Women in art

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Young woman drawing , probably a self-portrait by Marie-Denise Villers , 1801, classicism

Women in (visual) arts , in the contemporary understanding, refers to the work and situation of women in visual arts in the past and present as part of women's history . Specifically, it is about artists , gallery owners , art dealers , art patrons and collectors, art critics , auctioneers , women teaching at art academies , art historians , models and muses , as well as their contributions to art development, their influence on art history and the art market , their strategies in Art business and the reception of your work. The transitions between the art eras are fluid.

Notes on the term

The usage of women in art is comparable to women in philosophy (philosophers) , women in science (scientists) or women in art and culture (study of the professional situation). This article only refers to the topic of "Representation of women in art".

For “women in art” a demarcation according to art genres is not convincing, because art forms such as performance and forms of media art cross these borders fluently. The convention, however, is to relate the topic to the visual arts first and only to refer to other art genres such as applied arts , performing arts , music and literature .

The term “women in art” is not intended to “make the biological sexes visible (...), but rather the existing categories that lead to unequal treatment”, see Queer Theory, Important Representatives (cf. Judith Butler ). Martina Kessel , Professor of Modern History and Gender History at Bielefeld University , wrote in 1995: “From an art-historical and media-theoretical perspective, there has been intensive research in recent decades, such as gender in and about images and other art media as well as through institutions of art and art history and gender differences are established and stabilized, often in the form of power and domination relationships in which that which is considered non-male is subordinated and marginalized. "

Artists

Adélaïde Labille-Guiard : Self-Portrait with Two Schoolgirls , 1785

The shaping of gender roles in a society influences how women artists can train and express themselves, how their art is perceived and how they exist professionally. In Germany, the existence of an artist as a female life plan was hardly feasible at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. In different societies and times it has been proven that women were completely denied artistic abilities or that their artistic activity was hindered or prevented. Although there is a consensus in many societies today that women and men are equally capable artistically, women’s artistic professions are often opposed to restrictive cultural ideas, family constraints, social conventions and economic interests.

The opportunities for women to take up an artistic profession in Europe are, on the one hand, closely linked to the general self-image of the arts, which has undergone major changes since the Renaissance, and, on the other hand, to access to artistic training. The criteria for embarking on an artistic career were different in individual epochs and asymmetrical compared to the possibilities of men.

Up until the 19th century, women in Europe could only receive artistic training in an ecclesiastical, courtly or guild context - for example in a monastery, in aristocratic circles or in their father's workshop. Then mostly active in the luxury goods sector of handicrafts , many women became specialists in glass carving , ivory carving , embroidery as well as book illustration and still life painting .

Marie-Gabrielle Capet : studio scene , 1808

The focus on academic training for artists and the recognition of the art academy as the highest authority that conveyed and passed on artistic taste, developed out of the self-image of the "artist personality". The academic training should lead out of the constraints of the guilds in order to achieve thematic and artistic independence and enhance the social position of artists by raising the arts to “science” with the help of standardized training. This position continued to prevail during the 18th and 19th centuries as the influence of the church and the court on visual artists waned.

Women were generally excluded from academic training, including artistic training. "Until the end of the 19th century, women were mostly not allowed to draw in front of the naked (male or female) nude model - a serious limitation when you consider that the study of the nude was an essential prerequisite for 'mythological painting' in these periods, but also genre and history painting, even landscape painting. ”This limitation gave women their own themes. If people turn up their noses today that women bring flowers or their own garden onto the canvas, this is simply a consequence of the environment and conditions in which they painted, according to Marion Beckers, the director of the Hidden Museum .

Women working in the arts have always been represented in the arts and crafts sector or have taken private lessons. The professional self-image of female artists in the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th was more tense than that of their male colleagues in relation to bourgeois society and, in particular, to their socially ascribed role as wife and mother. The training opportunities were mainly limited to a musical-aesthetic education, such as dance, drawing and music-making, with the aim of being able to take over the design of the private living space and the representation of the family as a wife.

The studio , 1881, of Marie Bashkirtseff , who was a student at the Académie Julian
Nude class at the Académie Colarossi, around 1901, photograph by Clive Holland
Matisse and his students in the studio, 1909

Artistic training, similar to the academic training opportunities for men, was only possible in private training centers. The Finnish landscape painter from the Düsseldorf School , Victoria Åberg (1824-1892), wrote about the disadvantages in terms of professional training and professional practice for women artists :

“We pay for our painting studies, etc., in gold, while men get it for free at their academies; We also pay not only for the instructions, but also for studios, heating, models! How can life be so unfair these days? "

With the founding of the Association of Female Artists and Friends of Art in Berlin in 1867 and the Munich Female Artists' Association in 1882, so-called women's academies were formed . In 1868, the Académie Julian and Académie Colarossi, also privately run, were founded in Paris, offering classes for women, among other things. The studios based their teaching on the royal academies, but had to get along without government funding and demand a monthly fee. These private painting schools were run by artists who secured their livelihood with the fee, for example Anton Ažbe , Friedrich Fehr and Paul Schultze-Naumburg . This is where artists such as Gabriele Münter , Käthe Kollwitz and Paula Modersohn-Becker received their training. The Académie Vitti was founded in 1894 and the Académie Carmen in 1898 , which only existed until 1901. The Académie Matisse in Paris, which existed from 1908 to 1911, taught a considerable number of women. Eight artists were among the 18 German students, including Mathilde Vollmoeller and Gretchen Wohlwill . Russian-born Olga Markowa Meerson , formerly a fellow student of Wassily Kandinsky in Munich, was one of his students. At that time, the artists were disparagingly referred to as painters .

The Hamburg art historian and patron Rosa Schapire , who had been a passive member of the Brücke artist group since 1907 , founded the women's association for the promotion of German visual arts together with Ida Dehmel in 1916 . In 1926 the latter founded the Association of Artists' Communities that still exist today . V. ( GEDOK ) under the name of the Association of German and Austrian Artists' Associations of All Art Genres .

With the collapse of the value system of the German Empire after the First World War , art academies were opened for women, but not without a previous heated discourse about the creative aptitude of women:

“Assuming that both sexes have the same artistic talent, experience shows that, with a few exceptions, women's artistic activity is limited to portraits, landscapes, still life and applied arts. Free composition and monumental tasks seem to correspond less to the disposition of women. This self-restriction of the vast majority of all women who work in the arts is certainly not due to the lack of appropriate training opportunities, but rather to a real feeling for the limits of their own talent ”, according to a report by the Munich Academy from June 1918.

As a result of the approaches to legal equality (see: Equal Rights , Equal Opportunities , Women's Rights , Women's Suffrage and Women's Studies ) and the opening of state training institutions for women, the proportion of full-time self-employed artists rose from around 10 percent to 20 percent between 1895 and 1925. However, women artists were still expected to limit themselves to “harmless” subjects such as still lifes, self-portraits or landscape painting.

During the rule of National Socialism in Germany and Austria, women artists who did not meet the aggressive National Socialist expectations of so-called German art could come under multiple pressure: They could be affected by the atrocities of Nazi racism up to and including the loss of their lives; of the general defamation of art that was considered “ degenerate ” from the National Socialist point of view ; and, moreover, that the National Socialist image of women and serious work as a visual artist were incompatible.

The gender-specific oppression of women artists after 1945 can be traced in comments from art critics. When the Expressionist pictures of Helene Funke (1869–1957) were publicly perceived again shortly before her death, the art critic Arthur Roessler wrote: “Pictures that are roughly painted by women with a spatula ... (are) an abomination to me and most men ".

For the contemporary art world, Linda Nochlin's 2007 statement is essential that women are no longer the exception but part of the rule. However, there are differences that need to be explained. An example from Germany are the state purchases of contemporary art (1995–2000): “Only 1 out of 3 works of art that have been purchased by the federal states were created by a woman.” The art of men was “an average of around 10 % traded more expensive ”.

In androcentric societies, the work of women artists is still subject to cultural restrictions, socially controlled prohibitions and misogynous career obstacles .

Gallery owners and art dealers

Amedeo Modigliani in 1917 with Berthe Weill

Berthe Weill (1865–1951), who lives in Paris , founded the first gallery opened and run by a woman in 1901. In 1902 she showed one of the first exhibitions of the young Pablo Picasso with 30 works and exhibited many other works of the avant-garde . Amedeo Modigliani's first and only solo exhibition took place at Weill's in 1917. She equated female talent with that of male artists and exhibited works by Émilie Charmy , Hermine David , Alice Halicka , Marie Laurencin and Suzanne Valadon , among others . The gallery existed until 1939.

Portrait of Mother Ey by Hugo Erfurth (1930)

Another gallery founded by a woman was opened in Düsseldorf during the First World War under the name Junge Kunst - Frau Ey . Johanna Ey (1864–1947) came from the simplest of backgrounds and had twelve children, some of whom died young. Her gallery became the focus of the artist group Das Junge Rheinland . Ey did not choose this art for theoretical or economic considerations, but because she was personally friends with the artists. The National Socialists regarded practically all painters from the Johanna Eys circle as " degenerate ". In 1933, numerous pictures from the store and collection of the Ey Gallery were confiscated and destroyed.

Alexej von Jawlensky: Portrait of Galka Scheyer , 1919/21

Galka Scheyer (1889–1945), originally Emilie Esther Scheyer, was a Jewish painter, art dealer and art collector who met Alexej von Jawlensky in 1916 and who soon represented him as an art dealer. In 1924 she was the founder of the exhibition and sales community Die Blaue Vier with Jawlensky, Paul Klee , Wassily Kandinsky and Lyonel Feininger and soon made contact with other internationally known artists, musicians and architects, such as Alexander Archipenko , Walter Spies , Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera , Giorgio de Chirico , Le Corbusier , Marcel Duchamp , Fernand Léger , John Cage .

Hanna Bekker vom Rath: Self-Portrait with Hat (around 1948)

Hanna Bekker vom Rath (1893–1983), a German painter, collector and art dealer, also supported Alexej von Jawlensky, but also Ludwig Meidner , Emy Roeder , Karl Schmidt-Rottluff and other artists of today's classical modernism. In 1927 she founded the Society of Friends of Art by Alexej von Jawlensky in Wiesbaden. Until the spring of 1943, she organized secret exhibitions in her studio apartment in Berlin with art that was ostracized by the National Socialists as " degenerate ". In 1947 she founded the Frankfurter Kunstkabinett Hanna Bekker vom Rath , which offered a forum for artist friends and emigrated artists persecuted by the National Socialists. The artists represented included Ernst Wilhelm Nay , Marta Hoepffner , Willi Baumeister , Ludwig Meidner, Max Beckmann , Erich Heckel , Ernst Ludwig Kirchner , Oskar Kokoschka , Käthe Kollwitz , August Macke and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff. However, Hanna Bekker also presented, and at the time unusual, young artists from North and South America, South Africa, India, Greece and the Middle East.

Peggy Guggenheim in Marseille, 1937

Peggy Guggenheim (1898–1979) opened her Guggenheim Jeune gallery in New York in 1938 , which she closed again in 1939. At the beginning of the Second World War in Paris, she expanded her collection as many artists wanted to leave the city and sell their paintings. Under the guidance of Marcel Duchamp and Howard Putzel, she bought works by Georges Braque , Max Ernst , Alberto Giacometti , Wassily Kandinsky , Paul Klee and Joan Miró . She had no idea that she was buying art at bargain prices, she later said. “I just paid what I was told.” Guggenheim supported the Emergency Rescue Committee financially to enable refugees to leave the Vichy regime in France. Artists such as Marc Chagall and Jacques Lipchitz were among the emigrants . Guggenheim also financed the departure of Max Ernst and André Breton and his family. Since she was of Jewish descent, she had to leave France with her collection in 1941 as well. In Manhattan in 1942 she opened the Art of This Century gallery and promoted emigrated from Europe as well as new American artists such as Jackson Pollock . In January 1943 the exhibition "Exhibition by 31 Women" took place there. The gallery existed until 1947, after which Peggy Guggenheim moved to Venice , where she exhibited her collection in the Palazzo Venier dei Leoni , at the Venice Biennale and in 1965 at the Tate Gallery in London.

Denise René (1919–2012) organized her first art exhibitions in Paris as early as 1944, during the war, and soon founded the Denise René gallery there . The world-renowned exhibition of kinetic art Le Mouvement took place here in 1955 . Some artists from Eastern Europe such as the Hungarian Lajos Kassák , the Pole Henryk Stazewski or the Russian Kasimir Severinovich Malevich owed their international development to this gallery owner.

Betty Parsons (1900–1982) opened the Betty Parsons Gallery in New York in 1946 . She promoted Abstract Expressionism early on and supported some of the most important artists in American art of the 20th century, including Jackson Pollock, Mark Rothko, Clyfford Still, and Ellsworth Kelly. Betty Parsons was also successful as an artist. Her work is exhibited at the Smithsonian American Art Museum and the National Museum of Women in the Arts in Washington.

In the 1960s in New York, Virginia Dwan was a major avant-garde gallery owner. Influential gallery owners in the global art market included Marian Goodman , who opened her gallery in 1977, and Barbara Gladstone in New York.

In the 1980s, female gallery owners in Germany were still being rejected by male colleagues, as was the case with Max Hetzler , who wrote in 1985 in the art magazine Wolkenkratzer : “Female gallery owners should only exhibit female artists. Then they stop by themselves. The best can then become gallery owners' assistants. "

The renowned German-speaking gallery owners of the contemporary international art scene included (2018): Antonina and Krystyna Gmurzynska, Gisela Capitain , Bärbel Grässlin , Ursula Krinzinger , Vera Munro , Eva Presenhuber , Esther Schipper , Rosemarie Schwarzwälder and their gallery Galerie next St. Stephan , as well as the Gallery owners Monika Sprüth and Philomene Magers ( Sprüth Magers Gallery ).

An empirical study of art galleries in Germany in 2013 showed that the representation of female artists in the galleries was only 25% and only 38% of the gallery owners were female, while, for example, at the two Berlin art universities consistently over 55% were women. On the occasion of Art Basel Miami Beach , the online magazine Artsy published a study in December 2017 that shows that even female art dealers do not represent significantly more female artists than their male colleagues, so the proportion is by no means balanced.

Art patrons and collectors

Lillie P. Bliss (1864-1931) was an American art collector and art patron . At the beginning of the 20th century she was one of the leading collectors of modern art in New York. Bliss was one of the organizers of the major Armory Show in 1913. In 1929 she co-founded the Museum of Modern Art . After her death, many works of art in her collection were donated to the museum, including works by European artists such as Paul Cézanne , Edgar Degas , Paul Gauguin , Henri Matisse , Pablo Picasso , Georges Seurat and compatriots such as Arthur B. Davies , Walt Kuhn and Maurice Prendergast .

Gertrude Stein in her salon, 1905. Above left is a version of Paul Cézanne's bathers . The walls filled up to the ceiling after further purchases of paintings.

Gertrude Stein (1874–1946) was an American writer and best known for her contemporary art salon , which she and her brother Leo Stein ran in Paris from the early 1900s. After separating from Leo Stein, she continued the salon with her partner Alice B. Toklas from 1913 . Her invitations were followed by unknown personalities of the artistic avant-garde such as Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, Georges Braque and Juan Gris , whose works adorned the salon.

Katherine Sophie Dreier (1877–1952) was an American art patron, art collector, and painter. Together with Marcel Duchamp and Man Ray , she co-founded the New York art association Société Anonyme Inc. and a member of the artist group Abstraction-Création . Dreier was a representative of abstract painting . Instead of a “traditional” salon or gallery, Société Anonyme, Inc. saw itself primarily as an experimental exhibition organizer and podium. An important aspect here was the mediation between artists, collectors and gallery owners. Throughout the 1920s, the Société Anonyme, Inc. presented a wide range of international artists, such as Alexander Archipenko , Constantin Brâncuși , Heinrich Campendonk , Wassily Kandinsky , Paul Klee , Fernand Léger and Piet Mondrian, and promoted the “most progressive artistic experiments in the United States at that time. "(William Clark)

The German-American Hilla von Rebay (1890–1967), who was influenced by Dadaism in her youth and who also committed to abstract art at an early age , became a painter, art collector, patron and artistic organizer of the Guggenheim Foundation and the first director of the Guggenheim -Museum in New York.

Art historians and art critics

In 1930, the art historian Hanna Stirnemann was appointed the first woman museum director in Germany and possibly worldwide . She headed the Jena City Museum and was the managing director of the Jena Art Association . She devoted some of her first exhibitions to the art of women. Under pressure from the National Socialists, she submitted her resignation at the end of 1935.

With the Austrian Leopoldine Springschitz , a woman curated the pavilion of a German-speaking country for the first time at the 1976 Venice Biennale . She presented four (male) artists and was criticized for this selection. From 1956 to 1976 Springschitz was the director of the Carinthian State Gallery (now the Museum of Modern Art Carinthia ). The art historian Katharina Schmidt headed the Staatliche Kunsthalle Baden-Baden between 1981 and 1985 , the Kunstmuseum Bonn until 1992 and was director of the Basel Public Art Collection (art museum and museum for contemporary art with the Emanuel Hoffmann Foundation ) from 1992 to 2001 . Ingrid Mössinger was director from 1996 and general director of the Chemnitz art collections since 2005 . In 1997, Catherine David became the first woman director of the documenta in Kassel. It was only followed three issues later in 2012 by Carolyn Christov-Bakargiev .

Since the 2000s - especially in Germany - the number of female museum managers has increased. Susanne Gaensheimer became director of the Westphalian Art Association in 1999 , was then director of the Museum of Modern Art in Frankfurt am Main and has been director of the North Rhine-Westphalia art collection since 2017 . She was commissioner of the German Pavilion at the Venice Biennale twice in a row. Marion Ackermann became director of the Kunstmuseum Stuttgart in 2003 and has been the general director of the Dresden State Art Collections since 2016 . Christiane Lange was director of the art gallery of the Hypo-Kulturstiftung from 2006 to 2012 . In 2013 she became director of the Staatsgalerie Stuttgart . Susanne Pfeffer has been chief curator of Kunst-Werke Berlin since 2007 and director of the Fridericianum Museum in Kassel since June 2013 . Since 2018 she has been director of the Museum of Modern Art in Frankfurt am Main. In 2017 she was commissioner of the German Pavilion at the Venice Biennale. In 2019 Franciska Zólyom will curate the German contribution in Venice. Gudrun Inboden was Commissioner of the German Pavilion in 1997 and 1999 . Eva Kraus has been director of the New Museum in Nuremberg since 2014 , which was previously headed by Angelika Nollert since 2007 . Nollert has been the director of the design museum Die Neue Sammlung in Munich since 2014 . In 2005 Dorothea Strauss became director of the Museum Haus Konstruktiv in Zurich and in 2013 handed over the management to Sabine Schaschl . Numerous German and Swiss art associations are run by women. However, parity is still a long way off.

The art historian Wibke von Bonin moved from the Staatliche Kunsthalle Baden-Baden to WDR television in 1966 . There she built the fine arts editorial office on top of the one she headed until 1996. Her most famous television series was 1000 Masterworks , which ran from 1981 to 1994. The first editor-in-chief of a German-language art magazine was probably the art historian Gislind Nabakowski . The magazine heute KUNST was founded by her in 1973, the title also came from Nabakowski. It was first published in March 1973 by the Italian publisher " flash art edizioni " by Giancarlo Politi in Milan. Nabakowski edited from Düsseldorf as well as from her Italian place of residence. From issue 9 of February 1975, a special issue dealt with “Feminism & Art”. Nabakowski and the authors retained the feminist profile of the magazine and reported in the following issues on women in art, without making this the focus of the magazine, which deals internationally with all artistic media such as photography, performance video, film and conceptual art. Today KUNST was discontinued in 1979.

Susan Sontag has found recognition among the outstanding essayists in the USA with essays on aesthetics and hermeneutics in photography , film , literature and art . Art critics who wrote for the country's major art magazines included Amy Goldin, Patricia Patterson, who wrote about film with Manny Farber for Artforum , Barbara Rose , feminists Lucy R. Lippard and Jill Johnston . The structurally trained film historian Annette Michelson and Rosalind Krauss have made significant contributions to the success of the high-quality magazine October . One of the art critics is the science historian and former deputy head of the feature pages of the FAZ Julia Voss . In 2012 she dealt with the subordinate position of women in modern art.

Models and Muses

Nude model at the École des Beaux-Arts de Paris , late 19th century

The gender relationship between male artists and female nude models , which has been expressed for centuries in studio paintings or photographs, has had a lasting impact on the idea of ​​the artist's studio . In this idea of ​​the ingenious artist, in whose space the model is an object, the actual meaning of some models for the creation of art is not recognized. “The portrayal of the workshop is closely linked to the cult of genius , and for a long time women artists could not claim this highest form of authorship.” In the 19th century, women painters only rarely had a suitable place to work, and it was only in the 1950s that the American Elaine de Kooning succeeded with male models as the object of their painting.

To this day, the artistic model is a figure that is culturally diverse. "Wherever female models [...] appear on the scene in romantic artists' novels, the male protagonists have a fantastic cast of these female characters, which usually dissolves catastrophically." The result of this cast is commonly known as the muse . Some women artists, such as Angelika Kauffmann , were initially described in male art history as models and muses and only discovered as important artists through more recent art historical research. The photographer and painter Dora Maar is best known as Picasso's muse . Not only did the public define her through her relationship with the famous painter, she also adopted this point of view.

Working as a model or nude model is usually a temporary activity, today it is often part-time or a sideline , in which, for example, female students work as a motif for students at art academies. A smaller number of female nude models are now organized in trade unions and protest against poor working conditions. Compared to paying for nude photography models, the remuneration for models for life drawing, painting and modeling is significantly lower.

Art historical representation

This photo shows Elisabeth Ney in front of the bust of Arthur Schopenhauer, which she created in 1859

Views like that of the philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer , who denied women artistic abilities in general in 1851, have influenced generations of art historians. However, the philosopher was so impressed by the sculptor Elisabet Ney and her work that in a letter to a friend he promised a revision of his views on women: “I have not yet spoken my last word about women. I believe that when a woman withdraws from the crowd, or rather: rises above the crowd, then she grows inexorably and higher than a man ”. Until the 1960s, the term “women in art” was mostly equated with “depictions of women in art” (see Reinhard Piper : The beautiful woman in art ). The focus was on the image of women in painting and sculpture .

Few art historians opposed this tendency. As is typical of the time, they showed a pseudo-objectivity towards the object “woman and artist”. Even the well-meaning pioneer of modernism, Hans Hildebrandt , was unable to free himself from this paradigm with his work The Woman as an Artist in 1928 . Hildebrandt was a supporter of the Bauhaus ; his wife, the artist Lily Hildebrandt , was banned from painting by the National Socialist rulers in 1933 .

In 1908, the art critic Karl Scheffler summed up in Die Frau und die Kunst : “In history, women have never played a role as a productive artist.” Before the war, he met with harsh protests because his theses ignored hundreds of contemporary recognized artists. In 1934, the writer Arnold Zweig in his work Bilanz der Deutschen Judenheit , in order to defy anti-Semitism, listed plenty of artists of Jewish descent, but he largely left the high proportion of women of Jewish descent uncommented.

In the history of art, scientific questions about gender relations were not asked until 1971. Linda Nochlin's essay Why have there been no Great Women Artists introduced this line of research. The focus was on questions of how the canon, the ideology and the myth of the brilliant male artist are related to the exclusion of women artists and their art from art history.

Since then, with the support of feminist- oriented archives and scientists, the history, the social situation and the life's work of artists and other women working in art have been increasingly recognized and presented in a historical context. Since the 1960s, part of the art scene has been inspired by feminism in connection with the women's movement . Because women artists are entitled to the entire spectrum of art, artists interested in feminism avoid restricting their work to exclusively feminist art .

Artists such as Hildegard von Bingen, Sofonisba Anguissola , Maria Sibylla Merian and Lou Andreas-Salomé have been recognized as important figures in art and cultural history. Other women who were no less important in their time were not represented or only to a limited extent in male-dominated art historiography. From the Modern Classic -called artists Camille Claudel, Sophie Taeuber-Arp , Paula Modersohn-Becker, Gabriele Münter and Frida Kahlo is known as first in the shadows were their men and fellow painters.

Early history

The oldest works of fine art found in caves are in France in the Ardèche department . They are dated to around 40,000 BC. It has not yet been possible to determine whether the artists were men or women. A variety of art forms emerged later in antiquity . These were also works of art that are mainly attributed to men. But women artists also made important works. The oldest traces can be found in China and Japan as well as in Persia and in Latin America , Africa , Australia and today's Europe . Impressive works of art have come down to us from Egypt , Thebes and ancient Greece and Latin, which are examined using the methods of archeology . Here, too, it remains unclear whether women were more artistically active.

Romanesque

Hildegard von Bingen receives a divine inspiration and passes it on to her writer , Rupertsberger Codex , before 1179
Herrad von Landsbert: Moses leads the people of Israel through the Red Sea , from the Hortus Deliciarum , around 1180

In the Romanesque era , women and men carried out artistic activities primarily in the service of religion and mostly anonymously. These are primarily illuminated manuscripts produced in monasteries . The most important masterpieces of Spanish book illumination of the late early Middle Ages , the Beatus manuscripts , are early examples that women can also be shown to have worked on.

Especially under Ottonian rule there was a flourishing of female intellectuality and artistry in the German-speaking area. Abbess Mathilde II (949-1011) is known as a great patron of the arts at this time . Abbess Theophanu (997-1058) also had a strong influence on the development of art . Important works of art still bear her name today. Among the artists of illumination still known by name today include Diemut von Wessobrunn (1060–1130), who lived as an inclusive walled in a cell next to a Benedictine abbey, and Hildegard von Bingen (1098–1179), author of the miniatures of Liber Scivias and other book illustrations and the abbess Herrad von Landsberg (1125 / 1130–1195), who achieved great fame as the author and illustrator of the Hortus Deliciarum ( "Garden of Delicacies" , around 1180).

Renaissance to Baroque

Sofonisba Anguissola:
Self-Portrait , 1556
Artemisia Gentileschi : Judith with her maid ,
around 1623–1625

The Renaissance is the first epoch of European art history in which a number of women artists achieved a reputation across Europe. The increasing number of female artists who turned to secular subjects during this period can be traced back to major cultural shifts. By affirming the dignity and worth of all people, the philosophy of humanism improved the social status of women. Because art was no longer exclusively in the service of religion, the identity and name of the artist gained importance.

With the success of the idea of ​​humanism, there was a shift in the view of art as a craft to an intellectual, philosophically oriented work. Artists increasingly saw themselves in the tradition of science and less in that of handicrafts. This self-image required knowledge of perspective , mathematics, art history, such as ancient art as a reference for one's own work, and artistic research into the human body. The study of the human body, on the nude or corpse, enabled a lifelike representation, but women were generally not allowed. Therefore, with a few exceptions, women artists were excluded from creating such scenes and mainly turned to still life themes and religious compositions .

Sofonisba Anguissola (1531 / 32-1625) was one of these exceptions. She came from an Italian family of painters and is considered the most successful artist of her time. She specialized in portrait painting and became known throughout Europe for her portraits of the Spanish royal family (including Philip II and Elisabeth von Valois , his wife), as well as for the great interest that Giorgio Vasari , biographer of Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci , in her work offered. In the Italian Renaissance, many female scholars and artists received representative and paid commissions. The sculptor Properzia de 'Rossi , the painters Mariangiola Criscuolo and Irene di Spilimbergo and the poets Vittoria Colonna , Olympia Fulvia Morata , Tarquinia Molza , Battista Malatesta and Lorenza Strozzi also belonged to this group.

Judith Leyster: Self-Portrait , 1630
Maria van Oosterwijck: Still Life with Flowers , 1669

Marietta Robusti (1560–1590) also came from a family of painters, she was the daughter of Tintoretto . Early on, she was valued as a portrait painter in European royal houses; Among other things, she created a portrait of Emperor Maximilian II. According to the circumstances of the time, however, she was unable to leave her father's workshop. Tintoretto's biographer, Carlo Ridolfi , valued her talent and abilities as highly as that of her father. In the 1920s, paintings previously attributed to Tintoretto were recognized as her work.

Artemisia Gentileschi (1593–1653) learned the art of painting in her father's Roman workshop and worked in the light and dark style of the Caravaggio School. Her portrayal of the beheading of Holofernes by Judith was sensational . She is considered the most important painter of the Baroque era , but fell into oblivion after her death and was only rediscovered in the 1960s.

The portraits of the Dutch painter Judith Leyster (1609–1660) were long thought to be works by the painter Frans Hals . Only when the original Judith Leyster was recognized under the falsified signature of Frans Hals in the Louvre in 1893 was she rediscovered as a painter. A little later, the painter Rachel Ruysch (1664–1750) gained public recognition in the Netherlands and the Rhineland. Because of their fame and the great painterly quality, their pictures fetched exceptionally high prices. Her trompe l'œil style influenced generations of flower painters not only in the Netherlands . In connection with this important oeuvre, it is noteworthy that she had ten children, whom she raised herself. The painter Maria van Oosterwijk (1630–1693), who came from South Holland, was a student of Jan Davidsz. de Heem and Willem van Aelst . Her life's work mainly includes flower still life painting, to which she dedicated the rest of her life. At the age of 16, Élisabeth Sophie Chéron (1648–1711) provided for her fatherless family by painting portraits in Paris. Later she was also successful as an engraver , poet, translator and salonnière , and she managed to earn a high income.

Maria Sibylla Merian: Red Lily , colored copper engraving from Metamorphosis insectorum Surinamensium , plate XXII, 1705
Anna Dorothea Therbusch: Friedrich II. Of Prussia, 1775

The natural scientist and artist Maria Sibylla Merian (1647–1717) was represented in the German-speaking area . She came from the younger line of the Merian family of artists . Her stepfather, the flower painter Jacob Marrel , commissioned one of his students, Abraham Mignon , with her artistic training. Maria Sibylla Merian was already able to produce copperplate engravings at the age of eleven and soon surpassed her teacher in this technique. In her time she was considered a successful artist in the field of botanical illustration. Her systematic observation of the metamorphosis of butterflies and the exceptionally detailed and botanically correct representation of this process made her a pioneer in entomology . She took part in research trips, including to Suriname .

The rococo portrait painter Anna Dorothea Therbusch (1721–1782) worked as a court painter at princely courts in southern Germany from 1761 and became an honorary member of the Stuttgart State Academy of Fine Arts . During a stay in Paris she was accepted into the Académie Royale and was the only woman allowed to appear in public in the Paris Salon in 1767 . She was also the first woman to join the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna . On behalf of Friedrich II , she made portraits, which made her highly regarded in Prussia. Catherine II commissioned paintings for the royal family in Berlin. In addition, Therbusch had in Paris a. a. portrayed the pioneer of the Enlightenment Denis Diderot . Diderot appreciated her work, also in public. Many of her works mark the transition from traditional courtly portrait painting to the individual design of personal greatness in the sense of the fine arts of the Enlightenment , in particular of enlightened absolutism .

Her older sister Anna Rosina Lisiewska, Anna Rosina de Gasc (1713–1783) in her second marriage , was a portrait painter who, like Anna Dorothea , had learned to paint from her father Georg Lisiewski and Antoine Pesne . From 1757 she was court painter to Prince Friedrich August von Zerbst . In 1767 she went to the court of the Dukes of Braunschweig , where she was appointed court painter ten years later. Since 1769 she was an honorary member of the Dresden Art Academy .

classicism

Angelika Kauffmann: Self-Portrait in Bregenz Forest Costume , 1781
Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun: Portrait of Princess Maria Josefa Hermenegilde von Esterhazy , 1793

The Swiss painter Angelika Kauffmann (1741–1807) became known for her portraits and historical pictures. One of their models was Goethe . The daughter of a painter used to be best known as the muse of the poet prince. However, she was a central artistic personality of classicism in Rome at the end of the 18th century. Angelika Kauffmann was, along with Mary Moser (1744-1819), the only female founding member of the Royal Academy of Arts , London (1768).

The Parisian portrait painter Adélaïde Labille-Guiard (1749–1803), known as Madame Vincent, mainly painted nobles, members of the royal family and, during the French Revolution, also the members of the National Assembly. Her even more successful competitor Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun (1755–1842) is best known as the royal court painter to the French Queen Marie Antoinette . During the revolution she traveled through Europe, where she received numerous commissions from the nobility. Their period of activity extends from the 1760s to the 1830s.

Marie-Gabrielle Capet (1761–1818) learned portraiture in the women's painting school of the renowned Labille-Guiard . At first she was able to show some of her smaller pastels and drawings in the exhibition de la Jeunesse , followed by her large oil paintings in 1785; a year later she received positive feedback for a pastel painting that was exhibited in the Salon de la Correspondance. Now the penniless painter received paid commissions, including some from the royal family, and was able to make a living from her art. Like her teacher Madame Vincent, she encouraged other artists. In her older work there are works of history painting .

Ludovike Simanowiz: Portrait Charlotte Schiller , 1794

Another painter of classicism was Ludovike Simanowiz (1759-1827). Born in Württemberg, she stayed in Paris during the French Revolution. Although she was temporarily unable to attend an art academy, she learned - with the support of her family - oil painting and drawing from Nicolas Guibal . Most of her unsigned images are in private hands. Only some of her works are publicly available. For example, she portrayed Charlotte and Friedrich Schiller .

Marie-Denise Villers (1774–1821), also known as Nissa Villers, came from Paris. Until she married the architecture student Michel-Jean-Maximilien Villers, she used her maiden name Marie-Denise Lemoine as an artist. She trained as a painter with Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson , who had studied with Jacques-Louis David at the École des Beaux-Arts , and was also taught by François Gérard and Jacques-Louis David. During her training at Girodet, she exhibited three paintings in the Paris Salon in 1799 . Her works have often been ascribed to the latter teachers. For example , in spite of an exhibition in the Paris Salon of 1801 and contemporary interpretation as a self-portrait, her oil painting Drawing Young Woman was clearly and incorrectly attributed to Jacques-Louis David from 1897 onwards. From 1951 the art historian Charles Sterling doubted the correctness of this ascription. From 1955 onwards he suspected Mme. Charpentier, one of Jacques-Louis David's pupils, to be the possible originator of the painting, also known as “Jeune femme dessinant”. In 1981 Rozsika Parker and Griselda Pollock presented in Old Mistresses: Women, Art and Ideology the painting, which was at times considered an “icon of the masculine art era”, as an example of how art is viewed depending on the artist's gender. Margaret A. Oppenheimer was the first to prove in 1996 that Marie-Denise Villers was the author.

Other painters of classicism were u. a. Marie-Geneviève Bouliar (1762–1825), Marie-Guillemine Benoist (1768–1826), Marguerite Gérard (1761–1837) and Hortense Haudebourt-Lescot (1784–1845).

romance

Marie Ellenrieder: Maria writes the Magnificat , 1833

Marie Ellenrieder (1791–1863), whose grandfather was a painter, was lucky enough to be the first woman to be admitted to the Munich Art Academy in 1813. She was close to the romantic-religious style of the Nazarenes and was appointed court painter to Baden in 1829. She also created Catholic sacred works.

Amalie Bensinger (1809–1889), a student at the Düsseldorf School of Painting, painted pictures between romanticism and realism, also influenced by the Nazarenes. The convert to Catholicism created more and more works of sacred art.

Marie Wiegmann (1820-1893) was a German painter of mythological scenes , genres and portraits of children and women. Her training took place mainly with Karl Ferdinand Sohn . At the age of 23, he portrayed her as a beautiful, distinctive woman who was regarded by contemporaries as his "most talented student". In 1841 she married the Düsseldorf painter, architect and professor Rudolf Wiegmann . From 1851 Marie Wiegmann worked increasingly on portraits of children and women. Among other things, she participated in numerous exhibitions in Berlin; the painting Two Grandmothers exhibited there in 1852 came into the possession of Queen Victoria . The Düsseldorfer Kunstverein acquired the genre painting Ein Wiedersehen in 1857 . In 1859 Marie Wiegmann was awarded the 'small' gold medal at the Berlin Academy Exhibition.

naturalism

Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann: Mother Denmark , 1851
Marie Bashkirtseff: The Meeting , 1884

Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann (1819–1881) was a painter from the Düsseldorf School of Painting. Her paintings on the Silesian Weavers' Uprising in 1844 first attracted the interest of an artistically interested public. With her husband, the Danish sculptor Jens Adolf Jerichau , and later also alone and with her son Harald , she undertook extensive educational trips, including to the Orient. In Denmark, where the couple had lived since 1849, they could not do publicly as desired due to their German background - despite many works from this period and the protection of the royal couple. Internationally, however, she was present in several important art exhibitions. Her works are partly romantic, partly naturalism.

Born into a Russian aristocratic family, the naturalistic painter Marie Bashkirtseff (1858 or 1860–1884) lived and worked in France from around 1872. Influenced by her teacher and friend Jules Bastien-Lepage , she left behind a relatively large number of paintings after a short creative period. Her work Das Treffen , which was shown at the Paris Salon in 1884, received positive press coverage. It is currently owned by the Musée d'Orsay in Paris .

One of the few women who, beyond traditional role ascriptions, practiced painting as a profession in the 19th century was the naturalistic or realistic animal painter Rosa Bonheur (1822–1899), who was not only artistically but also economically very successful.

impressionism

Eva Gonzalès: Heimlich , 1877–1878
Mary Cassatt: Françoise Holding a Little Dog , 1906
Marie Bracquemond: Sur la terrasse à Sèvres , 1880
Berthe Morisot: Eugene Manet and his daughter in the garden of Bougival , 1880

Among the most important painters of Impressionism including Berthe Morisot (1841-1895), Mary Cassatt (1844-1926), Eva Gonzalès (1847-1883) and Marie Bracquemond (1840-1916).

With Claude Monet , Édouard Manet , Paul Signac , Pierre-Auguste Renoir , Edgar Degas and Paul Cézanne, they belonged to the inner circle of impressionists who took part in the official Paris Salon and jointly organized counter-exhibitions. These artist colleagues were considered to be artistically equal. The art historical research evaluated the differences between the works of the artists and the artist as marginal.

Blatant misjudgments and lies by art critics at the time contributed to the fact that women artists were forgotten and men became famous. Art criticism dismissed the artists as dilettantes restricted to typical women's issues . If one could not avoid recognizing their quality, the masculine remained the standard: "(...) Mlle. Cassatt (...) has (...) a freedom of execution that is worthy of a man, a man of great talent".

Berthe Morisot, on the other hand, writes: "I do not think there has ever been a man who treated a woman as absolutely equal, and that was all I have always asked for - because I know I am just as good as men" . The American art historian Linda Nochlin mentions Morisot's picture of the nurse nursing her daughter with child (1879/80) as an “extraordinary subject”.

Berthe Morisot was represented by Paul Durand-Ruel , a major impressionist gallery owner. The salons of Morisot, Manet's sister-in-law, were the meeting point for the Impressionist painters; including Eva Gonzalès, Manet's only student, and Marie Bracquemond, married to the painter Felix Bracquemond .

Mary Cassatt, who came from a wealthy family, studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia , which allowed women to study and teach, making it one of the most progressive art schools in the second half of the 19th century. She continued her studies in Paris. In 1868 a picture of her was first accepted at the Paris Salon.

Lilla Cabot Perry: A Stream Beneth Poplars, 1890-1900

Bertha Wegmann (1847–1926) was a Danish painter who created naturalistic and impressionistic works. The impressionist Maria Slavona (1865–1931) lived and worked in Germany . The American artist Lilla Cabot Perry (1848–1933), who stayed in Japan for a long time, and the Belgian landscape painter Juliette Wytsman (1866–1925) were also impressionist painters. The Canadian painter Elizabeth Adela Forbes , b. Armstrong (1859–1912), is assigned to post-impressionism as a member of the Newlyn School . The Polish painter Olga Boznańska (1865–1940), who taught painting at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière , the Académie Colarossi and the Académie Vitti in Paris, also belongs to this trend . A representative of Russian Impressionism is Sinaida Evgenjewna Serebrjakowa (1884–1967).

Suzanne Valadon: The Frog , 1910

The French woman Suzanne Valadon (1865–1938), who came from a humble background, was known to the Parisian bohemians on Montmartre as a model, muse and later as a painter. For the penniless, good-looking woman, it was initially difficult to get recognized as an artist. But then Valadon became successful with her post-impressionist works in the transition to modernity . She had acquired painting and drawing techniques as a model from painters such as Chavannes , Renoir and Toulouse Lautrec . As an artist sponsored by Degas, she was the first woman to be accepted into the Société nationale des beaux-arts in 1894 and had her first exhibitions around the same time.

Modern

Margaret MacDonald Mackintosh: The White Rose And The Red Rose, 1902

Art Nouveau at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries marks the transition to modernity . The Scottish Margaret MacDonald Mackintosh (1864-1933) is a painter and artisan, together with her sister Frances MacDonald McNair (1873-1921), one of the artists of Art Nouveau, or Modern Style , the English term for Art Nouveau.

Paula Modersohn-Becker: Self-portrait against a green background with a blue iris , around 1905

In the complete works of Paula Modersohn-Becker (1876-1907) shows their relationship to new currents in painting at the beginning of the 20th century. Inspired by the work of avant-garde French artists, with whom she dealt with in Paris, she developed an independent visual language in which elements of Expressionism , Fauvism and Cubism are shown as well as references to the art of bygone eras. This is confirmed by the catalog raisonné of paintings prepared by Günter Busch and Wolfgang Werner in 1998, with portraits, portraits of children, depictions of rural life in Worpswede , landscapes, still lifes and self-portraits . The latter accompanied her throughout her work. Her portraits of children are unusual for the late 19th century. Free from the sentimental, playful or anecdotal, they show a serious and unadorned perception of children (cf. on the other hand Hans Thoma or Ferdinand Waldmüller ). At that time she aroused the greatest lack of understanding with this method of representation. The art historian Christa Murken- Altrogge has drawn attention to the stylistic similarity of the children's portraits to paintings by the young Pablo Picasso , which were made around the same time and which are attributed to the Blue and the beginning of the Pink Period . The portraits from 1906 and 1907 also show elements of geometrical-constructive cubism. Julia Voss wrote about her in 2007: "Germany's Picasso is a woman. '"

The painter and sculptor Clara Rilke-Westhoff (1878–1954) was not recognized as an artist until the 1980s and was freed from the shadowy existence, only to be seen as Rainer Maria Rilke's wife and Paula Modersohn-Becker's friend.

Marianne von Werefkin: Police Post in Vilnius , 1914

Marianne von Werefkin (1860–1938), a Russian expressionist painter , worked in Munich and Switzerland and was part of the Blue Rider's circle . She also supported her partner Alexej von Jawlensky artistically. The Marianne Werefkin Prize , founded in 1990 by the Association of Berlin Women Artists , is named after her. The prize is awarded every two years to promote contemporary women artists in the amount of 5,000 euros.

The German painter Clara Porges (1879–1963) lived in Switzerland like Marianne von Werefkin. The Swiss painter Helene Pflugshaupt (1894–1991) was a typical representative of Expressionism . In her day, women in Switzerland were discriminated against at exhibitions. The quote from Ferdinand Hodler Mir wei känner Wiiber became famous after the female members of the GSMBA (Society of Swiss Painters, Sculptors and Architects) demanded the same rights for exhibitions. The GSMBA did not allow active membership for women until 1972.

Hilma af Klint: Altarpiece No 1, Group X , 1907

The Swedish painter Hilma af Klint (1862–1944) painted the first abstract picture in 1906. The artist had decreed that her work could only be exhibited 20 years after her death. That Wassily Kandinsky is said to have created the first abstract work in 1910 is thus called into question. After the 2013 exhibition at the Moderna Museet in Stockholm, which was dedicated to the artist, her works were shown from June to October of that year in the Hamburger Bahnhof - Museum für Gegenwart in Berlin.

The Russian avant-garde painter Lyubow Popowa (1889–1924) also created abstract works . Influenced by futurism , she worked in the style of cubism and constructivism . Like Olga Rosanowa (1886–1918), Nadeschda Udalzowa (1885 / 1886–1961), Alexandra Alexandrovna Exter (1882–1949) and Marie Vassilieff (1884–1957), she was at the 0.10 exhibition of the Suprematists in late 1915 Petrograd involved. The Russian-French painter Sonia Delaunay-Terk (1885–1979) was, together with her husband Robert Delaunay, a representative of Orphism or Orphic Cubism and the first woman to help develop the new artistic trend of geometric abstraction . Later she designed artistic theater equipment and costumes .

Natalja Goncharova: Self-Portrait , 1907

One artist who was confidently at the forefront of the Russian avant-garde was Natalja Goncharova (1881–1962). Inspired by Russian folklore, she first shaped the neo-primitive style and then played a prominent role in the development of cubofuturism and rayonism . In 1913 she showed over 800 works in the first solo exhibition of a woman in Russia. She was internationally networked and spent the second half of her life in France. Among other things, she belonged to the Blue Rider . She made a provocative public appearance in 1913 at an early performance with abstract face painting and in 1914 came into conflict with the Russian clergy and the authorities because - especially as a woman - she combined icon painting with profane elements. As an artist, she was characterized by an uncompromising attitude. She also worked as an illustrator as well as a stage and costume designer.

Sophie Taeuber-Arp: Dada Composition , 1920

The painter, sculptor, textile designer, interior designer and dancer Sophie Taeuber-Arp (1889–1943), co-founder of Dadaism and representative of geometric, constructive and concrete painting, only became famous and recognized after her death . She worked intermittently with Sonia Delaunay. Like Taeuber-Arp, Hannah Höch (1889–1978) was a graphic and collage artist who was a representative of Dadaimus. The Hannah Höch Prize , named after her , has been awarded by the State of Berlin since 1996 for outstanding artistic life's work.

Lil Picard (1899-1994), b. Lilli Elisabeth Benedick from Landau in the Palatinate was married to Fritz Picard until 1926 . In 1936 she emigrated to New York with the banker Hans Felix Jüdell because of the increasing anti-Semitism in Germany. Lil Picard was successful there as a painter, sculptor, art critic, photographer, performance and happening artist. Her artistic development as a painter began around 1939. Towards the end of the 1950s, she anticipated developments in her work that years later would be formulated in pop art . Their use of letter combinations is reminiscent of the later work of Robert Indiana . As in a premonition of the Coke cans by Jasper Johns and the Brillo boxes by Andy Warhol , she uses commercial cosmetics as a motif. Around 1960 Lil Picard was working on reliefs and tableaus that showed autobiographical and feminist references. She held her first happening , The Bed , in 1964 at the age of 65, in Café Au Go Go . The work consisted of a kind of striptease on an electrically adjustable bed, with Meredith Monk assisting as a dancer. In 1965 Lil Picard met Andy Warhol and maintained close relationships with other artists at the Warhol Factory . Her art Construction-Destruction-Construction in the Factory was filmed by Warhol and published in his underground experimental film **** (Four Stars) in 1968.

Camille Claudel: Vertumnus and Pomona or Sakuntala , marble sculpture, 1905

Camille Claudel (1864–1943) was a French sculptor and painter, whose path in life shows the tragic debate about the independence of Auguste Rodin and other typical conditions for women artists.

Käthe Kollwitz: Poster Never Again War , 1924
Emily Carr: War Canoes, Alert Bay , 1910

The socially critical German graphic artist and sculptor Käthe Kollwitz (1867–1945) became the first woman to be a member of the Prussian Academy of the Arts in 1919 . Influenced by Expressionism and Realism , the pacifist and socialist created haunting works that made her one of the best-known artists of the 20th century after the Second World War. After the National Socialists came to power , she had to leave the academy in 1933. Her works were removed from the academy's exhibition in 1936 and were therefore considered degenerate art . The Käthe Kollwitz Museum Cologne has an extensive collection of her sculptures, graphic sheets, drawings and posters.

The Canadian painter Emily Carr (1871–1945), who made a significant contribution to the breakthrough of modern art in Canada, took an unusual path . She studied in London, Cornwall, San Francisco from 1899–1905 and again in Paris in 1910/11, including at the Académie Colarossi . There she got to know works by Henri Matisse , Pablo Picasso and post-impressionism . The main themes in her work are the Native American culture and the landscape of her home province of British Columbia . From 1907 she repeatedly visited Indian settlements and documented the life and culture of the indigenous people of Alaska and British Columbia in paintings, watercolors and drawings, especially the still existing Indian totem poles . Her late Impressionist pictures of the summer of 1912 met with so little approval that Carr gave up serious painting for a long time. It was not until 1927 that she turned back to her art, with participation in an exhibition at the National Gallery of Canada and recognition from the Group of Seven painters with decisive factors. Formally, she never became a member of the group, but a few years later she was considered the “mother of modern art”. Her extensive late work is often understood as her actual artistic achievement.

Helene Schjerfbeck: Self-Portrait , 1912

In her early, naturalistic phase, the Finnish painter Helene Schjerfbeck (1862–1946) stood out for her choice of motifs that was daring at the time for women (e.g. injured and dead soldiers). With her turn to painterly modernity, she realized the relentless portrayal of vulnerability in her numerous self-portraits with an ever more radical reduction of details while at the same time using expressive lines and colors.

Gabriele Münter (1877–1962), student and partner of Wassily Kandinsky , was a member of the Blue Rider and turned her house in Murnau into a center for modern art. She was named after the Gabriele Münter Prize , which has been awarded every three years since 1994 for female visual artists aged 40 and over.

Dorothea Maetzel-Johannsen: Paris, Pont Neuf , 1925

Dorothea Maetzel-Johannsen (1886–1930) is one of the modern painters who have largely fallen into oblivion. Her life and work were only fully appreciated in 2014 in a monograph.

Frida Kahlo (1907–1954), by far the most famous painter in Mexico , if not Latin America, maintained her artistic independence under unfavorable conditions at the side of Diego Rivera . She is considered the most important representative of a popular development of Surrealism , although her work sometimes shows elements of the New Objectivity .

The surrealist painter Jacqueline Lamba (1910–1993), who was married to André Breton from 1923 to 1944, is quoted in Mark Polizzotti's biography of Breton as saying:

“Il me présentait à ses amis comme une naïade parce qu'il jugeait cela plus poétique que de me présenter comme un peintre en quête de travail. Il voyait en moi ce qu'il voulait voir mais en fait il ne me voyait pas réellement. Translation: 'He presented me to his friends as a naiad because he found it much more poetic than presenting an artist and her work. He saw in me what he wanted to see, but he didn't really see me. '"

Meret Oppenheim (1913–1985) was able to develop artistically despite a creative crisis and influenced artists such as Jean Tinguely , Franz Eggenschwiler and Daniel Spoerri . She resisted the appropriation of her work as surrealist or feminist and represented the views of the psychoanalyst C. G. Jung .

Other surrealist painters were for example Leonora Carrington (1917–2011), Kay Sage (1898–1963), Dorothea Tanning (1910–2012) and Remedios Varo (1908–1963).

Elfriede Lohse-Wächtler: Self-Portrait , around 1930
Helene von Taussig: Lady with a Yellow Hat , 1920

Influence of National Socialism

In Germany and later in Austria who put Nazis after their takeover artists under pressure, the Nazi ideal of art of the so-called German Art did not comply. So they defamed the work of artists such as Maria Caspar-Filser , Paula Modersohn-Becker or Elfriede Lohse-Wächtler as "degenerate". Elfriede Lohse-Wächtler was also stigmatized as a disabled person and murdered in the Pirna-Sonnenstein sanatorium . The Austrian painter Helene von Taussig was murdered in the Izbica Ghetto in 1942 ; her work was forgotten.

Anita Rée: Gorge near Pians , 1921

Even before that, around 1930, the NSDAP harassed artists such as Anita Rée (1885–1933), a German painter of Jewish descent who was born in Hamburg and was baptized as an Evangelical Lutheran. In the winter of 1912/1913 she had participated in the life drawing of Fernand Léger in Paris . At that time, participating in a German studio would have been accused of scandalous behavior. In her work, influences from Léger, Picasso , Matisse and Cézanne can be seen . In 1919 Rée was a founding member of the Hamburg Secession artists' association . After the NSDAP accused her of Jewish origins from 1930 onwards , she left Hamburg in 1932 and moved to Sylt . On April 25, 1933, she was defamed and excluded from the Hamburg artists ' body. Rée committed suicide in Kampen on December 12, 1933 .

From 1933, artists who did not meet the Nazi dictates were, from the now- conformist excluded artists' associations and were forbidden to exhibit such as Alice Hair Burger (1891 to 1942). Women artists who were able to flee usually had no opportunity to continue their artistic work in exile. Many who did not flee were later deported to concentration camps , like Maria Luiko (1904–1941) . Also Alma del Banco (1863-1943) was in the era of National Socialism persecuted as a Jew, reviled as "degenerate" and her murder came in a death camp from suicide before.

Alma del Banco: Summer theater , around 1918–1922
Ursula Benser: Woman with Liqueur , 1943

The still very young Ursula Benser (1915–2001), one of the few students at the Düsseldorf Art Academy since 1931 , was awarded the master's degree in 1935 . However, she was not admitted to an exhibition organized by the Academy, as her pictures were described as “unsuitable” and “unfeminine” for a painter in a small show by Degenerate Art . In her resume as an active painter, too, she refused to expand her artistic engagement far-reaching, caught in the self-limiting role as a wife and the reluctance to be measured by the names of her male ancestors, Sohn-Rethel and father Heuser .

The Second World War made free artistic work increasingly difficult for women across Europe. Only a few of the artists who were persecuted or damaged by the war were able to continue their work uninterrupted after the war. Therefore, many of them, like the Russian-German painter Alexandra Povòrina , are counted among the “ lost generation ”.

After 1945

Alice Neel (1900–1984), an American realist painter , redefined the image of women in art. Her oeuvre, especially her portraiture , is a point of reference for many important artists who work figuratively.

Germaine Richier: Le grand homme de la nuit (1954/55) in the Kröller-Müller Museum

Germaine Richier (1902–1959) became known as one of the most important modern sculptors in the post-war period; her work shows bronze figures that represent abstract hybrids of humans and animals. Like Alberto Giacometti, she studied with Émile-Antoine Bourdelle in Paris, and like him, she dealt with the Surrealists . The sculpture from 1946, Mante religieuse ( praying mantis ), whose females occasionally eat the males during or after the act of mating, addresses an unusually aggressive female sexuality for the time being.

Louise Bourgeois: Maman , Guggenheim Museum Bilbao

The works of art by the French-American sculptor Louise Bourgeois (1911–2010) were inspired in part by discussions with her parents. The international art world became aware of them late, initially exclusively in the United States. After the New York Museum of Modern Art dedicated a retrospective to Louise Bourgeois in 1982, other US museums followed. It also achieved international recognition with other major retrospectives. The Japan Art Association recognized Louise Bourgeois' life's work in 1999 with the award of the Praemium Imperiale , the most important prize for contemporary art .

Leading abstract expressionist artists in New York were Lee Krasner (1908–1984) and Elaine de Kooning (1918–1989). Joan Mitchell (1925–1992) was influenced by Claude Monet's late work in France . Agnes Martin (1912-2004) lived in New Mexico . Lee Krasner and her partner Jackson Pollock influenced each other artistically. Elaine de Kooning pursued the approach, inconceivable in the art of her time, of depicting men as sexual objects.

Maria Lassnig (1919–2014) was accepted into the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts and initially studied with Wilhelm Dachauer , after differences with Ferdinand Andri and Herbert Boeckl . Influenced by surrealism , Lassnig created works after the end of the war in the sense of tachistic , and somewhat later informal art . She broke away from conventional art schools and painted "body feeling pictures", which also reflected her subjectivity in color. These works form the focus of her life's work. She has also made a number of artistic films such as 1976 Art Education , a feminist interpretation of famous paintings by Michelangelo and Vermeer's, among others . Maria Lassnig has received numerous art prizes.

Lygia Clark (1920–1988) began her career in Brazilian neo-concretism and was a pioneer of interactive art. Works after 1963 can only be sensually experienced by participants who manipulate them. Art museums were not suitable for such work, so reception was limited in this regard.

Adrian Piper: The Color Wheel Series # 29: Annomayakosha , 2000, photo-text collage with screen printing

The conceptual artist and philosopher Adrian Piper (* 1948) was 20 years old when she first exhibited her art on an international level. In 1969 she graduated from the School of Visual Arts in the field of fine arts with a focus on painting and sculpture. While continuing to produce and exhibit art, she graduated from Harvard University with a PhD in 1981 . From 1977 to 1978 she also studied Immanuel Kant and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel with Dieter Henrich at Heidelberg University .

Niki de Saint Phalle: Gwendolyn , 1966, Tinguely Museum Basel

Niki de Saint Phalle (1930–2002) was a French-Swiss painter and sculptor. In Germany she is best known for her Nanas , created from 1965 onwards : oversized, ironic and amusing, sometimes grotesque sculptures of female bodies with lush shapes. She belonged to the Nouveaux Réalistes artist group, founded in 1960 , with Arman , César , Daniel Spoerri , Jean Tinguely and others.

Jeanne-Claude (1935–2009), married to the artist Christo since 1958 , did not appear in his self-staging until the 1990s, although she had worked with him for decades. Since then, both have used the reading that from the beginning they were a symbiotically linked, equal working couple of independent artists: as Christo and Jeanne-Claude .

The American sculptor , painter and filmmaker Nancy Graves (1940–1995) was best known for her precise reproductions of camels and her occupation with lunar maps. In 1969, Graves was the first female artist to have a solo exhibition at the renowned Whitney Museum of American Art in New York.

Social dimensions of contemporary art by women

In the present, women are in the majority in advanced art courses, in academies and in smaller exhibitions. They receive roughly the same number of sponsorship awards as men. For the documenta 12 artists were invited, "whose importance and influence had not yet been sufficiently appreciated in the eyes of exhibition organizers." Half of these artists were women. In contrast, women artists are still under-represented in museums, important galleries and art magazines. A study of the presence of women in Düsseldorf art institutions in 1999, for example, revealed 167 solo exhibitions by men and 8 solo exhibitions (4.6%) by women in the Kunsthalle over the past 30 years. The Museum Frieder Burda , founded in 2004, names 77 artists on its list of artists. The municipal gallery in the Lenbachhaus in Munich owns 28,000 works of art (as of 2016). Of those that were created up to 1900, only one percent came from women. If you take into account all works up to the end of the Second World War, you get a share of six percent, from 1946 to 2015 it only increased to eleven percent. The ratio is not only unbalanced in Germany: the Tate Gallery's avant-garde Turner Prize, which is awarded annually, was won by three women and twenty-two men (until 2009). With a poster campaign “Do women have to be naked to go to US museums?”, The Guerrilla Girls took up in 1989 that, according to their research, less than 5 percent of the artists in the Museum of Modern Art in New York were women, while 85 percent of all nudes were women .

The conceptual artist Lee Lozano (1930–1999) dealt with cultural identity, the construction of femininity and the art business itself in her work. In 1970, she was one of the first female artists to have a solo exhibition at the Whitney Museum of American Art . Nevertheless, like many conceptual artists, she criticized the practices of the art business and also questioned her own position in the art scene. One of her best-known conceptual works is the General Strike Piece :

“Generally but determinedly avoid being present at offical or 'uptown' functions or gatherings related to the 'art world' in order to pursue investigations of total personal and public revolution. Exhibit in public only pieces which further sharing of ideas & information related to total personal & public revolution. "

“Avoid being broadly and determinedly attending formal or 'upscale' events or receptions related to the 'art world' and instead pursue investigations into the full personal and public revolution. Only publicly display works that promote the exchange of ideas & information on the full personal & public revolution. "

- Lee Lozano : General Strike Piece (February 8, 1969)

In the early 1970s Lozano broke off her connection to the New York art scene with her action BOYCOTT WOMEN (1971). Lozano died in Dallas in 1999 at the age of 68. After a solo exhibition in P, p. 1 in 2004, Lozano was rediscovered in numerous solo and group exhibitions.

Yoko Ono (* 1933), one of the first concept artists and performers and a pioneer of the Fluxus movement, published a manifesto in 1971, The Feminization of Society . She made statements about the task and role of the artist and is considered to be committed to feminism.

The Dinner Party , art installation by Judy Chicago

With the project The Dinner Party, Judy Chicago (* 1939) succeeded in decoding the repressed artistic achievements of women in history. In collaboration with groups of women and artists in the USA and around the world, extraordinary artistic and cultural achievements by women were rediscovered, brought to the fore and presented in a large art installation.

In their oeuvre, the successful performance artists Marina Abramović , Lynda Benglis , Ana Mendieta and Carolee Schneemann visibly deal with the position of the artist in society and in the art world. In her work, Carolee Schneemann refers to women as artists and models several times (see Carolee Schneemann: Interior Scroll ).

Jenny Holzer: Installation ,
Art Museum in Toyota (Aichi)

Ulrike Rosenbach (* 1943) had a teaching position for feminist art and media art at the California Institute of Arts in Valencia (California) / LA in 1975/1976. After returning to Germany, she first lived and worked as a freelance artist in Cologne , where she founded a school for creative feminism. In 1977 and 1987 she took part in the documenta . In 1989 Rosenbach received a professorship for New Artistic Media at the Saar College of Fine Arts in Saarbrücken , where she was Rector from 1990 to 1993.

In the 1970s, women appeared for the first time in the front row of a new art movement, appropriation art , the most important representatives of which were Cindy Sherman , Sherrie Levine , Louise Lawler , Barbara Kruger and Jenny Holzer .

The film ! Women Art Revolution by Lynn Hersman Leeson , which was awarded by the Museum of Modern Art in 2011, provides an insight into contributions by women artists to cultural changes in the USA and in internationally important art since the 1960s.

Academies, institutions, interest groups

Exhibition locations and exhibitions

Hittisau Women's Museum

Museums and galleries

National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington

Exhibitions (selection)

Awards

Art market

Georgia O'Keeffe's 1932 painting Jimson Weed / White Flower No. 1 was auctioned at Sotheby’s , New York, in November 2014 for $ 44.4 million (35.5 million euros) - making it the most expensive work by a painter in art history to date. The picture broke two records. For a work by O'Keeffes, the proceeds were 6.2 million dollars, achieved 13 years ago at Christie's in New York. The record for the most expensive work by an artist has been exceeded several times. So far, Joan Mitchell's work Untitled , which had been auctioned for $ 11.9 million in May 2014, was at the top. The O'Keeffe picture broke the record nearly four times. The artists of the Beat Generation like Jay DeFeo , Joanne Kyger or Deborah Remington and their works have only been noticed by museums, galleries and the art market in the USA and Europe since around 2013 .

literature

  • Edith Almhofer: Performance Art. The art of living . Verlag Böhlau, Vienna 1986, ISBN 3-205-07290-1 .
  • Renate Berger: Female painters on the way into the 20th century. Art history as social history . Dumont, Cologne 1982, ISBN 3-7701-1395-0 (also dissertation, University of Hamburg 1980).
  • Karla Bilang: Artists of the First German Autumn Salon. In: dies .: Women in the STORM. Modern artists . Aviva, Berlin 2013, ISBN 978-3-932338-57-1 , pp. 23-86.
  • Frances Borzello: Your own world. Women in art history (“A world of your own”). Gerstenberg, Hildesheim 2000, ISBN 3-8067-2872-0 .
  • Gisela Breitling (arr.): The hidden museum. Documentation of women's art in public collections . Edition Hentrich, Berlin 1987, ISBN 3-926175-38-9 (catalog of the exhibition of the same name, Akademie der Künste (Berlin) , December 18, 1987 to February 7, 1988).
  • Hedwig Brenner : Jewish women in the fine arts V Hartung-Gorre Verlag, 2013, ISBN 978-3-86628-473-9
  • Whitney Chadwick: Women, Art and Society. Deutscher Kunstverlag, Berlin 2013, ISBN 978-3-422-07180-3 .
  • Judy Chicago , Edward Lucie-Smith : The Other Look. The woman as a model and painter ("Women and art. Contested territory"). Knesebeck Verlag, Munich 2000, ISBN 3-89660-062-1 .
  • Ingrid von der Dollen: Painters in the 20th Century. Visual art of the "lost generation" . Hirmer Verlag, Munich 2000, ISBN 3-7774-8700-7 (plus dissertation, University of Frankfurt am Main 1999).
  • Feminist bibliography on women's studies in art history . Verlag Centaurus, Pfaffenweiler 1993, ISBN 3-89085-400-1 (Women in History and Society; 20).
  • Gabriele Ecker (Ed.): Image of women. The image of women in art and literature . Literature edition Niederösterreichisches Landesmuseum, St. Pölten 2003, ISBN 3-901117-69-5 .
  • Katrin Hassler: Art and Gender. On the importance of gender for taking top positions in the art field. transcript, Bielefeld 2017, ISBN 978-3-8376-3990-2 .
  • Karoline Hille: Women's Games. Women artists in surrealism . Belser, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-7630-2534-3 .
  • Edith Krull: Art by Women. The job description of female visual artists in four centuries . Verlag Weidlich, Frankfurt am Main 1984, ISBN 3-8035-1227-1 .
  • Debra N. Mancoff: Women Who Changed Art. German by Mechthild Barth. Prestel, Munich 2012, ISBN 978-3-7913-4732-5
  • Carola Muysers (Ed.): Profession without tradition. 125 years of the Association of Berlin Women Artists. A research and exhibition project by the Berlinische Galerie in collaboration with the Association of Berlin Women Artists . Kupfergraben VG, Berlin 1992, ISBN 3-89181-410-0 (catalog of the exhibition of the same name, September 11 to November 1, 1992).
  • Carola Muysers (ed.): The visual artist. Evaluation and change in German source texts 1855–1945 . Verlag der Kunst, Amsterdam 1999, ISBN 90-5705-074-9 .
  • Gislind Nabakowski, Helke Sander , Peter Gorsen : Women in Art , Volumes 1 and 2, Edition Suhrkamp, ​​1980 ISBN 978-3-518-10952-6
  • Linda Nochlin : Why weren't there any great women artists? 1971. In: Beate Söntgen (Ed.): Frame change. Art history as cultural studies from a feminist perspective . Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-05-002855-6 , pp. 27–56.
  • Renate Petzinger, Ingrid Koszinowski: artists, filmmakers, designers. Work and impact opportunities in the old federal states . Federal Ministry for Education and Science, Bonn 1992 (Education Wissenschaft aktuell; 92/3).
  • Gottfried Sello : painters from five centuries. New edition Ellert and Richter, Hamburg 2004, ISBN 3-89234-525-2 .
  • Gabriele Schor (Ed.): Donna. Avantguardia Feminista Negli Anni '70, dalla Collection Verbund di Vienna . Electa, Rome 2010, ISBN 978-88-370-7414-2 (catalog of the exhibition of the same name, February 16 to March 16, 2010; text in English and Italian).
  • Ann Sutherland Harris, Linda Nochlin (Eds.): Women Artists. 1550-1950 . Alfred A. Knopf, New York 1976, ISBN 0-87587-073-2 (catalog of the exhibition of the same name, Los Angeles Country Museum of Art, December 21, 1976 to March 13, 1977).
  • Beate Talmon de Cardozo: Cuba - Art: The woman in the focus of artistic creation from the end of the colonial era to the present . Tectum, Marburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-8288-2272-6 .
  • Dorothee Wimmer, Christina Feilchenfeldt, Stephanie Tasch (eds.): Art collectors. Reimer, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-496-01367-9
  • Peggy Zeglin Brand, Carolyn Korsmeyer (Ed.): Feminism and Tradition in Aesthetics . Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park 1995, ISBN 0-271-01340-0 .

Web links

Commons : Female artists  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

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  112. ↑ Sandra Danicke : Naked somersault in heaven. In: Frankfurter Rundschau , October 29, 2015.
  113. ↑ battle of the sexes - Franz von Stuck to Frida Kahlo at the Städel Museum, November 24, 2016 to March 19, 2017 , on staedelmuseum.de retrieved on November 26, 2016
  114. ^ The painter's fear of the strong woman , Felix Krämer in conversation with Anke Schaefer, on Deutschland Radio Kultur, contribution from November 23, 2016
  115. ↑ I'm not a nice girl! im K21 shows works by four first generation conceptual artists: Eleanor Antin, Lee Lozano, Adrian Piper and Mierle Laderman Ukeles. In their work they negotiate relevant socio-political and feminist topics such as institutional criticism, racism, identity and gender politics, but also ecologically activist issues.
  116. ↑ O'Keeffe is the most expensive female artist in the world. In: n-tv . from November 21, 2014.
  117. ↑ Alexandra Gonzéleöz: The volcanoes of the west coast. Hardly anyone knows the artists of the beat generation. Now they are being rediscovered. , in: Süddeutsche Zeitung , No. 48, 27./28. February 2016, p. 21.
  118. ↑ sehepunkte.de: Review of female art collectors , Jennifer John, 2009