Female profession

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Kindergarten teacher in Leezen (1983)

The term women's occupation is generally used to refer to jobs that are predominantly or almost exclusively carried out by women . This includes activities in the area of ​​nursing ( nurse ), interior cleaning of buildings ( “cleaning lady” / “cleaning lady”) and child rearing ( educator ) as well as those in professional fields that deal with cosmetics or hairstyling . While the proportion of women in male-dominated areas such as the police is steadily increasing, only a few male applicants opt for professions in these fields .

term

There are no uniformly delimited definitions for the gender-specific determination of occupations. In principle, a female occupation is an activity that is carried out “exclusively or at least by the majority of women” or whose proportion of women is over 70%, which must be seen against a historical and social background with a view to the prevailing traditional division of roles between women and men are accordingly to be regarded as formative for the gender-specific CV pattern. A female occupation can be characterized, among other things, by the following characteristics: low qualifications, low pay and working conditions. Part-time employment , a comparatively low income (so-called gender pay gap ) and marginal employment predominate in traditional female occupations . Typical professional fields dominated by women can be found predominantly in the personal service professions in the areas of health care, social affairs and education, gastronomy, hairdressing, pastoral care, cleaning and guest care. Continue to count librarian and veterinarian but also to the women's jobs. One of the oldest female professions is obstetrician .

Criticism of the term

It can be criticized that the term “alone is not very meaningful. In other words, the information content of the statement that a job is, for example, a woman's job is low without further explanation. For this reason alone, the term women’s occupation does not yet offer any approaches, for example for women’s policy or for measures to promote women in vocational training and employment policy . "

Furthermore, the term is used to build an image that is sometimes associated with negative, discriminatory assignments, such as "the idea of ​​the 'low-wage' job " and the " high-earning image ". However, Shahanah Schmid notes that “there are no professions that can only be exercised by one gender 'by nature'.” A guide for women published in 1990, which presented 44 professions rated as relatively crisis-proof at the time, took itself in spite of it referring to the title referring to women and "deliberately omitting typical female professions such as hairdresser, educator or nurse [...]".

Women's Professions in History

Roman Empire

In the Roman Empire there was officially no women's work , as it corresponded to the worldview at that time that the man was responsible for the work. The woman, on the other hand, should take care of the household. Even of working female slaves is very seldom mentioned in Roman literature. There is at most the, mostly unfree, vilica . A vilica was the wife of a vilicus and she and her husband were responsible for the maintenance of an estate.

However, there are numerous examples of women's work in the Roman Empire, which are documented by inscriptions. There were a total of 103 female professions that also come close to today's role stereotype. The professions of wet nurse , midwife , educator and doctor were among the most popular. For the slaves who worked in the home environment, the work of the hairdresser or beautician was one of the most common fields of activity. In the Roman Empire, for example, women also worked as saleswomen . They were rarely found in manual professions. However, professions that dealt with the textile trade were an exception .

In the Roman Empire there were also the professions of actress , dancer and musician . However, all of these professions were frowned upon and they were often associated with prostitution . It was the same with the barmaid.

middle Ages

Even in the Middle Ages, women were often involved in textile manufacturing. There were, for example, the professions of furrier , tailor, seamstress and hat maker . Women also worked as merchants , often selling the products made by their husbands. In the country they often hired themselves as sellers of goods that were produced on their own farm. These included eggs , herbs , berries and soap , for example .

In medieval Hamburg, the profession of shopkeeper was most often carried out by women. Professions that dealt with obstetrics were mainly carried out by women in the Middle Ages. On the one hand, this was done for moral reasons, on the other hand, pregnancy and childbirth were among the "natural tasks of women". The prostitute profession, though viewed very badly, was practiced and offered women an option to make money.

Between the years 1340 and 1400 there were a total of 1322 traders in medieval Hamburg, 77 of whom were female. This corresponds to eight percent. A total of 98 trades were listed; eight of them were exercised by women. For the majority of women in medieval Germany and Europe it was a matter of course to be gainfully employed, also and especially in today's “male professions” and in the guilds of the trades. Typical professions were woolen weavers, butchers, shoemakers and saddlers, areas in which women could also work as masters and take on a role in the guild, but could not represent them politically.

Modern times

Even in modern times, women often work as midwives. During this time, the profession of midwife was reserved for women, as men were not given practical training in gynecology . At that time midwives had to be married or widowed and have given birth to a child themselves. Midwife was a training occupation in the cities and the reputation, lifestyle and behavior of midwives were under council supervision. Since midwives needed a “good reputation and good hands” according to the Midwifery Ordinance, they were often exempt from hard work in the countryside.

In modern times there were also women who took up artistic professions, such as the artist , copperplate engraver , painter , embroiderer , enamel artist , sculptor or calligrapher . However, they were not encouraged well, so that they were often unable to fully develop their talent.

There were also actresses and singers who had mostly appeared in the theater since the 18th century. They have become increasingly established since the 19th century. Musicians who played for the nobility were trained in the home.

Development since 1850

Postage stamp made of paper, between 1850 and 1923. Text: "Städtische Schule für Frauenberufe in Leipzig"

Already Luise Büchner , sister of the writer Georg Buchner , had proposed 1,856 schools for women to assure them later "a pretty good job." Home economics and technical and accounting lessons were offered to women in Germany from around 1850. Another pioneer in this field is Emilie Wüstenfeld , on whose initiative one of the first “schools for women’s professions ” was founded as a vocational school for girls in Hamburg in 1867 , following the university for women . Since 1921 it has been called the State School for Women's Professions , its current name is Department Design . The Moritzbastei in Leipzig also served as a school for women's professions in the 1920s and 1930s. As early as 1915 there was a municipal school for women's professions. In addition to bookkeeping and bookkeeping , schools for women's professions were trained as kindergarten teachers, elementary school teachers and trade teachers, as well as arts and crafts and seamstresses .

In addition to these separate school facilities, there were also separate textbooks for training women, such as the bookkeeping textbook for technical schools for economics. Women professions u. Home economics schools by Gottfried Bernhart. The development of women's professions is closely related to the prevailing legal basis. In Germany, the so-called “parity marriage model” has only existed since 1977, according to which, according to Section 1356: “Housekeeping, Employment.” Of the Civil Code of the Federal Republic of Germany, both spouses may be employed , which takes into account a certain freedom of choice on the part of the woman. In the version of the paragraph from 1896, housekeeping was still considered a woman's duty, as was the work in the man’s business, if this was customary. The law stipulated in the mid-1970s "that a married woman had to have permission from her spouse if she wanted to pursue a profession". With this change in Paragraph 1356 on July 1, 1977, this regulation no longer applies. Up until July 1, 1958, the (wife) woman was only allowed to work (with a choice of profession) if this was compatible with family and marriage. Until then, the man was also allowed to terminate his wife's employment contract without her consent. There was also a rule that teachers had to quit their profession as soon as they got married.

Percentage of women in today's professional world

A study from 2014 found that the majority of all occupations on the German labor market are either predominantly women or men and that there are only a few occupational fields in which both genders are equally represented. The areas of care, education, cleaning and simple office work were still among the women's domains , while the technical and manufacturing professions were still men's domains . An increase in the proportion of women was particularly evident in the service sector as well as in highly qualified and academic professions. In the period examined from 1976 to 2010, the proportion of women in employment subject to social insurance increased from 38% to 45%.

Special case of prostitution

License of a prostitute in Cairo in 1885

The prostitution as the provision of sexual services against payment has always been a predominantly by women for men activity performed. It is a special case because it does not, as is usually the case with professions , require qualified training. However, it is carried out as a job in the context of casual prostitution . It has been and is assessed differently and socially stigmatized in different countries and cultures . It is subject to prohibitions and taboos as well as tacit tolerance.

The sex researcher Günter Amendt stated in 2003 that the classification of prostitution as a "normal female profession" was an overshooting provocation of the feminists of the 1970s and that trafficking in women and forced prostitution were profitable branches of organized crime , but on the other hand he affirmed that Prostitutes should have the right to “employment and insurance protection”. This had been implemented in Germany two years earlier with the Prostitution Act , but was largely unsuccessful. With regard to prostitution, Germany, like the Netherlands, Switzerland, Greece and Austria, follows the decriminalization principle "which recognizes sex work as a form of gainful employment and wants to regulate it accordingly". For 2011 it was stated that between 60 and 70% of the estimated 200,000 prostitutes in Germany were self-employed; the turnover achieved through prostitution was estimated at 14.5 billion euros annually for Germany in 2003. As part of the whore movement , various organizations of the predominantly female sex workers have formed.

New tendencies

In the police force in the Federal Republic of Germany in the post-war period, women were initially organized in the female criminal police (WKP) and were integrated into the criminal police from the 1970s . In 1974, Rhineland-Palatinate was the first federal state to train women as traffic police officers. Initially, it was planned that they should only help with traffic control and accident recording; they should not carry a weapon, but instead call their male colleagues for help in critical situations. The police started hiring female police officers in 1979, starting in Hamburg in 1979 and ending with Bavaria in 1990.

Girls' Day at the Berlin Foreign Ministry (2013)

Girls' Day has been taking place in Germany every year since 2001 , sometimes also called “Future Day for Girls and Boys”. Its original goal is to interest girls from the 5th grade onwards in typical male domains and thus to break the gender-specific occupation of certain professions. Similar initiatives exist in Austria and Switzerland. However, according to Ortwin Renn , due to the uniqueness and the lack of continuity for the students , the effect is questioned and according to a study by the Allensbach opinion research institute from 2014 only two percent of the girls can imagine pursuing a technical career path.

In 2013, the proportion of women in executive board positions was estimated at around 6.6%. With the aim of strengthening professional equality in management positions in business and administration, from 2016, [obsolete] legally stipulated, German listed companies and companies in the federal public service that are subject to co-determination as well as federal public service companies must 30% of their supervisory board or management positions, the latter 2018 [obsolete] to 50%, with women. Companies that are listed or subject to co-determination will be required to introduce a women's quota for supervisory and executive board positions as well as upper and middle management from mid-2015 , but are much more flexible, although the disclosure requirement applies.

See also

literature

  • Dorothea Keuler: Ungrateful work. The bitterly evil history of women's professions . Attempto Verlag, Tübingen 1997, ISBN 3-89308-193-3 .
  • Ilse Costas, Bettina Roß, Stefan Suchi: Gender standardization of subjects and careers in transition . In: Historical Social Research . tape 25 , no. 2 , 2000, pp. 23–53 , urn : nbn: de: 0168-ssoar-31613 .
  • Jae-Baek Ko: The popularization of science and the profession of women: Discourse on health, hygienic families and the role of women in the family magazine “ Die Gartenlaube ” in the second half of the 19th century . Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main 2008, ISBN 978-3-631-57723-3 , 2nd health discourse and women's profession. and 3. The hygienic family and women's professions. .
  • Christina Holtz-Bacha (Ed.): Stereotypes? Springer, Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2008, ISBN 978-3-531-90994-3 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-531-90994-3 (balance of 50 years of research on advertising and gender stereotypes).

Web links

Wiktionary: Women's job  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ "predominantly exercised by women" in: duden.de: Keyword women's job. Retrieved July 4, 2015 .
  2. ↑ Bernd Kramer, Marie-Charlotte Maas, Jonas Nonnenmann, Verena Töpper: Men in women's professions “Are these all your children?” In: Spiegel Online. October 6, 2011, accessed July 1, 2015 .
  3. ↑ Women can police too. In: Hans Boeckler Foundation. 2013, accessed July 4, 2015 .
  4. ↑ Living according to the cliché. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung. December 22, 2010, accessed July 1, 2015 .
  5. ↑ a b c d Barbara Meifort: Qualifications, wages and working conditions of nursing staff: a woman-specific job description . Retrieved July 1, 2015 .
  6. ↑ Little change in the professional spectrum of women and men. In: Institute for Employment Research. May 6, 2014, accessed July 1, 2015 .
  7. ^ Anne Busch: The professional gender segregation in Germany. Causes, reproduction, consequences . Springer-Verlag, 2013, ISBN 978-3-658-01707-1 , p. 313 ( books.google.com ).
  8. ↑ Women and men work in different professions. Retrieved February 22, 2016 .
  9. ↑ Christa Schwarz: Documents on the history of the female library profession in the academic library system in Germany. 1907 to 1921. (PDF) In: Series of publications of the Universitäts-Bibliothek zu Berlin, Volume 5. Retrieved on July 1, 2015 .
  10. ↑ Veterinarian is a female profession. In: Allgemeine Zeitung. January 22, 2014, accessed July 1, 2015 .
  11. ↑ Venerated as saints, demonized as witches. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung. July 29, 2012, accessed July 1, 2015 .
  12. ↑ Shahanah Schmid: Women in men's jobs and men in women's jobs. A comparison. (PDF) Retrieved July 1, 2015 .
  13. ^ Eva Dörpinghaus: Women's jobs with a future . 44 job profiles with planning aids and checklists. Mosaik Verlag, Munich 1990, ISBN 3-570-06707-6 , p. 11 .
  14. ^ Wiktionary, accessed July 1, 2015
  15. ^ Women in antiquity and their working world in Rome. In: forumtraiani.de. Retrieved July 1, 2015 .
  16. ↑ Chapter 11: The Image of Women. In: santones.de. Retrieved July 1, 2015 .
  17. ↑ Women in the Middle Ages. In: das-mittelalter.de. Retrieved July 2, 2015 .
  18. ↑ Women in the Middle Ages. In: Frauenwissen.at. Retrieved July 2, 2015 .
  19. ^ A b Eva Dörpinghaus: Women's professions with a future . 44 job profiles with planning aids and checklists. Mosaik Verlag, Munich 1990, ISBN 3-570-06707-6 , p. 16-19 .
  20. ↑ a b Women's Professions in Medieval Hamburg. In: ni-hamburg.de. Jenja Konkolskaia, accessed July 5, 2015 .
  21. ↑ Franziska Klemm: Gender Relations in the Early Modern Age. The position of women in a male-dominated world. In: grin.com. Retrieved July 5, 2015 .
  22. ↑ # 93; = 5559 & tx_dlf [page] = 1 & tx_dlf [pointer] = 0 # The state schools for women's professions in Hamburg. ( Memento of the original from December 22, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. In: The vocational school system in the Greater Hamburg metropolitan area. P. 19 f.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.sub.uni-hamburg.de
  23. ^ Juliane Jacobi: Girls and Women Education in Europe. From 1500 to the present . Campus Verlag, 2013, ISBN 978-3-593-39955-3 , pp. 331-332 ( books.google.com ).
  24. ↑ Professor catalog of the University of Leipzig, Hans Pezold. Retrieved July 18, 2015 .
  25. ^ The municipal school for women's professions in Leipzig. in: The teacher: Organ of the General German Teachers' Association. Supplement B - 33.1915 / 1916; 32  in the German Digital Library , accessed on July 18, 2015
  26. ^ Juliane Jacobi: Girls and Women Education in Europe. From 1500 to the present . Campus Verlag, 2013, ISBN 978-3-593-39955-3 , pp. 333 f ( books.google.com ).
  27. ↑ Gottfried Bernhart, Textbook Working Group for Middle and Higher Commercial Schools: Bookkeeping Textbook for Technical Schools for Economics. Women professions u. Home economics schools . Manz, Vienna 1978, ISBN 3-214-90070-6 .
  28. ^ § 1356. Housekeeping, employment. on lexetius.com
  29. ^ "Housekeeping" - § 1356 BGB through the ages. In: Hamburger Abendblatt. July 8, 2008, accessed July 3, 2015 .
  30. ↑ Katja Riedel: The first woman who is allowed to work without her husband's permission - International Women's Day. In: FOCUS Online, focus.de. March 8, 2012, accessed July 5, 2015 .
  31. ↑ Career choice: women become educators, men mechanics. In: Zeit Online. May 6, 2014, accessed July 5, 2015 .
  32. ↑ Ann-Christin Hausmann, Corinna Kleinert: Occupational segregation in the labor market of men and women hardly changed. (PDF) In: IAB short report - Current analyzes from the Institute for Employment Research . September 2014, accessed July 5, 2015 .
  33. ^ Günter Amendt: Love and Exchange. In: the daily newspaper. December 30, 2003, accessed July 5, 2015 .
  34. ↑ a b Jörg Eigendorf among other things: Red light trade: Augsburg with the highest density of prostitutes. In: The world. November 3, 2013, accessed January 6, 2015.
  35. ^ Eva-Maria Euchner: Prostitution Policy in Germany: Development in the Context of European Trends . Springer-Verlag, 2015, ISBN 978-3-658-09747-9 , pp. 11 ( books.google.com ).
  36. ↑ Prostitution - between rejection, marginalization and acceptance. Interview with Eva van Rahden. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on October 9, 2010 ; Retrieved July 6, 2015 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.sjoe.at
  37. ↑ Rahel Gugel: The tension between the Prostitution Act and Article 3 II of the Basic Law. A legal political investigation . LIT Verlag, Münster 2011, ISBN 978-3-643-11064-0 , pp. 53-54 ( books.google.com ).
  38. ^ Karl-Heinz Baum: Police in Rhineland-Palatinate: penultimate reservation. Zeit, February 1, 1974, accessed January 17, 2016 .
  39. ↑ Martin Knobbe: Girls and technical professions: Too much of a good thing. In: Spiegel Online. April 25, 2015, accessed July 1, 2015 .
  40. ↑ School, what then? Challenges in career orientation for schoolchildren in Germany. A study by the Allensbach Institute for Demoscopy on behalf of the Vodafone Foundation Germany. With a comment by Klaus Hurrelmann, Vodafone Foundation Germany, Düsseldorf, November 2014, p. 11, online (PDF, 432 kB)
  41. ^ High-earning model as a poverty trap. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung. March 6, 2014, accessed July 3, 2015 .
  42. ↑ The women's quota is coming. Retrieved July 2, 2015 .