Amisos

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Actor in the role of Heracles , 16 cm, 175–150 BC Chr. Louvre CA1784

Amisos ( 'Αμισός ) was the ancient form of the name of today's Turkish city of Samsun (from ς' 'Αμισόν s' Amison , German 'after Amisos' or 'in Amisos', from Greek Σαμψούντα Sampsounda ) on the south coast of the Black Sea . The city flourished under the rule of Mithridates VI. Eupator in the 1st century BC During this time she was one of the most important manufacturers of coins in the Kingdom of Pontus and terracotta figures in Asia Minor.

geography

It is believed that the ancient city of Amisos was located in what is now the Baruthane district of Samsun, between the river delts of Halys and Iris . The settlement originally arose on Toraman Hill, which is around 165 m high and 2.5 km long. The city expanded to the west and east. The citadel and the upper town stood on the hill . It is believed that officials, priests and rich people lived there. The lower town stretched towards the coast of the Black Sea, where the economic life probably took place and the agora was located. Lore tells of crowded streets, temples, public places and buildings. Outside the city were the port and the necropolis . Earth, stone and rock graves have been preserved from the necropolis. The residents fortified their city with walls. According to a study, it should have covered 44 hectares . In the course of time, the city was destroyed and rebuilt several times. Today only a few remains of the wall can be seen.

The city was protected by the natural barriers of the sea and rivers. Samsun , today's city, on whose territory Amisos probably lay, is bordered to the west by Kürtun Çayı and east by Mert Irmaği. Two small streams, Baruthane Deresi and Karanlık Dere, flow through the valleys cut into the Toroman Tepe hill. The two river beds are still suitable for clay extraction today. At that time, the fertile river valleys supplied the city and contributed to the trade, as did the nearby graphite , copper and zinc mines.

As the only landing point between Sinope and Trebizond there was brisk trade from Amisos across the Black Sea to Crimea and the Bosporus . Pottery found and compared has shown that the region had connections to islands in the eastern part of the Aegean Sea , northern Greece and the regions of today's Bulgaria and Romania as early as the early Bronze Age . The finds show that Amisos used land and sea routes equally for his trade.

The Pontic Alps lie parallel to the Black Sea and make access to the hinterland difficult. In the south of Amisos, the Alps are losing continuity and height, thereby enabling access to the fertile hinterland. Archaeological finds indicate that a route from Amisos to Mesopotamia led through the Pontic Alps, part of the ancient trade route sometimes called the "Bağdat Road". From Amisos roads led to the inland towns of Amaseia , Cabeira, Eupatoria, Phazemon, Comana , Zela , Sebasteia and Sebastapolis .

Geographically, Amisos had all the prerequisites to become one of the most economically successful cities in the south of the Black Sea.

history

For an overview of the history of Amisos

economy

The main drivers of the economy were the fertile land around Amisos and the proximity to the sea. Grave finds from Amisos indicate that as early as the late 4th / early 3rd century BC A great economic activity took place.

Today it is difficult to assess where the boundaries of the urban sphere of influence have been. To the west lay the fertile valley of Gazelonitis and to the east Themiskyra . In the plain of Gazelonitis, lambs were bred for their fine wool and gazelles. All sorts of plants thrived there. Themiskyra owned fertile land, of which Strabo says that infinite quantities of grain could be harvested. Cattle and horses were also bred. In the south, grapes, peaches, apples and nuts ripened.

Based on archaeological and geological investigations and additional topographical aspects, it is assumed that copper was mined at ten locations and copper, graphite and zinc at another three, the yields of which may have flowed to Amisos. The presumed locations are in the southeast of Amisos inland, northeast of Tokat . The time for dismantling cannot be specified. The rich metal deposits in Asia Minor are undisputed, as is the fact that ore-bearing rock was mined as early as the Bronze Age . In the details, however, there is confusion on the part of archaeologists and historians, which is due to a lack of local investigations and the neglected inclusion of geological studies. High-quality Toroutian monuments, which have been handed down from Amisos, assume bronze workshops and point to the mining of the raw material in the region.

In the first centuries of Amisos, the products were traded locally. From the 4th century BC Products such as wool, grain, honey, high-quality beeswax and wine were exported. The city exported not only agricultural products, but also fish, salt from the Halys Delta and semi-precious stones such as jade . During the Hellenistic period with the zenith under the rule of Mithridates VI. terracotta figurines were the most popular export product.

Coins

Pharnakes I of Pontus

Amisos' minting activity goes back to the 5th century BC. BC back. The oldest coins found show the Greek goddess Hera on the obverse and an owl, the symbol of Athens, on the reverse . These coins were made of silver and were produced in various weights. There are examples of drachmas , sigloi and half sigloi (unit of measurement of the Achaemenid Empire ). The different coin weights prove that Amisos was already trading with Greeks as well as with domestic and eastern cities during this period. The theme of the owl was still used until the reign of Mithridates VI. used on the back of coins.

Bronze coin, 85-65 BC Chr.

In the course of the 2nd century BC Like the other cities of the Kingdom of Pontus , Amisos continued to mint coins, but these are not of the same quality as the earlier ones and the city-specific themes were less common. Most cities lost part of their coinage independence during this period. But they were still allowed to make their own coins with the name of the city on the reverse. During the reign of Mithridates VI. the number of coin-minting cities rose significantly. The most common themes during this time were Nike, Zeus, Ares , Athene, Perseus and Dionysus, which have also been passed down from Amisos. During this time the city no longer minted silver, but used copper .

Perseus with the severed head of Medusa in his left hand

Under the rule of Mithridates VI. Amisos has the widest range of topics of all the minting cities in the kingdom and, in terms of quantity, most of the coins that are published today by private collections and regional museums come from Amisos. The museum in Samsun alone owns 7,500 coins from Amisos and the immediate vicinity. Outside of Asia Minor, Amise coins have been found in Ukraine, Egypt, China, Afghanistan, Samaria , Georgia, Russia, Saida and Euboea .

After the death of Mithridates VI. 63rd BC Amisos continued his copper coinage until the middle of the 3rd century AD.

The strength of numismatics is best demonstrated when there are dated contexts about the coins. In the case of Amisos, the coins owned by museums and private collections around the world show how widespread the overexploitation of archaeological finds has been. The new owners grouped the coins around the minting location and the last remaining find information was lost. Despite these adversities, the coins from Amisos are a valuable historical source.

Terracottas

Three people watch a cockfight. 10 × 14.7 × 5.1 cm, between approx. 330 and approx. 100 BC Chr.

history

The Amise workshops probably started their work at the beginning of the 2nd century BC. Chr. On. They made protomes , busts, masks, appliqués , statuettes, heads, animals, fruits and plants. The workshops were not limited to the Black Sea area, but findings confirm that they were also present in Bithynia , Central Anatolia, Cilicia , in the cities of Western Anatolia and on Delos . The conquest of Amisos in 71 BC BC by the Roman general Lucius Licinius Lucullus brought production more or less to a standstill. Three figures found that were made after the 1st century BC. BC show that workshops continued to exist on a modest scale under Roman rule.

technology

The clay that was used was raw, yellowish in color, and comes from the region's numerous waterways. After the firing process, the surface turned reddish yellow. The shades of reddish brown to gray-brown are often also represented. The clay consistency is different due to different mining areas and processing. A characteristic of the Amise terracottas is the polychromy . The craftsmen used different shades of yellow and red as well as blue and black. Gold was often used for the jewelry or intricacies of clothing, sometimes for the whole figure. Another characteristic of the Amise terracottas, the v. a. what can be observed in the protomes and busts is the efforts of the coroplasts to imitate the material bronze. They used templates from bronze models, often covering the fired clay with gold leaf or lead glaze in order to imitate the works of toreutics . The Amise craftsmen were so skilled that they could make miniatures as well as large statues and masks. The dimensions of the figures vary from finger-sized to statues of 35 cm.

Most Amisos terracottas were made from molds (matrices) that were of high artistic quality. Their elegance can be compared with that of other workshops of the Hellenistic period such as Myrina and Priene . The shape of the surface was carefully reworked by hand with a modeling stick. Head and ear jewelry were molded separately. Large or strongly moving figures consisted of partial matrices that were joined by roughening the connecting surfaces and clay slips. Three matrices have survived, all of which are in the Louvre today. They depict a satyr mask, a toddler with two chicks for a relief and the top of a Corinthian helmet. No terracottas have been handed down directly from the matrices.

The back was mostly left raw or was only partially processed. There are a few exceptions to statuettes or an all-round head.

The terracottas are rarely signed. In addition to a few fragments, the name Μνημοσύνης and an incomplete EΡMA have come down to us. It is not clear whether the characters are the signature of a single coroplast or the workshop is meant. The rarity of signatures on Amise terracottas is compared to other production sites such as B. Myrina evident.

Aphrodite Anadyomene, late 1st century BC BC, found in Kerch , 13 cm, Louvre CA2288

Chronology and style

The homogeneity of the Amise terracottas in style, form and content indicate a short production period. Exact dating is difficult because the context of the find is often unknown. Carrying out fine dating based on style-critical comparisons has proven to be problematic. Figure types and styles may have gone out of style in one place and not in another. In addition, the terracottas are series productions that have long running times.

The research places the previously known material as a whole in the Hellenistic period. It is believed that large statuettes were found in the middle of the 2nd century BC. And in the 2nd half of the 2nd century BC Were made. The production of masks and protomes took place between the middle of the 2nd century and the beginning of the 1st century BC. And the small statuettes and multi-figure group compositions from the first quarter of the 1st century BC. Chr.

The Amise terracottas were influenced by the rest of Asia Minor production, which has been handed down from Priene, Myrina, Pergamon and Troy . The statues with robes resemble those of a representation from Priene in terms of body proportions and the rendering of the robes. The robe with its variously shaped folds is a characteristic of the terracottas of Asia Minor. Unclothed figures show a "soft modeling of the full body" with many anatomical details that can be compared with those of Myrina. The Amise Aphrodites z. B. are overall slimmer and more elongated in comparison. A special feature of the Amise terracottas and the Pontic art as a whole are the strongly formed noses with the accentuated nasal bridges, which can also be found on bronze medallions and coins.

The origin and models of the Amise protomes have not yet been scientifically investigated. It is certain, however, that the Koroplasts have strongly based their modeling on Toreutic models. This can be seen in the design of the hair, beards and the angular elaboration of the eyes, brows and lips.

The composed scenic groups, which are artfully put together with partial matrices from known motifs, represent a special feature. A composition owned by the Staatliche Antikensammlungen Munich is described as follows:

“Little girl on a rock seat

H 12.5 cm. Br. 5.7 cm. Face H 1.6 cm. (AW 1.1 cm). Tone reddish yellow (5YR6-7 / 6), containing mica. White coating. Gold-plated coat, with a turquoise hem. Auburn hair. Vs. from sectional matrices. Round focal hole.

Stylized rock seat. The figure is sitting cross-legged, right foot on a ledge, upper body slightly tilted forward. The right arm probably lowered with an attribute, a large cluster in the left elbow. Belted chiton with a round clasp on the right shoulder. The chiton hem has slipped down over the right shoulder. The wide coat is draped around the lower body. Shoes. Childlike - full face, lampadion hairstyle, held by a hoop. "

In addition to the composed groups, there are new creations that were found in the vicinity of Amisos. These include the already mentioned Dionysus protomes and the women protomes interpreted as Amazons . When it comes to masks, Amisos stands out due to the extraordinary variety of types, the large format and the high quality.

Lâtife Summerer says about the Anise terracottas:

“The decisive feature of the Amise workshops is that the coroplasts not only mechanically reproduced the adopted types, but varied, transformed and even reinterpreted their content. They combined figure types with one another and modeled them by hand in order to vary them or, in some cases, completely redesign them. "

That is why one could speak of an Amise style based on the creativity of the local coroplasts.

position

The position of the Amise terracottas was not recognized in the literature for a long time. When an assessment was made, the production was viewed in relation to the western art centers in Asia Minor and their influences. An independent creativity of the Amise Koroplasts was denied. It was overlooked that during the period in which Amisos reached the peak of his terracotta production, the other production facilities in Asia Minor stagnated. Their quality deteriorated and no new types of figures were created. Amisos, on the other hand, produced the large-format protomes, which were a novelty.

Outside the kingdom of Pontos, there are Anise terracottas in Bithynia , where the female protomes seem to have found a market. Dionysus protomes were found in the western production sites of Priene, Smyrna and Delos and a satyr protome in Tarsos .

But there is also the possibility that artistic impulses have reached Amisos directly from Athens. This is supported by the cultural ties between the two cities and a number of Greeks of Attic origin who lived at the time of the Roman conquest in 71 BC. Lived in Amisos.

to form

In the following, two groups from the variety of the Amise terracottas are explained in more detail.

Protomes

The protomes are outstanding among the Amise terracottas in terms of their quantity and quality. Their sizes vary between 6 and 8 cm up to specimens over 30 cm. One of the most popular protomes was the representation of Dionysus with the attributes Botrys (wine god), Tauromorphos (bull shape) and Mitrephoros (named after the headdress of the miter ). In addition, there are two groups with Dionysus with and without a beard.

The cult image of Dionysus Botrys is unknown. It is believed that grapes in the hair and beard, spherical structures, are considered an attribute. The Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos are the earliest pictorial evidence of Dionysus Botry. The specimens found in the Crimea are now also attributed to the Amise coroplasts. The same goes for a protome from Delos . There are depictions of Dionysus holding his beard in his right hand and a skyphos in his left . The interpretation is that the god presses the wine from the grapes and collects the juice in a drinking vessel.

The bull figure of Dionysus has been handed down through written sources by Plutarch , Strabo and others. Nevertheless, the scientists found it difficult to identify the Anise protomes. For some, every horned representation was a Dionysus Tauromorphos, for others the two horns had to be placed on the temples and not in the middle on the forehead. Amisenische protomes with Dionysus Tauromorphos were found next to Amisos in Myrmekion in the Crimea, Sinope and Sarkine in Georgia .

Diodorus tells of Dionysus Mitrephoros that he was the inventor of the miter worn at symposia . The task of the miter is to alleviate headaches caused by drinking wine. Some scientists understood the miter to mean a headscarf and accordingly did not recognize the god in the protomes. Today the miter is a recognized strip of fabric that varies in width, corresponding to a forehead band. The attribute of the miter also appears on the representations of Dionysus Botry and Tauromorphos.

The protomes of Dionysus are equipped with hanging holes on the back and have been found in tombs, houses and places of worship. They were worshiped or were considered objects of representation. They were probably hanging high up, as their faces are often tilted downwards.

In addition to Dionysus, protomes with satyr , women and children have come down to us. It is assumed that the depictions of women are Amazons , since according to literary tradition the Amazon Empire was in the urban area of ​​Amisos. Among the busts, which are referred to in literature as head vessels, there are depictions of the deity Men with his attributes moon and stars, which are a peculiarity of the kingdom of Pontus, as well as the deities Isis , Tyche and Athena .

Masks

The Amise clay masks can be divided into three groups: tragic, comic and satyrical. Most of them relate to the New Comedy . Their format is different. There are sizes up to 20 cm, most of them are 10–15 cm high. The smallest masks are only 5–8 cm high. This shows that the masks were not intended to be worn, but are reproductions that the actors wore or were a cultic obligation on religious occasions. The masks have two to four hanging holes on the back.

When considering the group of comical masks, one can take the catalog of Iulius Pollux as a reference. The catalog is what is believed to be a collection of masks from the 3rd century BC. Describes. It is classified as an intellectual construct that describes the ideal case and was not binding for the real masks on stage. Funny masks can therefore be divided into four main characters, which corresponded to the Greek way of thinking of the four-part (tetrarchic) ​​structure of the way of thinking of the Greeks: the old man, the young man, the slave and the woman. Other masks are a combination of the main types indicated in the catalog.

The amise coroplasts differ greatly from the catalog. The deviations could be explained by the large time distance. However, masks by Lipari , which come from early Hellenism, already deviate from this catalog. It is therefore assumed that the Amisos coroplasts either took the masks of the actors they met as models or adopted the conventional types from Athens. The diversity and creativity of the antsic coroplasts will not have stopped at the masks either. It is a well-known antisan practice that templates were changed at will and new variants designed.

The hanging holes on the back indicate that masks were hung on walls. They were part of the decoration of sanctuaries and were carried during processions. In private houses they served as symbols of happiness and welfare.

A large part of the preserved clay masks from the late Hellenistic period come from the Pontic region. They played a major role in the Dionysus cult as cult objects and votives, and the cult in turn was under the rule of Mithridates VI. bound to the dynasty and promoted by the king. The masks are believed to reflect stage performances that took place in Amisos. "Together with news about Pontic playwrights, the monuments [masks and actors] testify to the spread of Greek theater culture at Pontos Euxeinos." It is assumed that there was an amphitheater in Amisos , of which there are no traces today.

Sources

archeology

In November 1995, the İlkadım community from Samsun discovered a 5 m × 5 m grave that contained several chambers while a road was being widened. The contents of the grave were secured by the Archaeological Museum of Samsun. The grave contained 64 grave goods: golden pieces of jewelry in the form of earrings, necklaces and rings, glass objects, amphoriskoi , alabastrons and terracottas. The pieces of jewelery, vessels and local objects refer the grave site to the late Hellenistic period, although the grave goods from a period from the 4th century BC. Until the reign of Mithridates VI. originate and show both Greek and Persian influence. The glass objects and a number of the jewelry items show Achaemenid influence. The jewelry could come from workshops in Pasargadae , Odessos (Trakien), Kyme , Taranto (southern Italy), Pantikapaion and Phanagoria . The majority of the items were made during the time of Alexander the Great. The burial site with three of five occupied graves is one of the few intact Turkish sites where the archaeological context has been preserved. The assessment that Amisos was a small, insignificant place next to Sinop had to be revised with this grave find, which testifies to trade and wealth.

Ceramic jugs and animal vessels have been handed down from Amisos . They are shaped like ducks, ibex, and other animals. Animal rhytons are also passed down. The ceramic is coated in white or light red and decorated with colored patterns. The patterns are simple geometric motifs, bay leaves , palmettes and ivy tendrils. A characteristic is the decoration with diagonal lines, lattice and herringbone patterns. The pottery is now in Paris, Berlin, Munich, Oxford and Istanbul. Scientists believe that the various found objects originated from the 15th century BC. Estimated until the late Hellenistic period. A comprehensive investigation of the ceramics from Amisos is still pending.

A bronze relief from Samsun with a depiction of Eros Psyche was dated to the 4th century BC. Dated. Other bronze monuments can be found in Samsun, Bonn and London. A number of large sculptural bronzes are kept in the depots of the museums of Istanbul and Samsun.

The number of marble sculptures is not great. However, on Rhodes there is the base of a group of statues with the artist's signature of an Amisener named Zenon.

The first evidence of Amise terracottas came from illegal excavations in the late 19th century and came into the possession of museums and private collections through the art trade. In 1913, for example, 45 Amise terracotta figures were offered for sale in the Munich art trade. After the Archaeological Museum in Istanbul, the Louvre now has the most important collection. The Archaeological Museum in Istanbul is the largest owner with over 1000 terracottas, the majority of which is not published. The remaining found objects are in over 20 museums and private collections scattered around the world. For many terracottas, information about the find situation is missing, so that external clues are missing. Therefore, the style-critical method is used in order to be able to make a dating. The method is classified as problematic and only allows a rough time schedule.

reception

With the inclusion of the archaeological monuments Amisos can during the reign of Mithridates VI. be classified as an arts center within the Pontos area. The high level of education in the city is demonstrated by scholars such as the historian Hypsikrates, the mathematicians Demetrios and Dionysodoros and the grammarist Tyrannion, Strabo's teacher. Epigraphic evidence for members of the educated class such as doctors, stenographers and poets complete the picture of a spiritually active city during the reign of the last king of the Mithridates.

Today Amisos is considered to be one of the most important Hellenistic terracottas. Since only a fraction of the material that has survived until recently had been published and scientifically developed, the diversity and wealth of the Amise terracottas was not recognized by research for a long time. In addition, the previous assessment was based on the limited material available from European and North American museums.

The researchers differ widely about the quality and style of the Amise terracottas. In a report from 1903, the style of the clay figures from Amisos is described as crude or even barbaric. Amisos' technique has been rated by others as one of the best in Asia Minor. For a long time the contributions of Russian scientists were ignored by Western research. a. assumed that clay templates of the north coast of the Black Sea come from Amisos. This assumption was later confirmed in further reports.

A more recent evaluation of the available material comes to the conclusion that the Anise terracotta workshops "contributed significantly to the survival of Greek coroplasty in the late Hellenistic period". The study believes that "the Amise coroplasty is an entirely Greek-Hellenistic art in which there is no obvious oriental influence."

literature

  • Prentiss S. De Jesus: Metal Resources in Ancient Anatolia. In: Anatolian Studies. Journal of the British Institute of Archeology at Ankara Vol. 28, 1978, pp. 97-102.
  • Gustav Hirschfeld : Amisos . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume I, 2, Stuttgart 1894, Sp. 1839 f.
  • Aynur Keskin: Amisos until the Roman conquest in 71 BC Chr .: Samsun in ancient times. Diplomica Verlag, Hamburg 2012, ISBN 978-3-8428-9079-4 .
  • Eleni Mentesidou: The Terracotta Figurines of Amisos. Dissertation International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki 2015 ( digitized ).
  • Eckart Olshausen : Amisos. In: The New Pauly (DNP). Volume 1, Metzler, Stuttgart 1996, ISBN 3-476-01471-1 , Sp. 592.
  • Eckart Olshausen: Bronze coins from the time of Mithradates VI. in the museum of Samsun (= Geographica historica supplements Volume 1). Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-515-09443-6 .
  • Lâtife Summerer : Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-515-07409-0 .
  • Lâtife Summerer: Amisos: A Greek polis in the land of the Leucosyrians . In: Pont-Euxin et polis: polis hellenis et polis barbaron. Actes du 10e Symposium de Vani, 23-26 September 2002. Homage to Otar Lordkipanidzé and Pierre Lévêque (= Collection ISTA 979). Institut des Sciences et Techniques de l'Antiquité, Besançon 2005, pp. 129-165.
  • Gocha R. Tsetskhladze: The Black Sea, Paphlagonia, Pontus and Phrygia in antiquity: aspects of archeology and ancient history . Oxford 2012, ISBN 1-4073-1031-3 ISBN 978-1-4073-1031-2 .

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Geographical location of Amisos. Retrieved May 21, 2019 .
  2. ↑ Eleni Mentesidou: The Terracotta Figurines of Amisos. International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki, 2015, pp. 9-10.
  3. ↑ Elenei Mentesidou: The Terracotta Figurines of Amisos. International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki, 2015, pp. 9-10.
  4. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 143.
  5. ↑ Eleni Mentesidou: The Terracotta Figurines of Amisos. International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki, 2015, p. 3.
  6. ^ Gustav Hirschfeld : Amisos . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume I, 2, Stuttgart 1894, Sp. 1839 f.
  7. ↑ Eleni Mentesidou: The Terracotta Figurines of Amisos. International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki, 2015, p. 3.
  8. ↑ Eleni Mentesidou: The Terracotta Figurines of Amisos. International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki, 2015, p. 3.
  9. ↑ D. Burcu Arıkan Erciyas: Studies in the archeology of hellenistic Pontus: The settlements, monuments, and coinage of Mithridates VI and his predecessors. Dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 2001, p. 130.
  10. ↑ D. Burcu Arıkan Erciyas: Studies in the archeology of hellenistic Pontus: The settlements, monuments, and coinage of Mithridates VI and his predecessors. Dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 2001, p. 11.
  11. ↑ D. Burcu Arıkan Erciyas: Studies in the archeology of hellenistic Pontus: The settlements, monuments, and coinage of Mithridates VI and his predecessors. Dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 2001, abstract.
  12. ↑ Eleni Mentesidou: The Terracotta Figurines of Amisos. International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki, 2015, p. 11.
  13. ^ Prentiss S. De Jesus: Metal Resources in Ancient Anatolia. In: Anatolian Studies. Journal of the British Institute of Archeology at Ankara Vol. 28, 1978, p. 99.
  14. ^ Prentiss S. De Jesus: Metal Resources in Ancient Anatolia. In: Anatolian Studies. Journal of the British Institute of Archeology at Ankara Vol. 28, 1978, p. 97.
  15. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 164.
  16. ↑ Eleni Mentesidou: The Terracotta Figurines of Amisos. International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki, 2015, pp. 11–12.
  17. ↑ Eleni Mentesidou: The Terracotta Figurines of Amisos. International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki, 2015, p. 13.
  18. ↑ D. Burcu Arıkan Erciyas: Studies in the archeology of hellenistic Pontus: The settlements, monuments, and coinage of Mithridates VI and his predecessors. Dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 2001, p. 145.
  19. ↑ D. Burcu Arıkan Erciyas: Studies in the archeology of hellenistic Pontus: The settlements, monuments, and coinage of Mithridates VI and his predecessors. Dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 2001, p. 160.
  20. ↑ D. Burcu Arıkan Erciyas: Studies in the archeology of hellenistic Pontus: The settlements, monuments, and coinage of Mithridates VI and his predecessors. Dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 2001, pp. 177-178.
  21. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 36.
  22. ↑ D. Burcu Arıkan Erciyas: Studies in the archeology of hellenistic Pontus: The settlements, monuments, and coinage of Mithridates VI and his predecessors. Dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 2001, p. 179.
  23. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 36.
  24. ↑ D. Burcu Arıkan Erciyas: Studies in the archeology of hellenistic Pontus: The settlements, monuments, and coinage of Mithridates VI and his predecessors. Dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 2001, p. 189.
  25. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 36.
  26. ↑ D. Burcu Arıkan Erciyas: Studies in the archeology of hellenistic Pontus: The settlements, monuments, and coinage of Mithridates VI and his predecessors. Dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 2001, p. 157.
  27. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, pp. 39, 57, 65, 82, 89, 127, 135, 136.
  28. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 167.
  29. ↑ Eleni Mentesidou: The Terracotta Figurines of Amisos. International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki, 2015, pp. 14–15.
  30. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, pp. 143 and 164.
  31. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 143.
  32. ↑ Eleni Mentesidou: The Terracotta Figurines of Amisos. International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki, 2015, pp. 15-16.
  33. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 166.
  34. ↑ Eleni Mentesidou: The Terracotta Figurines of Amisos. International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki, 2015, pp. 15-16.
  35. ↑ Eleni Mentesidou: The Terracotta Figurines of Amisos. International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki, 2015, p. 15.
  36. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, pp. 144-145.
  37. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 144.
  38. ↑ Eleni Mentesidou: The Terracotta Figurines of Amisos. International Hellenic University, Thessaloniki, 2015, p. 16.
  39. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 145.
  40. ↑ a b Lâtife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 151.
  41. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 150.
  42. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 148.
  43. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 152.
  44. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 157.
  45. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 154.
  46. ^ Friedrich Wilhelm Hamdorf: The figural terracottas of the State Collection of Antiquities in Munich. Fink, Lindenberg i. Allgäu 2014, ISBN 978-3-89870-870-8 , ISBN 3-89870-870-5 . P. 416.
  47. ↑ a b c Lâtife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 161.
  48. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 160.
  49. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, pp. 161-162.
  50. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 162.
  51. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 39.
  52. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 40.
  53. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, pp. 40, 43, 45.
  54. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, pp. 47 and 48.
  55. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, pp. 41-42.
  56. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 42.
  57. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 43.
  58. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 44.
  59. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 45.
  60. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 46.
  61. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, pp. 49-50.
  62. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 55.
  63. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, pp. 58, 60, 61.
  64. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, pp. 63-64.
  65. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 79.
  66. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, pp. 79-80.
  67. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 80.
  68. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, pp. 80-82.
  69. ↑ The Amisos Treasure: A Hellenistic Tomb from the Age of Mithradates Eupator. Monica M. Jackson in Gocha R. Tsetskhladze: The Black Sea, Paphlagonia, Pontus and Phrygia in antiquity: aspects of archeology and ancient history. Oxford 2012, p. 109-115.
  70. ↑ D. Burcu Arıkan Erciyas: Studies in the archeology of hellenistic Pontus: The settlements, monuments, and coinage of Mithridates VI and his predecessors. Dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 2001, p. 219.
  71. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, pp. 29-30.
  72. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 33.
  73. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 35.
  74. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 38.
  75. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 19.
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  78. ↑ a b Lâtife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 17.
  79. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 26.
  80. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 15.
  81. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 18.
  82. ↑ 'Lâtife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 20.
  83. ↑ Latife Summerer: Hellenistic terracottas from Amisos. A contribution to the art history of the Pontos area (= Geographica historica vol. 13). Stuttgart 1999, p. 167.

Coordinates: 41 ° 19 ′ 8.8 ″  N , 36 ° 19 ′ 25.2 ″  E