also have higher wage and salary demands. that women make lower demands - for example in salary negotiations - due to their lower income expectations. The gender pay gap cannot be reduced through individual efforts alone, but rather through greater transparency in pay systems. If differences in wages between the sexes are more visible, it is to be expected that women will also have higher wage and salary demands.

A study from 2003 found that women and men negotiate salarieswere treated differently. Women were punished more than men for initiating negotiations. In particular, it was male evaluators who punished female candidates more severely than male candidates, whereas female evaluators punished women and men equally for initiating salary negotiations. Resistance to women's negotiation efforts could be explained by the fact that women who negotiated were perceived as “less nice”. The research team found that, in all experimental conditions, men preferred to work with women who did not negotiate their salary, whereas it made no difference to them whether or not men asked for a higher salary.

A 1991 study looked at salary negotiation behavior and the starting salary of MBA students who were about to graduate. The study showed that women negotiated as often as men and that they were offered a lower average starting salary after the negotiations. The accumulation of such differences over the course of a career is considerable.

Education and career choice

The different educational and career choices of women and men are influenced by gender-specific stereotypes . So who gave employment survey of the OECD in 2002 on the behavior of women in the labor market by the learned cultural and social, values will be affected, since certain professions and lifestyles are considered "typical male" perceived or "typically female". In addition, it is assumed that women's choice of course is also guided by the expectation that certain employment opportunities will not be open to them, as well as by gender perceptions of the society in which they live.

Two studies (2001, 2004) showed that certain gender-specific perceptions (e.g. that women are on average worse in math, science and technology) influence the self-assessment of women and men in such a way that men perform better in these areas even then Assess when women perform equally well or better. These “ biased self-assessments ” are then a factor in the educational and career choices of women and men.

The OECD report Equally prepared for life? How 15 year-old boys and girls perform in school from 2009 drew on the results of the IGLU study , the TIMSS report and the PISA study and concludes that gender biases influence the educational outcomes of boys and girls and the decision about further education and career seems to depend more on stereotypes than on actual skills.

Job-specific effects in sub-areas became apparent, for example, in the entrance tests for medical studies in Austria, in which more women took part in the selection process, but more men were able to meet the test criteria required for the natural sciences.

Performance in standardized tests

Studies have shown that the stereotype that women, on average, have lower mathematical skills than men, leads to a reduction in performance in test situations. This phenomenon is known as the stereotypical threat .

The 2006 IGLU study showed that girls showed significantly better reading literacy than boys in all participating countries, except in Luxembourg and Spain , where the average reading literacy of the sexes was equal.

In contrast, the TIMSS mathematics report (2007) could not determine any differences in the average mathematics performance between girls and boys in the 4th grade. In around half of the participating countries, the average difference was small: girls had better results in 8 countries and boys had better results in 12 countries. In 8th grade, girls on average performed better in math than boys. Girls did better in 16 countries and boys in 8 countries. The TIMSS Science Reportfrom the same year showed that girls had better average science performance in both grades 4 and 8. The gender gap was small in more than half of the participating countries. The Wiener Zeitung interpreted the results of the two TIMSS studies in such a way that “boys do significantly better than girls in math and science”.

In the 2009 Pisa study, on average across OECD countries, boys scored 12 points better than girls on the overall mathematics scale, while there were generally only minor gender-specific differences in science performance. In the area of ​​reading literacy, girls in all PISA participating countries performed significantly (by an average of 39 points) better than boys.

According to a survey at three Austrian universities, women (especially Austrian women) achieve significantly worse results than their male competitors in admission tests for medical studies. The main explanation given was school socialization , which, even with good school grades, leads to less self-confidence among girls in their own abilities in the natural sciences and mathematics.

Work-life balance

The influence of private commitment to the family on performance on the one hand and on professional career and income on the other is the subject of numerous studies. The European Commission cites the unequal distribution of tasks in the family and care, which are largely carried out by women, as one of the most important reasons for the gender pay gap. The OECD states that unequal participation in child-rearing and unpaid household chores mean that women are more likely than men to switch to part-time work in order to reconcile family and work. The Swiss Federal Statistical Officereports with regard to the division of roles in the household that a traditional division of roles continues to dominate and that "there are no direct indications of the 'new men' who try to better combine work and family through part-time work." in the household to an “above-average expenditure for women” and increased full-time employment of fathers. The development towards more involvement of fathers is proceeding slowly. It has been shown that the amount of the remuneration during parental leave influences the utilization, especially by fathers.

Significantly more women than men work part-time . Mothers in particular are increasingly employed and work part-time in order to combine family and work. However, hypergamy also plays a role in the distribution of work and household responsibilities, and husbands often have no choice but to work full-time to ensure a livelihood.

maternity

US researchers refer to the average loss of income associated with children as the “motherhood penalty”. These income losses are also after the statistical control of other relevant factors such as e. B. Education, experience, full or part time work, and ethnicity present. According to the OECD, this effect can be observed particularly in the USA and Great Britain.

One in 2007 in the American Journal of Sociologypublished study on the so-called "maternity punishment" examined how fictitious female and male job seekers are rated. In a laboratory experiment, test participants read invented résumés that only differed in terms of gender and parental status of the applicants and were identical in all other job-related factors. Mothers were rated as less competent and professionally committed than fathers. A lower starting salary was considered appropriate for mothers than for fathers, and stricter performance standards were applied to mothers, so they were allowed to miss fewer days than fathers and had to achieve significantly better results in an entrance test. A second study examined whether real employers discriminate against mothers. In addition, over 1200 invented résumés were sent to more than 600 employers. The fictitious résumés of female and male applicants again only varied with regard to gender and parental status. The result of the study was that female applicants with children were less likely to be hired and the prospect of lower wages than male applicants with children. Another study from 2004 found that students who were asked to evaluate fictitious applicants for a position as prosecutor were less willing to hire a mother than a woman without children and expected better performance from mothers. The opposite effect was found for men: fathers were expected to perform less than mothers and men without children. The fictitious résumés of female and male applicants again only varied with regard to gender and parental status. The result of the study was that female applicants with children were less likely to be hired and the prospect of lower wages than male applicants with children. Another study from 2004 found that students who were asked to evaluate fictitious applicants for a position as prosecutor were less willing to hire a mother than a woman without children and expected better performance from mothers. The opposite effect was found for men: fathers were expected to perform less than mothers and men without children. The fictitious résumés of female and male applicants again only varied with regard to gender and parental status. The result of the study was that female applicants with children were less likely to be hired and the prospect of lower wages than male applicants with children. Another study from 2004 found that students who were asked to evaluate fictitious applicants for a position as prosecutor were less willing to hire a mother than a woman without children and expected better performance from mothers. The opposite effect was found for men: fathers were expected to perform less than mothers and men without children. that female applicants with children were less likely to be hired and lower wages than male applicants with children. Another study from 2004 found that students who were asked to evaluate fictitious applicants for a position as prosecutor were less willing to hire a mother than a woman without children and expected better performance from mothers. The opposite effect was found for men: fathers were expected to perform less than mothers and men without children. that female applicants with children were less likely to be hired and lower wages than male applicants with children. Another study from 2004 found that students who were asked to evaluate fictitious applicants for a position as prosecutor were less willing to hire a mother than a woman without children and expected better performance from mothers. The opposite effect was found for men: fathers were expected to perform less than mothers and men without children. who were asked to evaluate fictitious applicants for a position as prosecutor were less willing to hire a mother than a woman without children and expected better performance from mothers. The opposite effect was found for men: fathers were expected to perform less than mothers and men without children. who were asked to evaluate fictitious applicants for a position as prosecutor were less willing to hire a mother than a woman without children and expected better performance from mothers. The opposite effect was found for men: fathers were expected to perform less than mothers and men without children.

Irene Wennemo of the Swedish Federation of Trade Unions notes: “The employer simply assumes that one day they will have children and gives them a lower wage in the first place. Men, on the other hand, are only discriminated against if they actually take paternity leave. They then have problems getting back to their job and maintaining their salary level. So it seems to be a sensible decision for the couple that the mothers take full advantage of the parental leave and not share it with the father. ”The attribution of family work to women and the limited professional career opportunities of women mutually reinforce each other, especially as both of them within the family negotiation process play a central role.

A study by Harvard lecturer Claudia Goldin in 2014 highlighted the industry-specific presence culture in various professions as an obstacle to the salary development of mothers: The time for actual work, for meetings, compulsory attendance at work, on-call service by phone or email from home and for the procurement of information is held differently flexible in different industries. According to this, the time that parents (especially mothers) spend with family instead of gainful employment is punished disproportionately financially. According to the study, Harvard graduates who took 18 months of family leave in their first 15 years of employment lost 41 percent of their salary permanently if they did business studies29 percent had studied law , women doctors had to permanently forego 15 percent of the salary that men and childless women of the same cohort receive after taking a break from workbased. A child-related gap in working life has hardly any effect on the salaries of pharmacists. The study attributes this to different attendance and information cultures in the various industries. In pharmacy, for example, computer-aided administration beyond pharmacies and health insurance companies ensures that every licensed pharmacist can look after a patient as well as anyone else; the productivity of part-time workers or those returning from parental leave is therefore almost as high as that of full-time workers. The gender pay gap exists in many other industries because working hours are worth more at certain times than at others and when working hours are more continuous.

Pensions

→ Main article : Gender Pension Gap

The difference between men's and women's retirement income is known as the Gender Pension Gap (GPG). Different definitions of retirement income can be used for the calculation, which result in extremely large differences in the calculated GPG. So you can include

• Individual pension analysis
  • Statutory old-age pensions (excluding derived old-age pensions such as survivors' pensions)
  • Company pensions
  • Private pensions
  • Survivor pensions
  • other pensions (such as pension payments from statutory accident insurance)
• budget-related consideration
  • Equivalent Household Income

The amount of the statutory old-age pension depends first of all on income trends in professional life. A gender pay gap thus leads to a corresponding gender pension gap at retirement age. However, the amount of the statutory old-age pension depends much more on the decision to work full-time or phases of part-time work or family work. Since women are much more likely to opt out of full-time employment when looking after their children or caring for relatives, the gender pension gap in relation to statutory old-age pensions is significantly higher than the gender pay gap. If one considers the statutory pension alone, the GPG in Germany is 56.1%.

Company pensions are significantly influenced by the fact that women work less often in large companies that grant generous (or even at all) company pensions. The inclusion of company pensions therefore tends to increase the GPG. If you include company pensions and private pensions, the GPG in Germany rises to 58.5%.

The inclusion of derived old-age pensions results in a significant reduction in the gender pension gap. Above all, these are the survivors' pensions, which, due to their longer lifespan, mainly benefit women. If these survivors' pensions are included, the GPG is reduced to around 43%.

If one moves from the individual to the household-related GPG view, the gap is only 13.6%.

The gender pension gap in Germany has been falling for decades.

Group of people	1992	1995	1999	2003	2007	2020 (forecast)
Germany	69.2	68.6	64.3	63.3	59.6	53.0
West Germany	72.5	72.4	67.7	67.1	63.8	-
East Germany	39.3	44.8	46.2	43.4	36.7	-

The primary reason for this is that women's independent old-age pension incomes have risen relatively faster than that of men. On the one hand, this is due to the convergence of the employment processes of men and women. The increase in the divorce rate also plays a role. As part of the divorce takes place as part of the supply balance , a proportionate transfer of pension rights, are at the most women on the receiving end. The importance of the marital status for the GPG is enormous, as this correlates strongly with the employment biography. The following results for women in West Germany:

• Married women: 65.8
• Widowed women: 70.0
• Divorced women: 19.4
• Single women: 7.9

Since the GPG primarily reflects the course of employment, its suitability as an indicator of equity or distribution is poor.

According to a study by the German Federal Ministry for Family Affairs from February 2012, it is 59.6 percent. Women who have interrupted their employment for a long time and worked part-time to raise their children receive 69.6 percent less pension than men (as of 2012).

Retirement age

In Austria, there is also the fact that women reach the statutory retirement age up to 5 years earlier, which reduces the lifelong income of employees if they retire earlier.

Sports

In professional sport, there are very large differences in salaries between the sexes. There was only one woman among the 100 highest-paid athletes in the world in 2019: tennis player Serena Williams in 63rd place.The same applies to esports (see prize money list ). At soccer world championships between 2000 and 2019, women received an average of only a fifth of the prize money of male athletes when they won the championship.

The reasons for the differences are "usually the better marketability of men".

Development of wage differences over time

The gender pay gap has been falling in many industrialized countries for several years. This trend can be observed, for example, in the USA , but especially in New Zealand and Canada . According to Blau and Kahn, the US wage gap fell from around 50% to 36% between 1975 and 1987. In other countries, such as the Scandinavian countries and Australia , it fell sharply in the 1970s and has largely stagnated since then. In France , Belgium and Germany , the percentage wage gap fell slowly and steadily.

According to the Federal Statistical Office, a slight increase in the gender pay gap can be observed in Germany between 2006 and 2009.

Unadjusted gender pay gap in EU comparison in%

country	2006	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012
EU-27	17.7	17.6	17.3	16.6	16.1	16.2	16.4
Belgium	9.5	10.1	10.2	10.1	10.2	10.2	10
Bulgaria	12.4	12.1	12.3	13.3	13.0	13.0	14.7
Denmark	17.6	17.7	17.1	16.8	16.0	16.4	14.9
Germany	22.7	22.8	22.8	22.6	22.3	22.2	22.4
Estonia	29.8	30.9	27.6	26.6	27.7	27.3	30th
Finland	21.3	20.2	20.5	20.8	20.3	18.2	19.4
France	15.4	17.3	16.9	15.2	15.6	14.7	14.8
Greece	20.7	21.5	22.0	...	...	...	15th
Ireland	17.2	17.3	12.6	12.6	13.9	...	14.4
Italy	4.4	5.1	4.9	05.5	05.3	05.8	6.7
Latvia	15.1	13.6	11.8	13.1	15.5	13.6	13.8
Lithuania	17.1	22.6	21.6	15.3	14.6	11.9	12.6
Luxembourg	10.7	10.2	09.7	09.2	08.7	08.7	8.6
Malta	5.2	7.8	09.2	13.8	13.4	12.9	6.1
Netherlands	23.6	19.3	18.9	18.5	17.8	17.9	16.9
Austria	25.5	25.5	25.1	24.3	24.0	23.7	23.4
Poland	7.5	14.9	11.4	08.0	04.5	04.5	6.4
Portugal	8.4	8.5	9.2	10.0	12.8	12.5	15.7
Romania	7.8	12.5	08.5	07.4	08.8	12.1	9.7
Sweden	16.5	17.8	16.9	15.7	15.4	15.8	15.9
Slovakia	25.8	23.6	20.9	21.9	16.9	20.5	21.5
Slovenia	8.0	5.0	04.1	−0.9	00.9	02.3	2.5
Spain	17.9	18.1	16.1	16.7	16.2	16.2	17.8
Czech Republic	23.4	23.6	26.2	25.9	21.6	21.0	22nd
Hungary	14.4	16.3	17.5	17.1	17.6	18.0	20.1
United Kingdom	24.3	20.8	21.4	20.6	19.5	20.1	19.1
Cyprus	21.8	22.0	19.5	17.8	16.8	16.4	16.2

Source: Federal Statistical Office Germany. Source: Eurostat 2012

Differences in wages in individual states

See also : List of countries by male-to-female income ratio

Australia

In November 2012, the gender pay gap in Australia was 17.6%. The average weekly earnings of full-time employees are used to calculate the unadjusted GPG. Part-time work, additional income and overtime are not included in the calculation. The GPG changed little between 1990 and 2009 and was constant between 15 and 17%.

A study commissioned by the Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs in 2009 came to the conclusion that around 60% of Australian GPG was not influenced by different job-related influencing variables such as B. employment history, professional qualifications, labor market segregation and company size could be explained. According to the study of the GPG is primarily due to the sex: When removing the gender effect of the wage of an Australian woman to 1.87 would AUD per hour, 65 AUD a week and around 3,400 AUD to rise each year.

A 2010 study looked at the development of the gender pay gap among full-time managersconsidered between 2001 and 2008. The unadjusted GPG was around 27%. Through the statistical control of various factors such as the number of working hours, professional experience (measured in years), qualifications, marital status, field of specialization and company size, 10 to 35% of the GPG could be explained, depending on which model was chosen to break down the GPG. 65 to 90% of the GPG remained unexplained, although the features of female and male managers were very similar and were kept statistically constant. The author of the study, Ian Watson, interpreted these results as an indication that discrimination plays an important role in the different pay levels between women and men.

A study from 2013 put the adjusted gender pay gap at around 16.7% after keeping the influence of gender differences in training, working hours, unpaid overtime, number of children and other factors constant.

Studies have shown that the income gap in Australia increases with increasing income, so that the gender pay gap is larger among high earners than among low earners . According to a study, the gender pay gap is 25% at the upper end of the income distribution (top 5%) and 10% at the lower end of the distribution. This widening of the gender pay gap along the income distribution is also known as the “ glass ceiling ”. According to a study, this tendency persists even after taking into account characteristics relevant to the labor market (e.g. employment status, working hours, marital status, actual work experience, number of children, etc.) and can be observed above all in companies in the private sector.

Federal Republic of Germany

In 1993 an empirical study by the Institute for Employment Research was published .

The unadjusted gender pay gap (GPG) in Germany for 2006 was calculated by the Federal Statistical Officeto around 23% (in the former federal territory (including Berlin) at 24%, in the new federal states at 6%). Around two thirds of this GPG can be traced back to structurally different job-relevant characteristics of men and women: the different career or branch choices between the sexes, the frequency of part-time work among women, and gender differences in training. Around 8%, 12% in the new federal states and 8% in the former federal territory, was the difference in earnings statistically adjusted for the influence of these characteristics (the “adjusted gender pay gap”). The study by the Federal Office emphasizes that the adjusted value might be even lower "if other wage-relevant properties could have been taken into account in the analysis".

A study commissioned by the Federal Ministry for Family, Seniors, Women and Youth at the WSI of the Hans Böckler Foundation was completed in 2008 and published in 2009. She examined wage differences between young professionals in their first ten years of work.

The Hans Böckler Foundation highlighted the following key influencing factors as a result of the WSI study:

• different professional preferences
• Differences in training
• professional interruptions due to raising children
• lack of promotion opportunities
• different, also discriminatory treatment of women in professional life.

According to the study, the unadjusted GPG in women with work experience up to 3 years was 18.7% and with work experience between 4 and 10 years 21.8%. In the new federal states it was 16.2 percent (on average for the group under consideration), in the old federal states (ditto) 21.6%. In East Germany the difference became smaller with increasing professional experience, in West Germany it was somewhat larger. In addition to a clear dependency on age, the study shows clear differences between economic sectors. The difference in the energy industry was relatively small at 6.9% and relatively high in the banking industry at 21.2%. In addition, the difference decreased with better training and was generally smaller for women with a university degree than for women who only had the Abiturhave, and post-doctoral women turn less than those without promotion. In an international comparison, according to the 2007 study, the unadjusted GPG in Germany was 17.3% among young professionals compared to seven other European countries in the upper third. As comparative figures were z. B. mentioned Belgium (9.4%), Denmark (9.8%), Poland (26.0%) and Spain (30.4%).

A study by the research institute of the Federal Employment Agencyfor full-time men and women, who compared wages depending on the branch, occupation and company in Germany, with the same human capital resources (training and professional experience) resulted in a wage difference of an average of 12% within the "equal" activities in the same profession and in the same company . To explain the wage difference, the distribution of full-time women and men in different companies turned out to be more important than work in different occupational groups. In its conclusions, the study indicates that the still imprecise recording of different work experience could be the cause of part of the measured difference in pay, and considers an otherwise remaining difference of only 5% to be conceivable.

A distinction between full-time and part-time employees was made in the 2005 gender data report("1st data report on equality between women and men in the Federal Republic of Germany") and resulted in lower wages for women in full-time positions compared with men. At the same time, especially in West Germany, the wages of women in part-time positions of less than 18 hours per week were higher compared with men in part-time positions; however, with regard to part-time work, the number of hours per week was not available in the statistics. In addition, the gender data report examined the extent to which the income differences can be attributed to predominantly employment in women's and men's domains; it was found that women employed full-time received a lower income than men within the respective sectors.

In its final report at the Geneva meeting in May 2011, the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) expressed concern about the ongoing disadvantage of women on the German labor market.

A study by the Association of Bavarian Businesses from 2010 came to the conclusion that in 2008 the unadjusted gender pay gap in Bavaria exceeded the overall German wage gap in Germany (29%) at 33.7%. The adjusted gender pay gap was 11%.

In January 2013, the Institut der Deutschen Wirtschaft determined an adjusted GPG of 2%. The Federal Statistical Office calculated an adjusted gender pay gap of 7%. Both are representative. The difference is that the Institut der Wirtschaft based its calculations on a woman who stays at home for a maximum of 18 months after a pregnancy. In addition, two different data sets are used. While the Federal Statistical Office referred to the salaries of 1.9 million employees, the Institute for Economics calculated with data sets of 7,500 employees.

In December 2020, the Federal Statistical Office announced that the unadjusted gender pay gap in Germany in 2019 was around 19% and the adjusted 6%. Compared to previous surveys, the wage gap between men and women has narrowed somewhat, but remains well above the EU average. Much of the pay gap is due to the fact that women often work in lower-paying industries and occupations and do not reach leadership positions as often. The differences are significant within Germany. In eastern Germany, the unadjusted gender pay gap is significantly smaller than in western Germany.

Saxony-Anhalt

In 2016, women in Saxony-Anhalt earned 2439 euros more than men, who received an average of 2395 euros. According to the head of the employment agencies Kay Senius, this is because women more often work in the public service, in authorities, in hospitals and as teachers.

Great Britain

The British statistics agency ONS calculated a gap of 9.1% for the median hourly wage for full-time employees for April 2017 , a year earlier the value was 9.1% and in 1997, when the ONS first collected data, it was 17.4%. The median wage difference, however, remained at 14.1% from 2014 to 2017. If part-time workers are also included, the values ​​remained the same from 2014 to 2017: 18.4% for median wages and 17.4% for average wages to 14.1%.

Switzerland

Equal pay now! Winterthur 2019

Based on the official statistics ( SLSE ), the wage difference for Switzerland can be calculated in two ways:

• Wage difference based on the median wage

The Federal Statistical Office (FSO) shows the median wage difference of the gross wages standardized for full-time. In the median , exceptionally high wages are less important. In 2008 the wage difference determined in this way (wage difference to the disadvantage of women as a percentage of men's wages) was 16.6%, in 2016 it was 12.0%.

• Wage difference based on the mean

If the differences in the average wages ( mean values ) are considered, as is customary in international comparison when calculating the gender pay gap, the wage difference is greater because more men than women have top salaries. For 2008, an average wage difference of 25% for the private sector and of 16.5% for the public sector at the national level (federal government) was calculated.

With the help of linear regression , it is possible to determine which portion of the wage difference can be explained by factors such as education, age, seniority, professional position, etc. and which is solely due to gender. A study from 2008 and 2010 showed that overall a good 60 percent of the wage differences can be explained by objective equipment features. No explanations could be found for almost 40 percent, so that a proportion of discrimination is suspected.

A review article from 2003 and a number of other studies showed that even after statistical control of human capital and productivity differences between the sexes, there is a clear and factual difference in pay between women and men, which, moreover, hardly changes over a longer period of time Has. In this case, one can clearly speak of gender-specific wage discrimination.

Political measures

Federal Republic of Germany

Different career choices and gender-specific labor market segregation are seen as the main reasons for the wage differences between women and men . Since career choices and labor market segregation are determined by individual and cultural factors, political measures have so far been considered to have a relatively minor impact on the wage gap between men and women.

The demands of women's organizations and professional associations have shifted in the past few years in the direction of "equal pay for work of equal value". This should further reduce the wage differences between women and men caused by gender segregation in the labor market over the next few years. Those affected have legal options in all OSCE countries.

On January 28, 2009, a hearing before the Committee for Family, Seniors, Women and Youth of the German Bundestag took place on the subject of "Equal Pay between Women and Men", based on a questionnaire comprising 56 questions, to which representatives of the following organizations and institutions as Listeners were invited: Economic and Social Science Institute (WSI), Office for Labor and Social Policy Studies BASS , IBM Germany , German Association of Women Lawyers (DJB), Harriet Taylor Mill Institute of the Berlin University of Applied Sciences , Anti-Discrimination Office Saxony, Institute of German Business ( IDW),United service union and German Chamber of Industry and Commerce (DIHT). The invited experts agreed on the decisive role of gender-specific differences in terms of time off for childcare, part-time and career choice for the gender wage gap , as well as the fact that measures such as an expansion of childcare options are also necessary for children under three years of age; on the other hand, the introduction of a collective right of action to uncover cases of discrimination in companies was only supported by some of the experts. The statements by the DJB also highlighted structural influences based on the German tax and social system, in particular a promotion of theThe high earning model and a disadvantage of egalitarian models; it also included a demand for legal changes, in particular with the AGG and the BEEG , and a reference to the particularly difficult situation of migrant women. As a result of this hearing, the Federal Ministry for Family, Seniors, Women and Youth offered employers a voluntary instrument for evaluating equal pay, called Logib-D , based on a Swiss Logib procedure, on the occasion of Equal Pay Day 2009 . Logibis based on a set of tools developed by the Office for Labor and Social Policy Studies BASS for the Federal Equal Opportunities Office EBG and the Federal BKB's procurement commission.

In the private and corporate sector, an improvement is expected through imposed strategies , for example by crediting the parental leave / parental leave time with seniority jumps in collective employment contracts, women's quotas , mandatory income information in job advertisements as well as wage and salary calculators for wage transparency , promotion of paternity leave , " dad month " , Enabling care leave for the separated parent, free kindergarten and compulsory kindergarten or income-related parental allowance .

Since January 1, 2018, employees in Germany have been able to request information about the remuneration of colleagues of the opposite sex who work in a comparable position on the basis of the Entgelttransparenzgesetz . This law is controversial because the right to information is linked to conditions and is limited to the median of the fees.

Great Britain

In Great Britain , since April 1, 2018, the Equal Pay Act has obliged companies and authorities with more than 250 employees to publish the pay gap between women and men. The aim of the regulation, which does not apply in Northern Ireland, is to create and maintain equal opportunities for women and men and thus promote gender equality in all areas of society. It was praised as exemplary in the German press. In 2017, according to the published data, women were paid less than men in eight out of ten companies in the public sectorit was nine out of ten. Women earned an average of almost ten percent less than men at the companies that disclosed their data. Although the law does not provide for sanctions for companies with a particularly large gender pay gap, commentators assume that publication alone would put pressure on companies that would get them to act. In the case of the BBC's China correspondent , Carrie Gracie, the law had practical consequences: when the station had to disclose the salaries of top earners, Gracie quit her job after 30 years in the job because of the inequality in pay for men and women and shared her anger the unequal pay in a public letter with their readers.

Iceland

In Iceland, the law on equality and equal rights for women and men , passed in 2008, was expanded in 2017 to include a regulation that aims to undo the adjusted gender pay gap in larger companies. Companies with more than 25 full-time employees must now be able to show an equal pay certificate (Icelandic Jafnlaunavottun ), which must be renewed every three years. For employers with more than 250 employees, the deadline ends on December 31, 2018; smaller companies have a little more time; Finally, companies with 25 to 89 employees must be able to present the certificate by December 31, 2021. Private consulting firms visit the companies and submit them to the state center for gender equality(Icelandic: Jafnréttisstofa) their verdict, including those who failed the exam. The Center for Gender Equality then passes this information on to the social partners . Certified companies are allowed to use the equal pay symbol. If the certificate is not presented on time or is refused by the consulting company, there is a risk of fines of up to 50,000 Icelandic kronor (May 2018: around 400 euros) per day.

Austria

The statutory requirement in Austria since the beginning of 2012 of the minimum income in job advertisements to improve applicants' scope for negotiation shows clear weaknesses in terms of content.

discourse

Albena Azmanova stated in 2012 that the second wave of the women's movement had not fully achieved its goals, including lifting the gender pay gap. Gender equality in the labor market was understood primarily as a mandate to empower women to participate in the labor market. Ultimately, however, this preserved and consolidated existing economic structures and led to the emergence of progressive neoliberalismthat contradicts feminism's underlying idea of ​​social justice. Many injustices on the labor market are not gender-specific phenomena, they are rather an indication of larger discriminatory structures that also affect social groups other than women. The demands for social justice must therefore separate from the question of gender and focus on these underlying discriminatory structures of the neoliberal economic model.

There are different views as to whether the gender pay gap is an issue that needs to be addressed. While parts of the political left see this as a worthwhile goal, the psychology professor Jordan Peterson argues against the view that equality of results, in contrast to equal opportunities , is a worthwhile goal. Experience with Scandinavian countrieswould have shown that different genders naturally assign themselves to different professions if they are free to choose. In order to achieve complete equality of results, companies would still have to ensure in all fields and at all hierarchy levels that the gender relationships are identical and, in extreme cases, dismiss employees of the opposite sex if the relationship is not right. Along with other levels of equality, such an immense state apparatus must be created to implement and monitor equality of results, which Peterson sees as a sign that leftist ideas have been taken too far. Claims for equality of results should therefore be consistently rejected.

Related concepts

There are also income differences between women with children and women without children. This is known as the Family Gap or Family Pay Gap .

A DIW report also shows, based on surveys within the framework of the Socio-Economic Panel from 2016, that there are differences in pay between people of different sexual orientation. In this context, we speak of a sexuality pay gap . On average, homosexual and bisexual men earn less than heterosexual men, are employed more often as salaried employees and less often as manual workers, are three times less likely to be civil servants, work less often in production and work more overtime.

See also

• Gender bias
• Equal Pay Day
• Labor market segregation
• Gender taxation
• Glass escalator
• Low wage group
• Wage spread
• Heinze women
• Pink Tax

literature

• 2018: International Labor Organization : Global Wage Report 2018/19: What lies behind gender pay gaps. International Labor Office, Geneva 2018, ISBN 978-92-2-031346-6 (English; PDF: 9.2 MB, 172 pages on ilo.org ).
• 2013: Anne Busch: Consequences of professional gender segregation: The contribution of segregation to the explanation of the “gender pay gap”. In the same: The occupational gender segregation in Germany: causes, reproduction, consequences. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2013, ISBN 978-3-658-01707-1 , pp. 305–334 ( reading excerpt in Google book search).
• 2010: Inga Halwachs: Employment of women in gender regimes: Great Britain, France and Sweden in comparison. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2010, ISBN 978-3-531-92363-5 ; therein: Gender Pay Gap in Great Britain: pp. 96/97; in France: pp. 149/150; in Sweden: pp. 196/197.
• 2010: Boris Hirsch: Monopsonistic Labor Markets and the Gender Pay Gap: Theory and Empirical Evidence. Springer, Heidelberg 2010, ISBN 978-3-642-10408-4 (English).
• 2009: Margareta Kreimer: Economics of Gender Difference: On the Persistence of Gender Gaps. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2009, ISBN 978-3-531-91410-7 .
• 2007: Statistics Austria : Women and Men in Austria. Statistical analysis of gender differences . Ed .: Federal Minister for Women, Media and Public Service . Vienna 2007, DNB  1010069357 ( women.bka.gv.at [PDF; 1.5 MB ]).
• 2005: Thomas Hinz, Hermann Gartner: Gender-specific wage differences in industries, occupations and companies . In: Journal of Sociology . Book 34, No. 1 , February 2005, ISSN  0340-1804 , p. 22–39 ( zfs-online.org [PDF; 292 kB ; accessed on June 8, 2013]).
• 2006: European Commission (Ed.): The gender pay gap - Origins and policy responses. A comparative review of 30 European countries . Luxembourg 2006, ISBN 92-79-02565-1 (English, PDF in the web archive; 1.07 MB [accessed on June 8, 2013] Online, PDF: 1.07 MB ( memo of November 29, 2007 in the Internet archive )) .
• 2005: Juliane Achatz: Individual and operational components of gender-specific pay - a sketch of empirical results . January 2005 ( boeckler.de [PDF; 109 kB ] Lecture at the conference of the Hans Böckler Foundation in cooperation with the DGB: “Strategies for equality between women and men in the private sector”, 20./21. January 2005 in Berlin).
• 2003: Alfonso Sousa-Poza : The Gender Wage Gap and Occupational Segregation in Switzerland, 1991–2001. In: Swiss Journal for Sociology . Volume 29, No. 3, 2003, p. 399 ff. (English; Discussion Paper No. 89, May 2003; PDF: 103 kB, 23 pages on unisg.ch ( Memento from August 18, 2016 in the Internet Archive )).
• 2002: Doris Weichselbaumer, Rudolf Winter-Ebmer : The effects of markets, politics, and society on the gender wage differential: A meta-analysis . Ed .: University of Linz . Linz January 2002 (English, PDF: 140 kB at economics.uni-linz.ac.at ( Memento from September 27, 2007 in the Internet Archive )).
• 2001: Report on the employment and income situation of women and men . Short version. In: bidding group WSI in the HBS, INIFES, research group Tondorf . Düsseldorf / Stadtbergen / Berlin July 2001 ( verdi.de [PDF; 104 kB ]).

Web links

Wiktionary: Gender Pay Gap  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Federal Statistical Office (Destatis):

• Gender Pay Gap 2019: Women earned 20% less than men. March 16, 2020.
• The difference in earnings between women and men in 2018 remained unchanged at 21%. March 14, 2019.
• The difference in earnings between women and men in Germany in 2017 was 21%. 15th March 2018.

Europe:

• Message (dpa): Study: 101 years until men and women earn the same income. In: Ihre-vorsorge.de. October 6, 2020 ("The European Trade Union Confederation gives little hope of equal pay for men and women. In a neighboring country, even less is happening").
  • European Trade Union Confederation : #GenderPayGap: End the Secrecy !. In: etuc.org. (English; overview).
• European Parliament : Gender pay gap: facts and figures (infographic). In: europarl.europa.eu. March 3, 2020 ( International Women's Day 2020 ).
• European Union (EU): The gender pay gap situation in the EU. In: europa.eu. 2020 (English, current materials; list of countries ).

Individual evidence

1. ↑ European Commission : Gender Pay Gap. ( Memento of August 16, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) In: europa.eu. August 2, 2016, accessed March 8, 2020.
2. ↑ ^{a b} Definition of the European Union (EU) 2006 in: Inga Halwachs: Employment of women in gender regimes : Great Britain, France and Sweden in comparison. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2010, ISBN 978-3-531-92363-5 , p. 42 (footnote).
3. ↑ "On average in the EU, women earn around 16% less per hour than men." In: European Commission : Combating the gender pay gap in the European Union. Luxembourg 2014, ISBN 978-92-79-36066-4 ( online at europa.eu).
4. ↑ Margareta Kreimer: Economy of Gender Difference: On the Persistence of Gender Gaps , Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2009, ISBN 978-3-531-91410-7 , p. 42.
5. ^ Anne Busch: Consequences of occupational gender segregation: The contribution of segregation to the explanation of the "gender pay gap". In: Same: The occupational gender segregation in Germany: causes, reproduction, consequences. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2013, ISBN 978-3-658-01707-1 , p. 313.
6. ↑ ^{a b} Thomas Moser: Ten Years Gender Pay Gap Mistake - A mistake turns ten years old. In: Heise online . March 18, 2017, accessed November 7, 2020 . 
7. ↑ Anett Selle: Gender Pay Gap: This is how much wage equity fluctuates regionally. In: Welt.de . February 11, 2018, accessed March 8, 2020 . 
8. ↑ ^{a b} OECD: OECD Employment Outlook - 2008 edition. Summary in German. Paris 2008, pp. 3–4 ( PDF; 414 kBon oecd.org); Quote: “In many countries there is also discrimination in the labor market, i. H. the unequal treatment of equally productive people simply because of their belonging to a certain group is still a decisive factor which increases the disparities in employment and the chances of a quality job. For example, while women's employment rates have risen significantly and the employment and pay gaps between men and women have narrowed practically everywhere, women are still on average 20% less likely to be in work than men, and you Earnings are 17% lower for the same activity.
9. ↑ ^{a b} OECD Employment Outlook. Statistical Annex. (PDF; 424 kB) OECD, 2008, accessed on July 7, 2014 .  
10. ^ ^{A b} ZDF: Gender Pay Gap: Women earn 19 percent less. December 8, 2020, accessed December 8, 2020 . 
11. ↑ ^{a b c} Claudia Finke: Differences in earnings between men and women 2006 Federal Statistical Office, Wiesbaden 2010, cf. 10.
12. ↑ Gertraude Krell, Renate Ortlieb, Barbara Sieben (eds.): Equal opportunities through personnel policy. Equality between women and men in companies and administrations . 6th, completely revised and expanded edition. Gabler, Wiesbaden 2011, ISBN 978-3-8349-6838-8 , pp. 332 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
13. ↑ ^{a b} Joachimiak, W .: Women's earnings - men's earnings: How big is the gap really? Federal Statistical Office, Wiesbaden 2013
14. ^ Press conference - Employment and career prospects for women. Retrieved April 13, 2017 . 
15. ↑ ^{a b} Federal Statistical Office: Press releases - Three quarters of the gender pay gap can be explained by structural differences - Federal Statistical Office (Destatis). March 14, 2017, accessed March 4, 2019 . 
16. ↑ ^{a b} Reinhard Bispinck, Heiner Dribbusch, Fikret Öz: Gender- specific wage differences after starting a career and in the first professional phase. (PDF; 2.0 MB) In: Study by the WSI on behalf of the Federal Ministry for Family, Seniors, Women and Youth. December 2008, accessed July 27, 2010 . P.56.  
17. ^ David Neumark: Sex Differences in Labor Markets . Routledge , London / New York 2004, ISBN 0-415-70013-2 , pp. 8 ( limited preview in Google Book Search - "The most studied question in research on sex discrimination is whether the wage gap between women and men reflects discrimination, and more specifically, what share of the gap is attributable to discrimination. By far the predominant workhorse in empirical studies of discrimination is the 'residual wage' approach developed by Blinder (1973) and Oaxaca (1973). ”).
18. ↑ Reinhard Bispinck, Heiner Dribbusch, Fikret Öz: Gender- specific wage differences after starting a career and in the first professional phase. (PDF; 2.0 MB) In: Study by the WSI on behalf of the Federal Ministry for Family, Seniors, Women and Youth. December 2008, accessed July 27, 2010 . P.56.  
19. ↑ European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions : Addressing the gender pay gap: Government and social partner actions (PDF; 1.3 MB). 2010, p. 28: "Interpreting the adjusted gap as being the only discriminatory component, however, if short of the reality. In fact, many studies find that individual characteristics, such as the level of education, tend to explain less and less of the observed gap, particularly in a context where the level of female education has been increasing. Rather, the major reasons for this gap are very often related to both horizontal and vertical segregation - or the fact that women tend to choose lower-paid professions, reach a 'glass ceiling' in their careers, or have their jobs valued less favorably. The origins of these factors could be judged as being discriminatory in themselves - that is, when they are rooted in gender stereotypes of male and female occupations. "
20. ^ Henrike Roßbach: Where womanhood is punished. In: www.sueddeutsche.de. March 6, 2019, accessed March 14, 2019 . 
21. ↑ Patrick Bernau : Why women earn less , Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, February 7, 2018.
22. ↑ Cody Cook, Rebecca Diamond, Jonathan Hall, John A. List Paul Oyer: The Gender Earnings Gap in the Gig Economy: Evidence from over a Million Rideshare Drivers , Stanford and Chicago University study, January 2018.
23. ↑ Quotation: "Other potential sources of discrimination such as discriminating behavior of customers or capital providers do not seem to play a substantial role for self-employed women." Quoted from: Lechmann, Daniel SJ, and Schnabel, Claus (2012). What explains the gender earnings gap in self-employment? (PDF; 424 kB) Institute for Employment Research (IAB), Erlangen. Page 1.
24. ↑ Lechmann, Daniel SJ, and Schnabel, Claus (2012). What explains the gender earnings gap in self-employment? (PDF; 424 kB) Institute for Employment Research (IAB), Erlangen
25. ↑ Inga Halwachs, ibid, p. 333
26. ↑ ^{a b} What are the causes? . European Commission. Retrieved February 18, 2012.
27. ^ Francine D. Blau and Lawrence M. Kahn: Gender differences in pay (PDF; 185 kB). In: The Journal of Economic Perspectives . 14, No. 4, 2000, pp. 75-99, doi: 10.1257 / jep.14.4.75 .
28. ↑ Anne Busch: The Influence of Occupational Gender Segregation on the “Gender Pay Gap”: On the Importance of Gender-Related Work Content . In: Cologne journal for sociology and social psychology . 65, No. 2, 2013, pp. 301–338, doi: 10.1007 / s11577-013-0201-1 .
29. ↑ Christine Alksnis, Serge Desmarais and James Curtis: Workforce Segregation and the Gender Wage Gap: Is “Women's” Work Valued as Highly as “Men's” . In: Journal of Applied Social Psychology . 38, No. 6, June 2008, pp. 1416-1441, doi: 10.1111 / j.1559-1816.2008.00354.x .
30. ↑ Busch, A. (2013). The influence of professional gender segregation on the “gender pay gap”. KZfSS Cologne Journal for Sociology and Social Psychology, 65 (2), 301–338.
31. ↑ Corinne A. Moss-Racusin, Science faculty's subtle gender biases favor male students , PNAS, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol 109, No. 41, pp 16474-16479. Doi: 10.1073 / pnas.1211286109
32. ↑ Measured by two standards - lower pay for women is not perceived as unfair . In: uni.aktuell (Bielefeld University), July 6, 2010. Accessed November 27, 2012.
33. ↑ Stefan Liebig, Peter Valet, Jürgen Schupp: Perceived income equality depending on the economic situation . (PDF; 389 kB) In: DIW weekly report , No. 27–28 / 2010, page 15f.
34. ^ Bowles, HR, Babcock, L., & Lai, L. (2007). Social incentives for gender differences in the propensity to initiate negotiations: Sometimes it does hurt to ask. (PDF; 508 kB) Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. 103, No. 1: 84-103, p. 84: "Four experiments show that gender differences in the propensity to initiate negotiations may be explained by differential treatment of men and women when they attempt to negotiate. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants evaluated written accounts of candidates who did or did not initiate negotiations for higher compensation. Evaluators penalized female candidates more than male candidates for initiating negotiations. In Experiment 3, participants evaluated videotapes of candidates who accepted compensation offers or initiated negotiations. Male evaluators penalized female candidates more than male candidates for initiating negotiations; female evaluators penalized all candidates for initiating negotiations. Perceptions of niceness and demandingness explained resistance to female negotiators. In experiment 4, participants adopted the candidate's perspective and assessed whether to initiate negotiations in the same scenario used in Experiment 3. With male evaluators, women were less inclined than men to negotiate, and nervousness explained this effect. There was no gender difference when evaluator was female. "
35. ^ Tracy Clark-Flory: The costs of asking for a higher salary Salon , July 30, 2007, accessed on December 15, 2010: “Bowles sums up the findings: 'What we found across all the studies is men were always less willing to work with a woman who had attempted to negotiate than with a woman who did not. They always preferred to work with a woman who stayed mum. But it made no difference to the men whether a guy had chosen to negotiate or not. '"
36. ↑ Vedantam Shankar: Salary, Gender and the Social Cost of Haggling The Washington Post , July 30th 2007, accessed on 15 December of 2010.
37. ↑ Gabriela Montell: Damned if They Do The Chronicle of Higher Education , July 31, 2007, accessed December 15, 2010.
38. ↑ Barry Gerhart & Sara Rynes: Determinants and consequences of salary negotiations by male and female MBA graduates. In: Journal of Applied Psychology , 76, 1991, pp. 256-262.
39. ↑ OECD (2002). OECD Employment Outlook , Paris: OECD. Page 88: “Even if the preference theory is useful insofar as it focuses on values, attitudes and personal preferences as potentially important determinants for the behavior of women in the labor market, it should also be noted that this behavior is influenced by the learned cultural and social values which are often seen as discriminatory to women and sometimes also to men, since certain professions and lifestyles are clichéd as 'typically male' or 'typically female'. Even if women are rarely offered a job in certain professions because they do not have the necessary qualifications, their choice of studies could at least e.g. Partly also be guided by the expectation that these employment opportunities are not open to them,
40. ^ J. Shelley Correll: Gender and the Career Choice Process: The Role of Biased Self-Assessments. In: American Journal of Sociology. Volume 106, No. 6, May 2001, pp. 1691-1730 (English; PDF: 252 kB, 41 pages on sociology.stanford.edu).
41. ^ Correll, Shelley J. (2004). Constraints into Preferences: Gender, Status and Emerging Career Aspirations. (PDF; 643 kB) American Sociological Review 69: 93-133.
42. ↑ OECD May 26, 2009. Gender biases influence the educational outcomes of boys and girls .
43. ↑ Maths and Physics: Nothing for Women? (PDF; 51 kB) Wiener Zeitung , May 20, 2008, accessed on September 10, 2012 : “Vice-Rector for Teaching at the Medical University of Vienna, Rudolf Mallinger [emphasized] that“ the success of medicine is based on the natural sciences ”. Therefore, it is also legitimate to put the scientific thinking that is in demand during the course at the center of the selection process. " 
44. ^ Rush to study medicine. Wiener Zeitung , February 22, 2010, accessed on September 10, 2012 (The proportion of female applicants in Vienna, Graz and Innsbruck was between 55.5 and 57 percent.). 
45. ↑ Medical admission test: women do worse again. Der Standard , July 23, 2010, accessed on December 13, 2010 : "Even the new" Situational Judgment Test "at Med-Uni Graz could not resolve discrepancies between the performances" 
46. ↑ In Vienna, too, aspirants for medicine fail. Der Standard , July 29, 2010, accessed on December 13, 2010 : "55 percent of the applicants were female: success rate of 43 percent disappointing" 
47. ^ Claude M. Steele: A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. (PDF; 3.5 MB) In: American Psychologist. Volume 52, No. 6, 1997, pp. 613-629.
48. ↑ Margaret Shih, Todd L. Pittinsky, Nalini Ambady: Stereotype Susceptibility: Identity, Salience and Shifts in Quantitative Performance. In: Psychological Science. Volume 10, No. 1, January 1999, pp. 80-83 (English; doi: 10.1111 / 1467-9280.00111 ).
49. ^ Elliot Aronson , TD Wilson, RM Akert: Social Psychology . 6th edition. Pearson Studium, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-8273-7359-5 , pp. 442 f . ( f # v = onepage restricted preview in the Google book search).
50. ^ David G. Myers: Psychology . 2nd Edition. Springer , Heidelberg 2008, ISBN 3-540-79032-2 , pp. 506–508 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
51. ^ Ina VS Mullis, Michael O. Martin, Ann M. Kennedy, and Pierre Foy (2007). IEA's Progress in International Reading Literacy Study in Primary School in 40 Countries (PDF; 42.3 MB). Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College. P. 3: "Girls had significantly higher reading achievement than boys in all except two countries, Luxembourg and Spain, where average achievement was equivalent between the sexes."
52. ^ Mullis, IVS, Martin, MO, & Foy, P. (with Olson, JF, Preuschoff, C., Erberber, E., Arora, A., & Galia, J.). (2008). TIMSS 2007 International Mathematics Report: Findings from IEA's Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study at the Fourth and Eighth Grades .(PDF; 15.9 MB) Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College. P. 7: "At the fourth grade, there was no difference in average mathematics achievement between boys and girls, on average across the TIMSS 2007 countries. In approximately half the countries, the difference in average achievement was negligible. Girls had higher mathematics achievement than boys in 8 countries and boys had higher achievement than girls in 12 countries. At the eighth grade, on average, girls had higher achievement than boys. Girls had higher average mathematics achievement than boys in 16 countries and boys had higher achievement than girls in 8 countries. "
53. ↑ Martin, MO, Mullis, IVS, & Foy, P. (with Olson, JF, Erberber, E., Preuschoff, C., & Galia, J.). (2008) TIMSS 2007 International Science Report: Findings from IEA's Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study at the Fourth and Eighth Grades(PDF; 15 MB). Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College. Pp. 6-7: “At both fourth and eighth grades, average science achievement for girls was higher than for boys on average across the TIMSS 2007 countries (by 3 points at fourth grade and 6 points at eighth grade). At the fourth grade, the difference in average achievement was negligible in more than half the countries, whereas girls had higher science achievement than boys in 6 countries and boys had higher achievement than girls in 8 countries. At the eighth grade, girls had higher average science achievement than boys in 14 countries and boys had higher achievement than girls in 11 countries. "
54. ↑ Difficult search for reasons for educational differences. Wiener Zeitung , June 10, 2010, accessed on April 14, 2015 : “The Timss study revealed a number of other interesting aspects: Boys do significantly better than girls in math and science. Experts see one reason for this in the lower level of motivation among girls. " 
55. ↑ ^{a b} OECD (2010), PISA 2009 Results: Summary(PDF; 2.3 MB). P. 7: “The girls do better than the boys in reading literacy in all participating countries. For much of the 20th century, the main concern regarding gender differences was the comparatively low performance of girls. For some time, however, the focus has shifted to the underperformance of boys in reading literacy. In PISA 2009, girls score better than boys on the overall reading literacy scale in all participating countries, with an OECD average of 39 points; this corresponds to over half of a competence level or a school year. On average across OECD countries, boys do 12 points better than girls on the overall mathematics scale, while there are usually only minor gender-specific differences in performance in the natural sciences. This is true both in absolute terms and in comparison to the large differences that can be observed in the area of ​​reading literacy and the rather moderate ones that can be observed in the area of ​​mathematics. The proportion of high-performing students is almost the same among boys and girls. On average across OECD countries, 4.4% of girls and 3.8% of boys achieve top results in all three subjects, and 15.6% of girls and 17.0% of boys in at least one subject. While the gap between the sexes among the top performing science students is small (1.0% of girls and 1.5% of boys), it is low in the area of ​​reading literacy (2.8% of girls and 0,
56. ↑ OECD (Ed.): PISA 2009 Results: What Students Know and Can Do - Student Performance in Reading, Mathematics and Science . 1st edition. Volume I. Paris 2010, ISBN 978-92-64-09145-0 , doi : 10.1787 / 9789264091450-en (English, online, PDF; 4.3 MB [accessed June 8, 2013] online, PDF; 4.3 MB . English. German-language edition "PISA 2009 Results: What Schoolchildren Know and Can (Volume 1 - Main Report)" currently still subject to charge.
57. ↑ Maths and Physics: Nothing for Women? Wiener Zeitung , May 21, 2008, accessed on June 20, 2015 . 
58. ↑ OECD (2002). Emplyoment Outlook, Chapter 2: Women at work: who are they and how are they faring? (PDF; 647 kB) Paris: OECD 2002, p. 68: "In the present circumstances - in which the responsibilities for child-rearing and other unpaid household work are still unequally shared among partners (OECD, 2001b) - part-time work is the preferred working arrangement for many women because it makes it easier to reconcile family responsibilities with employment. "
59. ↑ On the way to equality? Women and men in Switzerland. (PDF; 815 kB) (No longer available online.) Federal Statistical Office , 2003, pp. 8 and 38 , archived from the original on February 2, 2014 ; Retrieved January 22, 2012: “The differentiated presentation of the distribution of the labor force participation of women and men who live in a couple relationship, as well as the analysis of the influencing factors do not provide any direct indications of the“ new men ”who try to better combine work and family through part-time work. The presence of children in the household clearly leads to increased full-time employment for fathers. On the other hand, the analyzes confirm that women continue to adapt their employment to a great extent to family circumstances, with younger women being employed significantly more often than older women under the same conditions (...) In contrast, the presence of children of all ages and the growing number of children lead to an above-average figure Effort for women. " 
60. ↑ ^{a b} The higher the cash benefit, the higher the father's contribution. dieStandard.at, January 30, 2012, accessed on January 30, 2012 : " dieStandard.at : The high percentage of paternity leave for the income-dependent variant speaks in favor of the Greens' proposal to abolish the flat-rate variants and only run an income-dependent model (...) Overall, the development towards more father participation is proceeding very slowly. Do we finally need mandatory measures? Moritz: That is certainly a model that increases fathers' participation. The higher the cash benefit - this is clearly shown by the evaluation of the fathers participation - the higher the fathers participation (...) The right to a dad month would definitely make sense. We also have a dad month in the Chamber of Labor, and I just see that the employers perceive fathers more in their father role. And the men want that too. They will be strengthened in this by a dad month. " 
61. ↑ ^{a b c Council} Directive 2010/18 / EU of March 8, 2010 for the implementation of the revised framework agreement on parental leave concluded by BUSINESSEUROPE, UEAPME, CEEP and ETUC and for the repeal of Directive 96/34 / EC , accessed on January 21 2012 "20th Experience in the Member States shows that the level of parental leave allowance is one of the factors influencing the use of parental leave, especially by fathers; "
62. ↑ Share of part-time employment among women four times as high as among men. In: Labor Force Survey - Gaps between the employment rates of men and women narrowed in the EU27. Eurostat , 13 November 2008, retrieved on 22 January 2012 : “In the EU27, 30.7% of employed women and 6.9% of employed men worked part-time in 2007 ³ . The proportions have changed only slightly since 2000, when 28.7% of employed women and 5.9% of employed men worked part-time. "  
63. ↑ Mothers are increasingly working part-time. Federal Statistical Office , October 14, 2009, archived from the original on November 16, 2012 ; Accessed on January 12, 2013 : “According to the Federal Statistical Office (Destatis), the proportion of part-time mothers in Germany has risen sharply over the past ten years. In 2008, 69% of working mothers who looked after minor children in the household worked part-time. In 1998 it was just over half (53%). The part-time quota increased by 16 percentage points during this period. "  
64. ↑ Part-time, part-time quota. Statistics Austria , December 16, 2011, accessed on January 22, 2012 : “Part-time work was typical for women in 2010 as well. An average of 43.8% of women worked part-time in 2010 (2009: 42.9%). In contrast, the proportion of employed men who work part-time is only 9.0% (2009: 8.7%). In absolute terms, significantly more women worked part-time than men in 2010 (198,000 men and 832,000 women). "  
65. ↑ On the way to equality? Women and men in Switzerland. (PDF; 815 kB) Federal Statistical Office , 2003, p. 5 f. , archived from the original on February 2, 2014 ; accessed on January 22, 2012 : “Especially mothers with children under 15 years of age are much more frequently employed than they were 10 years ago; these are mainly women who work part-time. "  
66. ↑ Michelle J Budig and Paula England : The wage penalty for motherhood (PDF; 3.1 MB). In: American Sociological Review . 66, No. 2, 2001, pp. 204-225, doi: 10.2307 / 2657415
67. ↑ Deborah J. Anderson, Melissa Binder and Kate Krause: The Motherhood Wage Penalty Revisited: Experience, Heterogeneity, Work Effort, and Work-Schedule Flexibility (PDF; 621 kB). In: Industrial and Labor Relations Review . 56, No. 2, 2003, pp. 273-294.
68. ↑ Sarah Avellar and Pamely J. Smock: Has the price of motherhood DECLINED overtime? A cross-cohort comparison of the motherhood wage penalty ( Memento of December 18, 2013 in the Internet Archive ). In: Journal of Marriage and the Family . 65, No. 3, pp. 597-607, doi: 10.1111 / j.1741-3737.2003.00597.x .
69. ↑ Emplyoment Outlook, Chapter 2: Women at work: who are they and how are they faring? (PDF; 647 kB) OECD, Paris 2002, p. 108.
70. ↑ Shelley Correll, Stephen Benard and In Paik: Getting a job: Is there a motherhood penalty? In: American Journal of Sociology . 112, No. 5, 2007, pp. 1297-1338, doi: 10.1086 / 511799 .
71. ↑ Nancy Folbre: The Anti-Bias Mommy . In: The New York Times , March 26, 2009.
72. ↑ Ellen Goodman: A third gender in the workplace . In: Boston Globe , May 11, 2007.
73. ↑ Kathleen Fuegen1, Monica Biernat, Elizabeth Haines and Kay Deaux: Mothers and Fathers in the Workplace: How Gender and Parental Status Influence Judgments of Job-Related Competence . In: Journal of Social Issues . 60, No. 4, December 2004, pp. 737-754, doi: 10.1111 / j.0022-4537.2004.00383.x .
74. ^ Mothers in the workplace held to stricter standards, study suggests ( Memento from October 25, 2013 in the Internet Archive ). In: Research News , Ohio State University.
75. ↑ 30 Years of Paternity Leave , Radio Sweden, July 6, 2004, accessed February 18, 2012
76. ^ Report on the job and income situation of women and men, on behalf of the Federal Ministry for Family, Seniors, Women and Youth. (PDF; 1.5 MB) July 2001, accessed on February 18, 2012 ( Introduction, pp. 113–114 and Chapter 1, p. 115 ). 
77. ^ Claudia Goldin : A Grand Gender Convergence: Its Last Chapter. In: American Economic Review PROOF, 104, No. 4, 2014, 1–30, here pp. 4 and 20.
78. ↑ ^{a b c} Barbara Vorsamer: Different earnings of men and women. The irreplaceable ones , in: Süddeutsche Zeitung of March 6, 2014.
79. ↑ ^{a b c} Claudia Goldin : A Grand Gender Convergence: Its Last Chapter. In: American Economic Review PROOF, 104, No. 4, 2014, 1–30, here p. 26f.
80. ↑ Jürgen Faik / Tim Köhler-Rama: The Gender Pension Gap - A Critical Examination, 2012, online ( Memento from December 22, 2014 in the Internet Archive )
81. ↑ Selma Stern: wage gap. Why do women earn less than men? , Zeit Online, June 14, 2012. Article available as pdf from the Friedrich Schiller University Jena website ( Memento from December 21, 2014 in the Internet Archive )
82. ↑ Thomas Prior: Mitterlehner: "We should raise the retirement age for women". Die Presse , November 23, 2011, accessed on January 20, 2012 : “I cannot speak of gender justice and ignore this area. Alignment would also be in the interests of women: If you consider that many career steps are made in the last few years of the job, the earlier retirement age is one of the reasons for the income gap. " 
83. ↑ Brigitte Pechar: Women, do you want to work longer? Wiener Zeitung , November 17, 2011, accessed on January 20, 2012 : “(...) this was also intended to compensate for the double burden of women and the lower wages for women. Labor market expert Gudrun Biffl explained to the “Wiener Zeitung” that the low retirement age is now “discrimination, especially for qualified women”. This is especially true in a knowledge society. Children in particular would shorten the working phases of women anyway, which is why they would start their careers much later, but would no longer make career jumps due to the early retirement age. Biffl: "That not only means that women lose money during their working life, but also have a much lower pension later on." " 
84. ^ ÖVP: Women should retire later from 2016/17. Die Presse , November 20, 2011, accessed January 20, 2012 . 
85. ↑ Annick Ehmann, Oliver Fritsch: Women's football: The pay gap also exists among women. In: Zeit Online . November 7, 2019, accessed March 9, 2020 . 
86. ↑ Anke van de Weyer: Closing the gender pay gap: Same game - same money. In: Deutschlandfunk Nova . February 25, 2019, accessed March 9, 2020 (with audio: 3:13 minutes). 
87. ↑ Data from the OECD, OECD Employment Database: Gender wage gap ; Accessed September 19, 2014
88. ↑ Unadjusted gender pay gap in an EU comparison. Federal Statistical Office , March 1, 2012, archived from the original on November 13, 2012 ; Retrieved April 10, 2013 . 
89. ^ European Commission Justice: Tackling the gender pay gap in the European Union, Publication of the European Union. Luxembourg 2014, p. 10/11 (English; PDF on europa.eu ).
90. ↑ Gender Pay Gap Statistic ( Memento from May 12, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 257 kB). In: Workplace Gender Equity Agency of the Australien Government , February 2013.
91. ↑ Frequently asked questions about pay equity ( Memento of May 3, 2013 in the Internet Archive ). Department of Commerce. Retrieved July 21, 2013.
92. ↑ ^{a b} National Center for Social and Economic Modeling: The impact of a sustained gender wage gap on the economy ( Memento from December 1, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 338 kB). A report commissioned by the Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs , September 2009.
93. ^ Ian Watson: Decomposing the Gender Pay Gap in the Australian Managerial Labor Market (PDF; 397 kB). In: Australian Journal of Labor Economics . 13, No. 1, 2010, pp. 49-79.
94. ↑ ^{a b} Nerina Vecchio, Paul A. Scuffham, Michael F. Hilton and Harvey A. Whiteford: Differences in wage rates for males and females in the health sector: a consideration of unpaid overtime to decompose the gender wage gap (PDF; 250 kB ). In: Human Resources for Health . 11, No. 9, 2013, pp. 1-11, doi: 10.1186 / 1478-4491-11-9 , PMID 23433245 .
95. ^ ^{A b} Paul W. Miller: The Role of Gender among Low-Paid and High-Paid Workers . In: Australian Economic Review . 38, No. 4, December 2005, pp. 405-417, doi: 10.1111 / j.1467-8462.2005.00383.x .
96. ↑ ^{a b c} Hiao Joo Kee: Glass Ceiling or Sticky Floor? Exploring the Australian Gender Pay Gap (PDF; 386 kB). In: The Economic Record . 82, No. 259, December 2006, pp. 408-427, doi: 10.1111 / j.1475-4932.2006.00356.x .
97. ↑ Result: at that time only a relatively small proportion of the income gap between the sexes was attributable to differences in human capital resources. There remains a significant proportion of discrimination even if the income differences between women and men are adjusted for various variables. Diekmann, Andreas, Henriette Engelhardt and Paul Hartmann (1993). Income Inequality in the Federal Republic of Germany: Discrimination against Women and Foreigners? (PDF; 2.2 MB) Communications from occupational research, 26,386-398. “It turns out that a significant proportion of discrimination remains even if the difference in income between women and men is adjusted for differences in training, professional experience, working hours and labor force participation. The gender-related discrimination component turns out to be stronger than the extent of discrimination based on nationality [...] However, empirical studies based on German data come to the conclusion that only a relatively small proportion of the income gap between the sexes is due to differences in human capital [...] "
98. ↑ Gender Pay Gap: Two thirds can be explained structurally ( Memento from November 15, 2012 in the Internet Archive ), press release No. 384 from October 25, 2010, Federal Statistical Office Germany (use of data permitted according to copyright regulations )
99. ↑ Gender-specific wage differences after starting a career and in the first professional phase , study by the WSI on behalf of the Federal Ministry for Family, Seniors, Women and Youth, December 2008 (PDF; 2 MB); associated press release
100. ↑ ^{a b c d e} press release ( memento of October 4, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) on the WSI study, 2009
101. ↑ Thomas Hinz, Hermann Gartner: Wage differences between women and men in industries, occupations and companies. (PDF; 737 kB) In: IAB Discussion Paper No. 4/2005. Retrieved May 2, 2010 . P. 3. , p. 23. 
102. ↑ Literally: "The distribution of full-time employed women and men in different companies is more important to explain the wage difference in all research years than the activity in different occupational groups" Thomas Hinz, Hermann Gartner: Wage differences between women and men in industries, occupations and companies. (PDF; 737 kB) In: IAB Discussion Paper No. 4/2005. Retrieved May 2, 2010 . P. 31. 
103. ↑ Thomas Hinz, Hermann Gartner: Wage differences between women and men in industries, occupations and companies. (PDF; 737 kB) In: IAB Discussion Paper No. 4/2005. Retrieved May 2, 2010 .  Pp. 31-32.
104. ↑ Waltraud Cornelißen (ed.): Gender data report. 1. Data report on equality between women and men in the Federal Republic of Germany . Federal Ministry for Family, Seniors, Women and Youth , Munich November 2005, DNB  978296036 , p. 159-223 . in the chapter: Waltraud Cornelißen, Christian Dressel, Vera Lohel: 3. Income from work for women and men. Archived from the original on May 14, 2013 ; Retrieved June 8, 2013 . 
105. ↑ Concluding Observations of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Germany Points C15 and C16, p. 4 (pdf. Engl .; 63 kB)
106. ↑ Markus C. Schulte von Drach: United Nations “deeply concerned” about social policy “Germany fails in the fight against poverty,” Süddeutsche Zeitung , July 6, 2011
107. ↑ Myths and facts about the gender pay gap. An analysis for Germany and Bavaria. (PDF; 2.3 MB) Association of Bavarian Economy V., October 2010, archived from the original on July 20, 2015 ; Retrieved March 25, 2014 .  
108. ↑ Institute of the German Economy: Only 2 percent difference in salary. January 14, 2013, accessed March 4, 2019 . 
109. ↑ Steffi Fetz: How big is the difference really? . In: Zeit.de , March 21, 2013
110. ↑ Wages in the country have risen: women earn more than men. In: Volksstimme Magdeburg. August 4, 2017. Retrieved August 5, 2017 . 
111. ↑ ^{a b} Alexandra Topping: What you need to know about gender pay gap reporting. In: theguardian.com. April 11, 2018, accessed May 29, 2018 . 
112. ↑ Median wage differences ( memento of November 16, 2011 in the Internet Archive ), Federal Statistical Office, accessed on December 7, 2011
113. ↑ wage difference. Federal Statistical Office, accessed on April 23, 2019 . 
114. ^ ^{A b} Silvia Strub, Désirée Stocker: Analysis of wages for women and men based on the 2008 wage structure survey. Current developments in the private sector and the situation in the federal public sector - final report. (PDF; 1424 kB) BASS office, Bern, September 30, 2010, accessed on January 19, 2019 (published as a publication by the Swiss Federal Statistical Office with the FSO number "bass_2010-01"). 
115. ↑ Silvia Strub, Michael Gerfin, Aline Buetikofer: Comparative analysis of the wages of women and men based on the wage structure surveys from 1998 to 2006. Study as part of the evaluation of the effectiveness of the Equal Opportunities Act - final report. (PDF; 767 kB) Working Group Office for Labor and Social Policy Studies BASS AG and Economics Institute of the University of Bern, September 16, 2008, accessed on January 19, 2019 (Published as a publication by the Swiss Federal Statistical Office with the FSO number "bass_2008 -01 "). 
116. ^ Sousa-Poza, A. (2003). "The Gender Wage Gap and Occupational Segregation in Switzerland, 1991–2001" . Swiss journal for sociology . 29, No. 3, 2003, 399-415.
117. ↑ Kugler, P. (1988). Wage Discrimination in Switzerland. Microdata evidence. Swiss Journal for Economics and Statistics , 124, 23–47.
118. ↑ Brüderl, J., Diekmann, A., Engelhardt, H. (1993). Income differences between women and men in Switzerland. Swiss Journal of Sociology , 19, 573–588.
119. ^ Diekmann, A., Engelhardt, H. (1995). Income inequality between women and men. An econometric analysis of the Swiss labor force survey. Swiss Journal for Economics and Statistics , 131, 57–83.
120. ↑ Bonjour, D. (1997). Wage Discrimination in Switzerland: An Econometric Study .
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122. ^ Henneberger, F., Sousa-Poza, A. (1999a). Gender wage discrimination. Latest evidence from the microdata from the Swiss Labor Force Survey. Swiss Journal of Sociology , 25, 259–279.
123. ^ Henneberger, F., Sousa-Poza, A. (1999b). Women and men in the Swiss labor market. Social Security. Journal for labor market and social policy . 48, pp. 18-21.
124. ^ Y. Flückiger, J. Ramirez: Analyze Comparative des Salaires Entre les Hommes et les Femmes sur la Base de la LSE 1994 et 1996 . In: Observatoire Universitaire de l'Emploi, University of Geneva, 2002.
125. ^ A. Souza-Poza: Labor Market Segmentation and the Gender Wage Gap: An Industry-Level Analysis For Switzerland . In: Cahiers Economiques de Bruxelles . 45, 2002, pp. 91-118.
126. ↑ See BT-Drucksachen 16/11175, 16/11192, 16/8784; Reject printed matter 16 (13) 419a new
127. ↑ Astrid Ziegler: Answering the questionnaire on the public hearing of the Committee for Family, Seniors, Women and Youth on the subject of "Equal Pay between Women and Men". (PDF; 106 kB) WSI, Hans Böckler Foundation, accessed on July 28, 2010 . 
128. ↑ ^{a b} Opinion of the expert Silvia Strub (Office for Labor and Social Policy Studies BASS) on the hearing on the subject of "Equal Pay between Women and Men", Committee Drs. 16, no. 13419a new
129. ↑ ^{a b} Equal pay between women and men. Opinion of January 21, 2009 on the public hearing in the Committee on Family, Seniors, Women and Youth of the German Bundestag on Wednesday, January 28, 2009. German Association of Women Lawyers, archived from the original on October 22, 2014 ; Retrieved July 28, 2010 . 
130. ↑ Childcare offer is decisive. Hearing in the women's committee on three opposition motions. (No longer available online.) German Bundestag, January 28, 2009, archived from the original on December 9, 2009 ; Retrieved July 28, 2010 . 
131. ↑ Christina Klenner, Astrid Ziegler: With Logib-D to overcome the gender-specific pay gap? The limits of voluntary company self-tests. (PDF; 65 kB) In: WSI Report March 03 , 2010, accessed on July 28, 2010 . 
132. ↑ AK welcomes 16 months of waiting periods in the metal industry. Chamber of Labor , October 18, 2011, accessed January 24, 2012 .  
133. ↑ Crediting of waiting periods: GPA-djp draws a positive balance. Union of Private Employees, Print, Journalism, Paper , October 18, 2011, accessed on January 24, 2012 : " Katzian :" The wage brake for women has been significantly eased this year ""  
134. ↑ Nicolaus Mels-Colloredo: Obligation for salary information in job advertisements. (No longer available online.) Wirtschaftsblatt , September 1, 2011, archived from the original on September 24, 2011 ; accessed on January 24, 2012 : "The main aim of the amendment was to reduce discrimination in the world of work and to promote economic and social participation by improving income transparency and counteract social exclusion."  
135. ↑ Wage and salary calculator. Federal Ministry for Women and Public Service, October 2011, accessed on January 24, 2012 : "With the salary calculator you can find out in a few minutes whether your pay is fair."  
136. ↑ Real men take maternity leave. Federal Ministry for Women and Public Service, 2011, archived from the original on January 22, 2012 ; accessed on January 24, 2012 : “More men on parental leave, that is an important key to more equal opportunities in our country. Therefore: on parental leave - everyone benefits from it. "  
137. ↑ Mitterlehner starts discussion about Papamonat. Die Presse , December 30, 2011, accessed on January 24, 2012 : “For federal civil servants, Papamonat has been a reality since the beginning of 2011. Since then, fathers have been able to stay at home for a month after the birth of their child. During this time you will not receive any salary, but the costs for social security will continue to be borne by the federal government. "  
138. ↑ 1417 of the supplements to the stenographic minutes of the National Council XXIV GP. Austrian Parliament , October 4, 2011, accessed on January 24, 2012 : “A prerequisite for taking care leave is that you share a household with the sick child. In the event of separations / divorces, the common household is almost always dissolved. The child, even if it maintains close contact with both parents or joint custody has been agreed, will only be registered with one parent as their main residence. The consequence of this is that the parent who is separated from the child cannot take any care leave. "  
139. ↑ Reform care leave. Community Workers Union , archived from original on April 18, 2012 ; accessed on January 24, 2012 : " 2. Elimination of the common household The aim of this requirement is to enable parents living separately to look after their children or, if they are prevented, the legal guardians living in the common household."  
140. ↑ Nursing leave for “fathers of divorce” required. ORF , January 22, 2010, accessed on January 24, 2012 : "On Thursday, the Graz municipal council dared to venture into family law: Parents who do not live with their children should also be allowed to take care leave."  
141. ↑ Free kindergarten and mandatory attendance. Federal Ministry of Economics, Family and Youth , archived from the original on December 28, 2011 ; Retrieved January 24, 2012 .  
142. ^ Federal Ministry of Economics, Family and Youth : Questions and Answers on Parental Allowance. ( Memento from December 28, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) In: bmwfj.gv.at. 2011, accessed March 7, 2020.
143. ↑ Carina Kerschbaumer: Up to 2000 euros for parents. Kleine Zeitung , April 25, 2009, accessed on January 22, 2012 : “ Incentive for fathers. Parents will be able to draw 80 percent of their final net income for 14 months after the birth, provided the second partner also takes two months on parental leave. In order not to disadvantage those who earn little too much, a minimum of one thousand euros is introduced. The maximum amount will be 2000 euros per month. “We use it to record over 90 percent of income earners. I hope that this will also bring more fathers on board. The 80 percent are a great incentive, "says Marek, referring to Germany. Over the past three years, the number of fathers participating in parental leave has increased to 20 percent. In Austria it is four percent for child care allowance with the long-term variant of 36 months. " 
144. ↑ Father cannot afford parental leave. Kleine Zeitung , January 21, 2008, accessed January 22, 2012 .  
145. ↑ Bernd Kramer: Transparency Act: Why you won't find out what your colleagues earn in 2018 either | TIME work . In: The time . January 6, 2018, ISSN  0044-2070 ( zeit.de [accessed January 9, 2018]).
146. ↑ EntgTranspG - Act to promote pay transparency between women and men. Retrieved January 9, 2018 . 
147. ↑ New right to information: This is how you might find out what your colleagues earn . In: Spiegel Online . January 6, 2018 ( spiegel.de [accessed January 9, 2018]).
148. ^ Text of the law, English , accessed on June 5, 2018.
149. ↑ Andrea Rexer: Now we can start with equality. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung, April 4, 2018, accessed on June 5, 2018.
150. ↑ ^{a b c} Cathrin Kahlweit, Andrea Rexer: Honesty hurts. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung, April 5, 2018, accessed on June 5, 2018.
151. ↑ China correspondent for the BBC quits because of a wage gap. The publication of the BBC top salaries has consequences: BBC journalist Carrie Gracie is vacating her post. She wants to ensure that women are paid more fairly. In: zeit.de , January 8, 2018, accessed June 5, 2018.
152. ↑ ^{a b} Stefán Ólaffson on behalf of the European Social Policy Network (ESPN): Iceland: Equal pay certification legalized. In: ESPN Flash Report 2017/55, July 2017, accessed May 26, 2018.
153. ↑ ^{a b} https://www.government.is/topics/human-rights-and-equality/equal-pay-certification/ Ministry of Welfare: Questions and Answers on equal pay certification. , January 30, 2018, accessed May 26, 2018.
154. ↑ Karin Bauer: Salary information: Only well meant. Der Standard , January 2012, accessed on January 21, 2012 (KV = collective agreement ): “Although most of the searching companies now adhere to the legal requirements, either the lowest KV ratings are published for high-quality positions, while those for higher positions are rather uninteresting (there is a "managing director" of a fairly large company with an annual gross of 80,000 or a division manager with 650 employees for just under 23,000 euros annual gross). " 
155. ↑ Albena Azmanova: De-gendering social justice in the 21st century: An immanent critique of neoliberal capitalism: . In: European Journal of Social Theory . January 11, 2012, doi : 10.1177 / 1368431011423576 ( sagepub.com [accessed December 9, 2020]).
156. ^ Jordan Peterson: When the left goes too far - the dangerous doctrine of equity. Retrieved December 9, 2020 (Canadian English). 
157. ↑ Gay men earn less than straight men. In: Spiegel online. August 31, 2017, accessed August 31, 2017 . 
158. ^ Martin Kroh, Simon Kühne, Christian Kipp and David Richter: Income, social networks, life satisfaction: lesbians, gays and bisexuals in Germany; in: DIW weekly report no.35, 2007