Çatalhöyük

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Coordinates: 37 ° 40 ′ 3 ″  N , 32 ° 49 ′ 42 ″  E

Relief Map: Turkey
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Çatalhöyük​
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Animation by Çatalhöyük
Neolithic settlements around 7500 BC And their geographical relationships in the fertile crescent

Çatalhöyük (also Çatal Höyük , Çatal Hüyük or Chatal-Hayouk ; Turkish çatal “fork” and Höyük “hill”) is a settlement from the Neolithic period excavated in what is now Turkey , it is dated between 7500 and 5700 BC. And their heyday around 7000 BC Dated. The settlement was about 40 kilometers southeast of the city of Konya on the Anatolian plateau and had several thousand inhabitants. They are attributed to the Central Anatolian Neolithic (CAN).

Çatalhöyük has been part of the UNESCO World Heritage since 2012 .

Research history

The settlement was discovered in the late 1950s. Between 1961 and 1965, the British archaeologist James Mellaart of the London Institute of Archeology excavated an area in the south-west of the hill. He uncovered the remains of over 160 houses. The excavation work was stopped in 1965 after the Turkish antiquities administration revoked James Mellaart's excavation license due to the Dorak affair . There are preliminary reports and a rather popular book about his excavations. A comprehensive publication of his excavation findings and results is still not available.

In 1993, the work was resumed as part of an international research project under the direction of the anthropologist Ian Hodder ( University of Cambridge , later Stanford University ) (excavations since 1995), which investigates post-process approaches in prehistoric and early history research. In the first phase, 1993–1995, mainly surface investigations were carried out. In 1996–2002 the team examined individual houses to understand deposition processes. In the third investigation phase between 2003 and 2012 (excavations 2003–2008), the structure of the settlement and the social structure of the residents were to be examined. The new excavations on the main hill (Çatalhöyük Ost) concentrate on the southern area already excavated by Mellaart, an excavation area in the north and an excavation cut on the northern edge of the hill ( Konya Plain palaeoenvironmental project KOPAL). The team exposed houses 1, 3 and 5 there. The excavations focus on the highest point on the east hill and examine the latest layers of the place. To the south of the hill, they continued digging Mellaart's old cut to clarify the stratigraphy of the settlement. In the southern section, a “column” of houses (65, 56, 44 and 10) lying one above the other was examined over time. Hodder sees strong "micro-traditions" at work here and assumes that a group of houses has been inhabited by the same group of people over the long term, in the case of this group for almost 500 years. The settlement covers an area of ​​13 hectares.

Up to now about 5% of the settlement mound has been archaeologically investigated, but the entire mound has been investigated geomagnetically and through inspections. So far (2015) more than 200 houses have been uncovered. In 2008 a protective structure was built over part of the uncovered house findings in excavation area 4040.

Further investigations apply to the Copper Stone Age west hill (Çatalhöyük West). A team from the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan , led by Arek Marciniak, works there. Teams from SUNY Buffalo , Selçuk Üniversitesi Konya under Ahmet Tırpan and Asuman Baldıran, the Trakya Üniversitesi Edirne under Burçin Erdoğu and the University of Berlin also work here.

Due to its age, size, architecture, wall paintings and other finds inside the houses, Çatalhöyük achieved worldwide fame and is considered a milestone in prehistoric archeology.

Dating

Mellaart defined 14 layers: 0 – XII (VI divided into A and B), which belong to the PPNB and the ceramic Neolithic of Central Anatolia. According to radiocarbon dating , these layers existed between 7500 and 6200 cal BC . The deep section dates between 7400 and 7000 cal BC . The west hill was from the early ceramic Neolithic to the Copper Age in the 6th millennium BC. Settled in BC, it is unclear whether the settlement began when the east hill was still inhabited, the residents had moved or there was a gap in the settlement.The settlement of the west hill ended around 6500 BC cal. In Roman and Byzantine times cemeteries were laid on both hills.

location

Excavations in Çatalhöyük

The settlement near the Çarşamba river was well chosen: there was sufficient water available, an important location factor in the low-precipitation Konya plain. The natural food supply around Çatalhöyük was correspondingly rich (game, collective fruits). Boncuklu Höyük, about 10 km away, dates from the late Epipalaeolithic and dates to the 9th and 8th millennium BC. It can be seen in many ways as the forerunner of Catal Höyük. Barbara Mills assumes that the religious practices of Çatal Höyük originated when the population of the area concentrated in one place after the end of the settlement of Boncuklu, thus representing an amalgam of different traditions. The favorable conditions presumably brought the population from the surrounding area together in Çatal Höyük and caused the settlement to be enormous at that time. At the same time as layers VI there was also the settlement of Pınarbaşı , which shared many of the customs of Catal Höyük, such as reliefs modeled over animal bones, but in different designs.

The settlement consists of two hills, the west and east hills. The east hill contains the older parts of the settlement. Most of the excavations have taken place here so far, while only a few cuts have been made on the west hill, which show that the remains of the settlement there date to the Chalcolithic .

settlement

Model of the Catalhöyük settlement, museum for prehistory and early history in Thuringia (Weimar)

The settlement consisted of closely spaced rectangular mud brick or rammed earth houses with flat roofs. Different room heights and floor levels ensured ventilation and light supply for the individual buildings and created a stair-like nesting. There were no streets, alleys or passages between the individual houses. On the few open spaces there were piles of rubbish. The buildings were accessed via the flat roofs. This building and settlement principle is also from other Central Anatolian places such as. B. Aşıklı and Can Hasan ( Karaman Province ) known. The excavations of the last few years have shown that, in addition to individual, densely built-up areas, there were also open spaces, so that the number of houses with an estimated 400 to 1850 per shift was not as large as initially assumed. Contrary to earlier estimates of up to 10,000 people living in the settlement at the same time, which undoubtedly contributed to the inappropriateness of the name city , today there are up to 3,500 to 8,000 simultaneous residents, although the number of inhabitants has certainly varied over time. The dense settlement with the garbage deposited in vacant places may have resulted in poor sanitary conditions and problems with access to the individual houses or with the transport of materials. The house mouse has been proven to be a pest .

The houses

Reconstruction of the interior of a building

The houses were accessed via a ladder, which was mostly on the south wall. The entry hatch served as a smoke outlet for the stove, which was also placed on this wall. Soot deposits could be found especially on the inside of the ribs of older individuals. Replicas have shown that the light penetrating through the skylight in conjunction with the whitewashed walls provided the rooms with sufficient brightness during the day. The floors were laid out on different levels and set off by edges: an efficient way of separating areas in one-room buildings from one another and keeping them clean. Various floor areas were covered with reed mats. Raised platforms were placed in front of individual walls, which may have served as sleeping places. On the north side of the houses, a narrower room was sometimes separated off, which was used for storage. Most of the residents' economic activities took place on the roofs.

James Mellaart made a distinction between houses and shrines, Hodder rejects such a distinction, in his opinion all buildings show traces of ritual and everyday actions. Hodder, on the other hand, makes a distinction between lavish houses (painted or with figurative decorations, bucraniums, etc.), houses with several burials, history houses and normal houses, but admits that the boundaries are often fluid, so there were no economic differences.

Van Huyssteen sees in Çatal Höyük a sense of identity related to the house.

Wall reliefs and paintings

One of the most spectacular finds from Çatalhöyük is undoubtedly the murals and reliefs uncovered by James Mellaart on the inner walls of individual houses. The best preserved buildings came to light mainly in the burned layer VI. Bull skulls overmodeled with clay or plaster were attached to the walls individually or in groups. In one case, “bull horns” were placed one behind the other along a clay bench. Two leopards facing each other on the west wall of house VIB44 were also depicted as a wall relief. Sharp and pointed parts of wild animals such as B. The lower jaw of wild boar owls with tusks, the toothed lower jaw of a fox and a weasel or badger as well as the skull of a griffon vulture were found "invisibly" embedded in wall projections made of clay plaster. Nakamura and Pels see this as evidence of magical acts.

Several times a being was depicted as a relief with spread arms and legs, each angled in the direction of the head, and an accentuated navel. The reliefs are covered with several layers of plaster and paintings. Head, hands and feet were always chopped off. James Mellaart interpreted this representation as a goddess giving birth . The discovery of a stamp from Çatalhöyük showing a bear in exactly this posture makes it clear that the interpretation does not necessarily apply. Kammerman compares this representation with a representation of reptiles in Göbekli Tepe .

The wall paintings were done in red, black or white color. Numerous layers of paint on top of one another show that the painting was often renewed. In addition to abstract patterns, there were mainly animal scenes in which several people are shown teasing and chasing a wild cattle, stag , wild boar or bear . Amazingly, the wild animals depicted played only a subordinate role in the diet of Neolithic people. The domesticated animals or plants that are important for nutrition , on the other hand, do not appear in wall art. Presumably the hunts were held as initiation rites or for other celebrations. Certain dangerous parts of the animals were then brought to the settlement to commemorate these events. It is similar with the leopard: In the representations it is occupied several times and obviously plays an important role. Apparently his fur was used as (male) clothing, as can be seen on various wall paintings. So far, however, leopard bones have not been detected. Wild and domesticated animals can therefore be assigned to two completely different areas.

Perhaps the oldest cartographic representation was found in Çatalhöyük in 1963 . The wall painting was found in Shrine 14 and shows the settlement around 6200 BC. With its houses and the double peak of the Hasan Dağı volcano . Even the inner structures of the buildings, which fit together without any space in between, are indicated by main and secondary rooms. However, the interpretation of this representation is controversial.

Finds

Organic materials

The excavation site surprised by the good preservation of organic materials. Twenty wooden vessels were recovered in Layer VI, which owe their good preservation to a major fire. Even textile remnants have been preserved. Woven baskets were used to store vegetable products and for children's burials.

stone

The inventory also includes pearls, stone vessels, hatchets and millstones.

Obsidian was a popular material for tools and weapons . Obsidian mirrors are also important. The obsidian came from Göllü Dağ (East) and Nenezi Dağ , about 190 kilometers from Çatalhöyük. Flint was also used.

volume

Clay balls were probably used for cooking. The introduction of pottery in Çatalhöyük can be traced back to changed cooking customs. People cooked and stored animal food in the undecorated ceramic vessels.

The importance of numerous stamps made of clay ( pintaderas ) with geometric patterns and pictures of animals is controversial. Perhaps they were used to mark property, because clay stamps only appeared with the establishment of households as independently operating units. Use as a bread stamp is also conceivable . They were probably used to decorate organic materials made of fabric, skin, wood or as body jewelry.

Statuettes show people and animals. Most anthropomorphic statuettes do not have a clearly identifiable gender. Only 2.2% of the 1800 figurines are clearly female. They come mainly from the upper strata of the settlement. The figurines were made of local clay and are mostly unfired or only slightly fired. They were mainly found in rubbish heaps.

marble

In 2016, a 17 centimeter long and one kilogram heavy female figurine was unearthed; due to its intact condition and the fine craftsmanship, it was rated as unique. The figurine was discovered by the team of archaeologists working at the settlement under the direction of Ian Hodder , is made of marble and is dated 8000 to 5500 BC. Dated.

Economy

The livelihoods of the inhabitants were the gathering economy, hunting, animal husbandry and agriculture. Einkorn , emmer , naked barley and bread wheat were found as field crops . There is also evidence of field peas and vetch . Sheep and goats were primarily kept as domestic animals. The cattle bones found in Çatalhöyük mostly come from wild cattle; Domesticated cattle bones come only from the youngest layers of the settlement on the west hill, which dates to the sixth millennium. Bird bones are more common in Catal Höyük than in comparable Anatolian settlements, but this is probably due to the fact that systematic sieving was carried out. They are most common in the earliest layers. Waterfowl are very common, and the most common species is the goose.

Burials

Many, but not all, of the houses contained burials. Newborns and toddlers were mostly buried in the south of the house, where stoves and ovens were also located, adults under the sleeping platforms in the north of the house. Hodder gives 5–8 burials as an average. House 1 contained 62 deaths, the highest number to date. Some houses contained more deaths than residents are likely to have, for example House 1. Long-term houses in the same location had more burials than others. Hodder calls these "history houses". They are also more often decorated. Anthropological analyzes indicate that the dead buried together were not related to one another. The anthropologist Barbara Mills assumes that they are members of sodalities .

In some of the burials, the skulls were subsequently removed. These are mostly men. Only once was a child's skull removed (house 44)., In one case, a woman's head was removed and, some time later, replaced with a man's head. In house 42 the skeleton of a woman was found holding the plaster-covered and red-painted skull of a man. It is the only plastic modeled skull from the settlement, but the custom can often be found in the Levant in the PPNB , for example in Jericho or Tell Ramad . In Turkey, the custom from Köşk Höyük is known. The woman wore a leopard bone as a pendant, the only one that has so far been found in the settlement. Other bones could also be removed afterwards, as an articulated skeleton without limbs in house 49 shows.

Children were partly buried in baskets, which can be proven by means of phytolites .

Newborns were preferably used as construction sacrifices , children and fetuses are less common.

society

So far there is no evidence of special or public buildings from Çatalhöyük. Despite the narrow and dense development, the individual residential units turn out to be autonomous units. There were facilities for storing food in every house. Mud brick production, animal husbandry , grain processing , stone or bone tool production also took place at household level. The individual households were therefore largely self-sufficient. A central location for the surrounding area cannot be identified. The term large housing estate is more appropriate for Çatalhöyük than the term city .

"Goddess" on the leopard throne . Female anthropomorphic representation from Çatalhöyük

The female figurines in particular aroused the interest of feminist researchers at an early stage . The most famous example of these figurines comes from a grain bin in a house of Layer II. The lush female figure sits on a throne flanked by two lionesses. She gives birth to a child or a skull. During the excavations by James Mellaart, a large number of other sculptures with similarly luscious women came to light. In matriarchal research , Çatalhöyük is therefore repeatedly used as an example of a matriarchal culture in which the sexes lived as equals.

However, these theories find little support or are considered controversial from research on prehistory and early history. The contexts of the finds of the figurines indicate a relationship to grain farming or storage and are thus complementary to male depictions, for example, of the hunting scenes in wall paintings. An interpretation of the anthropomorphic female representations as goddesses has no basis. In addition, some of the figurines also depict men, while other pieces do not show any gender-specific characteristics. - The representation of gender was apparently not essential in these cases. Only 5% of the approximately 2000 figures found are female. Others depict farm animals such as sheep and goats. Researchers suspect that the figures were primarily used as toys and in raising children. Lynn Meskell even speaks of a phallocentrism in Çatal Höyük and other Neolithic Anatolian settlements such as Göbekli Tepe and Nevalı Çori .

Matrilocality , which is assumed in matriarchal theories as an indication of communities organized according to maternal rights , was not proven in Çatalhöyük. Instead, the various findings suggest gender equality; B. in the obvious equal treatment of burials or the practice of the cult of the skull. Gender differences in job performance or diet cannot be identified, suggesting that gender did not determine the individual's role in society.

Whereabouts of the finds

Most of the finds from Çatalhöyük, including wall paintings and a replica of a room with bull horns can be viewed in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara , but the small local museum is also worth seeing.

See also

literature

  • Badisches Landesmuseum Karlsruhe (ed.): 12,000 years ago in Anatolia. The oldest monuments of mankind . Book accompanying the exhibition in the Badisches Landesmuseum from January 20 to June 17, 2007. Theiss, Stuttgart 2007, ISBN 978-3-8062-2072-8 .
    • DVD: MediaCultura, Badisches Landesmuseum Karlsruhe (ed.): 12,000 years ago in Anatolia. The oldest monuments of mankind. Theiss, Stuttgart 2007, ISBN 978-3-8062-2090-2 .
  • Ian Hodder : Excavating Çatalhöyük: South, North and Kopal area reports from the 1995-1999 seasons. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2006, Çatalhöyük Research Project 3.
  • Ian Hodder: Çatalhöyük: the leopard's tale: revealing the mysteries of Turkey's ancient 'town'. Thames & Hudson, London 2006.
  • Ian Hodder: Inhabiting Çatalhöyük: reports from the 1995–1999 seasons. (Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research; London: British Institute of Archeology at Ankara 2005), BIAA monograph 38.
  • Heinrich Klotz : The discovery of Çatal Höyük - The archaeological find of the century. Beck, Munich 1997, ISBN 3-406-43209-3 .
  • James Mellaart : Çatal Hüyük - city from the Stone Age. 2nd Edition. Lübbe, Bergisch Gladbach 1973, ISBN 3-7857-0034-2 .
  • Kenneth Pearson, Patricia Connor: The Dorak Affair. Treasures, smugglers, journalists. Zsolnay, Vienna / Hamburg 1968.

Web links

Commons : Çatalhöyük  - album with pictures, videos and audio files
To the excavation history

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Eleni Asouti: Group identity and the politics of dwelling at Neolithic Çatalhöyük . In: Ian Hodder (Ed.): Çatalhöyük Perspectives: Reports from the 1995–1999 Seasons. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge 2005, p. 89.
  2. ^ Ian Hodder: Probing religion at Çatalhöyük: an interdisciplinary experiment. In: ders. (Ed.): Religion in the emergence of civilization, Çatalhöyük as a case study. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2010, pp. 6f.
  3. ^ Ian Hodder: Probing religion at Çatalhöyük: an interdisciplinary experiment. In: ders. (Ed.): Religion in the emergence of civilization, Çatalhöyük as a case study. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2010, p. 7.
  4. ↑ Ian Hodder: The Vitalities of Çatalhöyük. In: ders. (Ed.): Religion at work in a Neolithic society. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2015, p. 8
  5. ^ A b Ian Hodder: The Vitalities of Çatalhöyük. In: ders. (Ed.): Religion at work in a Neolithic society. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2015, p. 9.
  6. ^ Bleda S. Düring: Reconsidering the Çatalhöyük Community: From Households to Settlement Systems. Journal of Mediterranean Archeology 20/2, (2007) 155-182 ISSN  0952-7648
  7. ↑ Ian Hodder: The Vitalities of Çatalhöyük. In: ders. (Ed.): Religion at work in a Neolithic society. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2015, p. 6.
  8. ^ Ian Hodder: Probing religion at Çatalhöyük: an interdisciplinary experiment. In: ders. (Ed.): Religion in the emergence of civilization, Çatalhöyük as a case study. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2010, p. 8.
  9. ↑ Craig Cessford: A new dating for Çatalhöyük. Antiquity 75, 2001, 717-25
  10. ↑ U. Schoop 2005. The Anatolian Chalcolithic. A chronological investigation of the pre-Bronze Age cultural sequence in northern central Anatolia and the adjacent areas . Remshalden, Bernhard Albert Greiner 2005, ISBN 3-935383-38-X ; Peter F. Biehl, Franz, I., Ostaptchouk, S., Orton, D., Rogasch, J., Rosenstock, E., 2012. One community and two tells: the phenomenon of relocating tell settlements at the turn of the 7th and 6th millennia in Central Anatolia. In: Johannes Müller (Ed.), Socioenvironmental Dynamics over the last 12,000 Years: The Creation of Landscapes. Offa 53-66.
  11. ^ W. Chris Carleton, James Conolly, Mark Collard 2013. Corporate kin groups, social memory, and “history houses”? A quantitative test of recent reconstructions of social organization and building function at Catalhöyük during the PPNB. Journal of Archaeological Science 40, 1817, doi: 10.1016 / j.jas.2012.11.011
  12. ↑ Boncuklu Hoyuk Project. Transition from hunter-gatherer-foragers to agriculturalists in Central Anatolia. UCL Institute of archeology, accessed December 23, 2016 .
  13. ↑ a b Barbara J. Mills: Regional network and religious sodalities at Catalhöyük. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.): Religion at work in a Neolithic society. Vital Matters. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2015, p. 165
  14. ↑ Hodder: Çatalhöyük: the leopard's tale: revealing the mysteries of Turkey's ancient town , p. 95
  15. ↑ Victor Buchli, Material register, surface and form at Çatalhöyük. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.): Religion at work in a Neolithic society. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 2015, p. 285
  16. ^ Ian Hodder, Probing religion at Çatalhöyük: an interdisciplinary experiment. In: ders. (Ed.), Religion in the emergence of civilization, Çatalhöyük as a case study. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 2010, 16
  17. ↑ Ian Hodder: The Vitalities of Çatalhöyük. In: ders. (Ed.): Religion at work in a Neolithic society. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2015, p. 15
  18. ↑ a b Wentzel van Huyssteen: The Historical self: Memory and Religion at Çatal Höyük. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.): Religion at work in a Neolithic society. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2014, p. 114.
  19. ↑ Carolyn Nakamura and Peter Pels: Using “magic” to think from the material: Tracing distributed agency, revelation, and concealment at Çatalhöyük. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.): Religion at work in a Neolithic society. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2014, pp. 187-224.
  20. ↑ Anke Kammerman: The use of spatial order in material culture. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.): Religion at work in a Neolithic society. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2014, pp. 304-333.
  21. ↑ Anke Kammerman: The use of spatial order in material culture. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.): Religion at work in a Neolithic society. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2014, p. 319.
  22. ↑ Stephanie Meece: A Bird's Eye View - of a Leopard's Spots: The Çatalhöyük 'Map' and the Development of Cartographic Representation in Prehistory. In: Anatolian Studies . 56, (2006), 1-16
  23. ^ Ian Hodder: Çatalhöyük: the leopard's tale; revealing the mysteries of Turkey's ancient 'town'. Thames and Hudson, London 2006, fig. 67. ISBN 0-500-05141-0 , p. 162.
  24. ↑ Bains, R., Bar-Yosef, D., Russell, N., Vasic, M., Wright, KI 2013: The beads of Çatalhöyük: seasons of 2000-2008. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.): Substantive Technologies from Çatalhöyük: reports from the 2000-2008 seasons. Çatalhöyük Research Project Series 9, 331-363. Los Angeles: Monographs of the Cotsen Institute of Archeology, University of California at Los Angeles.
  25. ↑ A. Baysal, Katherine Wright 2005: Cooking, crafts and curation: ground stone artefacts from Catalhoyuk. 1995-1999. In Ian Hodder (Ed.): Changing Materialities at Çatalhöyük: reports from the 1995-1999 seasons. Çatalhöyük Research Project Series 5, 307-324. Cambridge: Monographs of the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge; British Institute of Archeology at Ankara.
  26. ↑ Craig Cessford, Tristan Carter: Quantifying the Consumption of Obsidian at Neolithic Çatalhöyük, Turkey. In: Journal of Field Archeology 30, 2005, p. 306.
  27. ^ Ian Hodder and Lynn Meskell: The symbolism of Catalhöyük in its regional context. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.): Religion in the emergence of civilization, Çatalhöyük as a case study. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2010, p. 35.
  28. ^ A b Ian Hodder: Probing religion at Çatalhöyük: an interdisciplinary experiment. In: ders. (Ed.): Religion in the emergence of civilization, Çatalhöyük as a case study. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2010, p. 15.
  29. ↑ Annalee Newitz: Incredible discovery of intact female figurine from neolithic era in Turkey Unusually well-preserved figurine is 8,000 years old and likely represents an elder , Ars Technica, 16 September 2016.
  30. ↑ Hodder: Çatalhöyük: the leopard's tale , p. 255
  31. ↑ Nerina Russell, Kevin J. McDownan, Catal Höyük bird bones. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.), Inhabiting Çatalhöyük: Reports from the 1995-1999 Seasons. Cambridge, McDonald Institute 99
  32. ↑ Nerina Russell, Kevin J. McDownan, Catal Höyük bird bones. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.), Inhabiting Çatalhöyük: Reports from the 1995-1999 Seasons. Cambridge, McDonald Institute 101
  33. ↑ Nerina Russell, Kevin J. McDownan, Catal Höyük bird bones. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.), Inhabiting Çatalhöyük: Reports from the 1995-1999 Seasons. Cambridge, McDonald Institute, 100, 102
  34. ^ A b Ian Hodder, Probing religion at Çatalhöyük: an interdisciplinary experiment. In: ders. (Ed.), Religion in the emergence of civilization, Çatalhöyük as a case study. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 2010, 24
  35. ↑ Ian Hodder, The Vitalities of Çatalhöyük. In: ders. (Ed.), Religion at work in a Neolithic society. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 2015, p. 13
  36. ↑ Ian Hodder, The Vitalities of Çatalhöyük. In: ders. (Ed.), Religion at work in a Neolithic society. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2015, p. 13
  37. ↑ Bleda Düring, Constructing communities: clustered neighborhood settlements of the central Anatolian Neolithic 8500-5500 cal. BC. Leiden, Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten 2006
  38. ↑ Simon W. Hillson et al., The human remains I: Interpreting community structure, health and diet in Neolithic Çatalhöyük. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.), Humans and landscapes of Çatalhöyük: Reports from the 2000-2008 seasons. Çatalhöyük Research Project Series 8, British Institute of Archeology in Ankara Monograph 47
  39. ↑ Barbara J. Mills, Relational networks and religious sodalities at Çatalhöyük. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.), Religion at work in a Neolithic society . Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 2015, 159-186.
  40. ↑ a b Kimberley Patton, Lori D. Hager, "Motherbaby": a death in childbirth at Çatalhöyük. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.), Religion at work in a Neolithic society. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2015, 231
  41. ↑ Kimberley Patton, Lori D. Hager, "Motherbaby": a death in childbirth at Çatalhöyük. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.), Religion at work in a Neolithic society. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2015, 243
  42. ↑ B. Boz, Lori Hager, Intramural burial practices at Çatalhöyük. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.), Humans and landscapes at Çatalhöyük, Reports from the 2000-2008 seasons. Los Angeles, Cotsen Institute
  43. ^ Ian Hodder, Probing religion at Çatalhöyük: an interdisciplinary experiment. In: ders. (Ed.), Religion in the emergence of civilization, Çatalhöyük as a case study. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 2010, 17
  44. ↑ Michelle Bonogofsky, A bioarchaeological study of plastered skulls from Anatolia: new discoveries and interpretations. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 15, 2005, doi: 10.1002 / oa.749
  45. ^ Ian Hodder, Probing religion at Çatalhöyük: an interdisciplinary experiment. In: ders. (Ed.), Religion in the emergence of civilization, Çatalhöyük as a case study. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 2010, 23
  46. ^ Wentzel van Huyssteen, The Historical self: Memory and Religion at Çatal Höyük. In: Ian Hodder (ed.) Religion at work in a Neolithic society. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 2014, 114.
  47. ^ Wilhelmina Wendrich, the Çatalhöyük basketry. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.), Changing materialities in Çatalhöyük, Reports from the 1995-1999 seasons . Cambridge, MacDonald Institute for Archeology, 419-424.
  48. ^ Gerhard Bott: On the social organization of the bovid breeders . In: The Invention of the Gods. Essays on Political Theology. 2013, ISBN 978-3-8370-3272-7 , pp. 35 ( Online [PDF; 882 kB ; accessed on December 23, 2016] text excerpt).
  49. ↑ Reinhard Bernbeck : Theorien in der Archäologie , Basel 1997, ISBN 3-8252-1964-X compare the basic discussion in the chapter Feminist approaches , pp. 320-344.
  50. ↑ Brigitte Röder, Juliane Hummel, Brigitta Kunz: Göttinnendämmerung - Das Matriarchat from an archaeological point of view , Königsfurt 2001, ISBN 3-933939-27-5 .
  51. ↑ David Derbyshire: Ancient figurines were toys not mother goddess statues, say experts as 9,000-year-old artefacts are discovered. In: Daily Mail, September 10, 2009.
  52. ^ Ian Hodder and Lynn Meskell: The smbolism of Çatalhöyük in its regional context. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.): Religion in the emergence of civilization, Çatalhöyük as a case study. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2010, p. 41.