Berlin scientific aviation
As Berlin scientific air trips a series is manned by 65 and 29 referred unmanned balloon launches, which in the years 1888-1899 by the German Society for the Promotion of Aeronautics to explore the free atmosphere were carried out. The trips were organized by Richard Assmann , professor at the Berlin Meteorological Institute, who had also developed the most important of the measuring instruments used. The execution was mainly in the hands of the military airship Hans Groß and the meteorologist Arthur Berson . In 1894, Berson climbed the Phönix balloon to a height of 9,155 meters - the largest that a person had ever reached.
prehistory
The State of Meteorology in the 1880s
In the course of the 19th century, meteorology had lost its character as a merely observational and descriptive science. On the basis of classical physics , especially particle and continuum mechanics and mechanical heat theory , it was developing into a measuring and calculating natural science, a physics of the atmosphere. The basics of atmospheric thermodynamics had already been worked out in the 1880s, but the description of the dynamics was based on simple approaches such as the Baric Wind Law .
Scientific weather forecasting was still in its infancy at the end of the 19th century. On the one hand, this was due to insufficient knowledge of the atmospheric processes and, on the other hand, to a lack of reliable observation data, which moreover was obtained almost exclusively on the ground, while only vague ideas about the vertical structure of the atmosphere existed.
Previous scientific balloon flights
The balloon’s potential for exploring the free atmosphere was recognized early on. When a gas balloon was first launched on December 1, 1783, its inventor Jacques Charles carried a thermometer and a barometer with him. In the following year, the chemist Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier set up a program for scientific aviation on behalf of the Académie française , but this was not implemented. In Germany it was Georg Christoph Lichtenberg who put forward twenty-five theses on the use of the balloon as early as 1784, the first of which addressed the exploration of the atmosphere.
The first balloon flight with the aim of carrying out meteorological observations was undertaken on November 30, 1784 by the American doctor John Jeffries together with the professional balloonist Jean-Pierre Blanchard . The first systematic study of the free atmosphere was carried out between 1862 and 1866 by the English meteorologist and important pioneer of aerology, James Glaisher . During 28 balloon trips he measured the temperature , air pressure , humidity and wind speed up to a height of almost 9,000 m. Since he did not adequately protect his instruments from solar radiation and he arranged them inside the balloon basket instead of outside, his temperature measurements, especially at high altitudes, were subject to severe errors. In the following years it was mainly French scientists like Camille Flammarion , Gaston Tissandier and Wilfrid de Fonvielle who undertook scientific aviation. However, the exploration of the free atmosphere remained isolated efforts of isolated researchers until the 1890s.
Developments in Berlin
In 1885 Wilhelm von Bezold was appointed holder of the newly created chair for meteorology at Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität and director of the Prussian Meteorological Institute in Berlin. He restructured the institute extensively and hired three senior scientific officials on April 1, 1886, including the Magdeburg doctor and meteorologist Richard Assmann . Since 1883 he had been working on a measuring device that could precisely determine the air temperature even under the disruptive influence of solar radiation. When Aßmann, together with other leading Berlin meteorologists, joined the German Association for the Promotion of Airship Travel, which was founded in 1881, he met the engineer Hans Bartsch von Sigsfeld , who was working on the same problem for the airship department established in 1884, which was assigned to the railroad troops of the Prussian army . Together they developed the Assmann aspiration psychrometer , in which the influence of radiation is switched off through shielding and permanent ventilation.
The temperature profiles recorded by Glaisher have long been regarded as reliable knowledge, but were also occasionally questioned because they contradicted theoretical considerations in important points. Assmann and Sigsfeld now saw the opportunity to critically examine Glaisher's results with the new instrument.
On June 2, 1888, Wilhelm von Bezold gave a speech on the subject of the importance of airship for meteorology in front of the German Association for the Promotion of Airship Travel at its 100th session . In it he outlined a program for cooperation between meteorology and airship travel in the exploration of the free atmosphere , which was favorably received by the association members. Its implementation dominated the club's activities for more than a decade. The first trip with Sigsfeld's Herder balloon took place on June 23, 1888 .
financing
Significant funds were required to run the business. The Meteor tethered balloon could be purchased through donations from association members ( Rudolph Hertzog , Werner von Siemens , Otto Lilienthal ) . The Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences granted a one-time amount of 2,000 marks. Several times, private individuals (Hans Bartsch von Sigsfeld, Kurt Killisch-Horn (1856–1915), Patrick Young Alexander ) made their private balloons available. Overall, however, the association was unable to raise the funds required to build and operate a suitable balloon. Then wrote in mid 1892 a "scientific committee for event air trips", consisting of Richard Assmann, Wilhelm von Bezold, Hermann von Helmholtz , Werner von Siemens, Wilhelm Foerster , August Kundt and Paul Güssfeldt a Immediateingabe to Emperor Wilhelm II. , By the Academy of Sciences was supported. The emperor granted the requested 50,000 marks for the construction and operation of the Humboldt balloon from his “highest disposition fund” and, after the Humboldt explosion, a further 32,000 marks for the construction of the Phoenix . To finance additional trips and for the publication of the scientific results, a further 20,400 Marks was paid in 1895 after another immediate entry. In 1897 the publisher Georg Büxenstein donated 1,000 marks for the construction of the Cirrus II registration balloon .
The company also received strong immaterial support from the Prussian military, which had a keen interest in military use of the airspace. In most cases, officers of the aeronautical division took charge of the balloons. Several times the meteorologists were allowed to take part in military training trips. Prime Lieutenant Groß was temporarily released from his duties and was responsible for the construction of the balloons used for the main trips.
Attendees
Richard Assmann was the organizer of the Berlin scientific aviation program. In addition to his position at the Meteorological Institute, he was also chairman of the Association for the Promotion of Airship Travel from the beginning of 1889. Assmann provided excellent instrumentation. As head of the project, he only took part personally in three manned flights.
His closest colleague at the Meteorological Institute was Arthur Berson since 1889. He took part in 50 of the 65 manned flights. He made 31 trips as a responsible observer and 9 as a balloon pilot. With 10 solo trips he was both in one person. Berson also played a major role in the scientific processing of the extensive measurement data.
The first lieutenant of the Berlin airship department, Hans Groß, played an important role in the preparation and execution of the flights as the designer of the gas balloons used and, in 32 cases, as the balloon pilot. His constant improvements to the existing balloon technology, e.g. B. the introduction of a tear device for the rapid discharge of the filling gas, which today's gas balloons have in almost unchanged form, made the often dangerous ventures increasingly safer.
In addition to Berson, Reinhard Süring, who later became the director of the Meteorological-Magnetic Observatory Potsdam, worked as an observer (ten trips), balloon pilot (one trip) and three times as a solo driver. Otto Baschin also participated as observers in five cases , Richard Börnstein three times , Victor Kremser twice , Hans Bartsch von Sigsfeld (including one as balloon pilot) and Edmund Köbke, and Hermann Stade (1867-1932), Börnstein's assistant Becker, the medic, once each Braehmer and Abbott Lawrence Rotch , the director of the Boston Blue Hill Observatory .
The professional airshipmen Richard Opitz (1855-1892) and Stanley Spencer , the British aviation pioneer Patrick Young Alexander and a number of military airships such as Major Stephan von Nieber (1855–1920), the commander of the airship division, and Richard von Kehler were also involved .
Technical Equipment
Balloons
Sixteen different balloons were used for the 65 manned free balloon trips, from the only 290 m³ gas balloon Falke , which served as a "bad weather balloon " when strong winds or precipitation prevented gas filling or the launch of a large balloon, to the 3,000 m³ Majestic des British Patrick Alexander. Around three quarters of the trips were made with the M. W. , Humboldt , Phönix , Sportpark Friedenau I and Sportpark Friedenau II balloons designed by Groß . As carrier gas was hydrogen or cheaper coal gas use, often a mixture of both.
The Phönix balloon , which was specially designed by Groß for scientific aviation, was of outstanding importance . It had enough load capacity to enable it to go up. Its cover consisted of two layers of rubberized and vulcanized cotton. It contained two valves of different sizes, the smaller one being used to deflate inflation gas when maneuvering while driving, the larger one to deflate the envelope after landing. As a reaction to the explosion of the Humboldt after its sixth voyage, Groß had equipped the Phönix with a newly developed tear strip that was glued to the rest of the shell before take-off. By pulling the rip cord, the balloon operator was able to open the envelope with a gaping wide, which caused it to be emptied quickly without damaging it - in contrast to earlier versions. In addition, at the suggestion of Bartsch von Sigsfeld, the balloon material was regularly impregnated with 10% calcium chloride solution in order to keep it electrically conductive and to avoid sparks from electrostatic discharge .
Most of the balloons carried a heavy anchor for safe landing . After the introduction of the ripping track, however, it became unnecessary, so that it was often dispensed with on later trips. In most cases, the equipment also included a tow rope , which was around 100 m long for the smaller balloons and 150 m for the larger ones. During the ascent, the balloonists breathed oxygen from a steel gas cylinder through tubes to prevent acute altitude sickness .
| balloon | Volume (m³) | Material of the balloon envelope | Calls | comment |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| M. W. | 1,180 | varnished cotton | 5 | Private balloon (Killisch von Horn), without tow |
| Humboldt | 2,500 | rubberized cotton | 6th | Specially designed and manufactured for scientific aviation, suitable for high rises |
| Phoenix | 2,630 | rubberized cotton | 23 | Specially designed and manufactured for scientific aviation, equipped for the first time with a modern tear strip, suitable for ascents |
| Falcon | 290 | Gold bat skin | 3 | Discarded military balloon of British origin |
| Sparrowhawk | 800 | varnished cotton | 1 | taken from the bankruptcy estate of a professional balloonist |
| Sportpark Friedenau I and II | 1,250 | rubberized cotton | 13 | Club balloons purchased for sports trips, very light and also suitable for climbing |
| Herder | 1,600 | varnished cotton | 1 | Private balloon (Bartsch von Sigsfeld) |
| Majestic | 3,000 | varnished silk | 3 | Private balloon (Alexander) |
| Excelsior | 1,600 | varnished cotton | 1 | Private balloon (Spencer) |
| Buzzard , Condor , Albatross , Jackdaw | 1,300 | rubberized cotton | 7th | Airship Division military balloons |
| Poses | 1,000 | rubberized cotton | 1 | Airship division military balloon |
| Field balloon | 500 | rubberized cotton | 1 | Airship division military balloon |
The tethered balloon Meteor was made of varnished silk and could reach a height of about 800 m when filled with 130 m³ of luminous gas. The recording balloon Cirrus made of the same material was a disused military tethered balloon with a capacity of 250 m³. On his fifth trip, he carried the measuring instruments to an altitude of almost 22 km. Cirrus II was made of rubberized silk of poor quality and had a volume of 400 m³.
Measuring instruments
The research program planned to measure the air temperature and humidity as well as the radiation intensity at different altitudes on every journey . In addition, the direction and speed of travel should be determined and cloud observations should be made. The altitude was calculated using the barometric altitude formula from the air pressure and the temperature. The following devices were generally carried to obtain the measured values:
- an aneroid barometer constructed by Otto Bohne in Berlin ,
- a mercury vessel barometer from the Rudolf Fuess company in Berlin,
- an aneroid barograph by Richard Frères in Paris,
- a triple aspiration psychrometer from Fuess, consisting of a dry and two alternately humidified thermometers, which are located in the constant air flow of a fan with a spring drive ,
- a black bulb thermometer from Fuess.
The basic equipment also included a compass , a pocket watch and a momentary device from the company CP Goerz designed by Ottomar Anschütz . In order to be able to measure the temperature undisturbed by the body heat of the passengers and the basket heated by solar radiation, the aspiration psychrometer was attached to a boom outside the basket. The reading was made with the help of a telescope . To moisten the psychrometer, the boom was briefly pulled about every 30 minutes. The range of instruments has occasionally been expanded or modified. For example , alcohol thermometers were used when driving up, where air temperatures below the freezing point of mercury were to be expected .
course
overview
The first flights, which Assmann calls the preparatory ones , were used to test the measuring instruments, in particular the aspiration psychrometer. Since Bartsch von Sigsfeld moved his residence to Munich and Augsburg at the end of 1888 and took the Herder with him, a suitable balloon was initially no longer available in Berlin. The tests took place in Munich from 1889. Aßmann had to limit himself to a few attempts with the Meteor tethered balloon . At the beginning of 1891, with the M.W., a free balloon was finally available, which was heavy and therefore never exceeded an altitude of 2,000 meters, but with the help of which the tests could be successfully completed. It was only when the psychrometer was fully developed in 1892 that systematic aviation could begin.
The 36 main journeys took place in 1893 and 1894, 23 of them with the Phoenix . These were designed in such a way that they covered the broadest possible spectrum of weather situations as well as times of day and seasons in order to obtain a comprehensive picture of the physical conditions of the free atmosphere. In addition to single trips, simultaneous ascents of several balloons, some of which were coordinated internationally, were undertaken. The meteorologists involved, above all Arthur Berson, tried to reach the highest possible atmospheric layers with a considerable personal risk.
The main trips had provided extensive data that had to be evaluated in the years from 1895. Further observations were made during occasional participation in military or sports trips, the supplementary aviation . To confirm the results obtained, purely scientific balloon flights took place again in 1898.
The program, which is generally purely meteorological, has occasionally been expanded to include other scientific investigations. Bashin and Börnstein carried out measurements of the vertical potential gradient of air electricity several times . On February 18, 1897, Süring took rabbits into the basket as experimental animals to research acute altitude sickness (balloon driver's disease ) and thus complied with a request from the Austrian physiologist and aeronautical doctor Hermann von Schrötter .
Preparatory trips
On June 23, 1888, the first of the flights with the Herder balloon of the military airship and club member Hans Bartsch von Sigsfeld took place. Alongside him, the professional airship operator Opitz and the meteorologist Victor Kremser took part in the ascent. The trip led from the Schöneberg gas station, where the balloon was filled, to an altitude of almost 2,500 m to the vicinity of Bunkenburg, today part of Lachendorf near Celle . Sigsfeld tried out different ways of attaching the psychrometer to the basket.
By purchasing the Meteor , the association tried to compensate for Sigsfeld's departure to Munich and the loss of the only available balloon. The spherical tethered balloon could only be used when there was no wind. It was not until the beginning of 1891 that manned free balloon trips could take place again when the owner of the Berliner Börsen-Zeitung , Kurt Killisch von Horn, had Groß designed the M. W. balloon and made it available to the association for scientific trips. There were five trips by November. Particularly noteworthy was the fourth, partly because the American meteorologist Rotch participated as a guest on the trip, on the other hand, because the first time a simultaneous rise was tested by the same time to M. W. and the meteor was abandoned. After the fifth trip, the M. W. was no longer usable due to damage caused by improper storage, so that again no balloon was available. However, it also turned out that the M.W. was too heavy overall and, even if there were only two people in the basket, it could only climb to a height of around 1,800 m.
Overall, the preparatory trips had been able to demonstrate the excellent suitability of the instruments, so that a continuation of the program was promising.
Main trips
In the absence of a balloon, there were no trips in 1892. Assmann used the year to find private or institutional sponsors for his program. An immediate application to Kaiser Wilhelm II was finally successful. In 1893 the Humboldt balloon was manufactured , again based on plans by Hans Groß. With 2,514 m³ it had more than twice the capacity of the M. W. and could therefore reach greater heights. The first ascent of the Humboldt took place on March 1, 1893 in the presence of the imperial family. The journey was smooth, but Assmann broke his right leg on landing. The subsequent trips of the balloon were also accompanied by unfortunate mishaps, which made it clear what great risk the scientists and balloonists were taking. After the sixth trip on April 26, 1893, the balloon burned when the hydrogen ignited when the envelope was deflated after landing.
The second journey of the Humboldt , which was planned as an ascent, was of particular importance . So they contented themselves with a smaller and lighter basket and decided to go up in pairs instead of three. The balloon took off on March 14th in pouring rain with Groß and Berson on board. Although he was also weighed down by the rain, Groß was able to bring him to an altitude of 6,100 m. Since they did not carry any oxygen, the aeronauts suffered greatly from the thin air. During the subsequent descent, the mishap happened that the valve rope came under tension and the balloon deflated itself during the journey. Big had no way of closing the three-foot valve, so the balloon sank at great speed. It only took nine minutes from discovering this fact at an altitude of 2,800 m to reaching the ground. Nevertheless, both balloonists got away with minor injuries. From a purely scientific point of view, the trip was a complete success. Berson had been able to study the clouds extensively as he drove through, and the temperatures measured at high altitudes raised further doubts about the accuracy of the values Glaisher had measured thirty years earlier.
After two and a half months, the new, improved balloon was ready, which was named after the mythical phoenix bird, alluding to the end of Humboldt . From July 14, 1893 to December 4, 1894, aviation flights took place in quick succession. Night and morning trips were repeatedly inserted into the series of day trips. The night trip on 14./15. July is also to be regarded as the first international simultaneous flight, because on July 15, 1893, in consultation with the Berlin meteorologists, there were also manned balloon flights in Stockholm by Salomon August Andrée and in Saint Petersburg , using the instruments recommended by Assmann. Also in August 1894 there were simultaneous trips with Andrée in Gothenburg and Michail Pomorzew in Saint Petersburg.
Several times, trips with several balloons were carried out at the same time, for the first time on May 11, 1894. An attempt was made to reach the highest possible height with the phoenix , which is why it was filled with expensive hydrogen instead of the usual luminous gas. The experiment was accompanied by the ascent of the Posen military balloon, the unmanned Cirrus balloon and the Falke tethered balloon . In fact, a height of almost 8,000 m could be reached. Gross and Berson were only able to prevent them from fainting by breathing in the pure oxygen they carried with them. Different wind directions at different heights drove the Posen in a southerly direction near Rangsdorf , but at the same time the Phoenix was driven northwards towards Greifswald .
When word of the successes of Berlin's scientific aviation got around, the British aviation pioneer and sponsor Patrick Young Alexander came to Berlin to take part in the rides with his Majestic balloon . Among other things, he took part in the triple trip on December 4, 1894 from Berlin. On that day, Berson started alone with the Phoenix from Leopoldshall near Staßfurt , on the one hand because there was a convenient supply of hydrogen there, and on the other hand because the greater distance to the sea allowed a longer journey with a southerly wind direction. In order to allow the greatest possible height to be reached, the basket was relieved of everything that was not absolutely necessary. For example, the 40 kg anchor was dispensed with. Contrary to the usual practice, the towing belt, which is difficult to handle for a single person, was rolled out before the journey. Filled with 2,000 m³ of hydrogen, the balloon quickly gained altitude, and after an hour it had already reached the 5,000 m mark. After a good two hours and frequent additional oxygen breathing by the pilot, the balloon came into equilibrium at 9,155 m altitude and a temperature of -47.9 ° C. Since the ballast was used up except for an emergency reserve, Berson had to dismount despite his still good physical condition. At this point he was higher up than anyone before him. After a five-hour drive, the phoenix landed near Kiel .
Complementary rides
At the end of 1894 the available financial resources were exhausted. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who had attended the ascent several times, made another amount available for additional trips and for the publication of the results. The money was initially used mainly for occasional balloon ascents. In addition, a meteorological observer was allowed to take part in military trips several times. The frequency of the ascents increased when the Association for the Promotion of Airship Travel bought its own balloons for sport trips, which were also used by meteorologists.
At the conference of directors of the meteorological institutes in Paris in September 1896, the International Commission for Scientific Aviation was founded and Hugo Hergesell , the director of the Meteorological State Institute in Alsace-Lorraine, was appointed its president. The Berlin meteorologists regularly took part in the international simultaneous aviation flights organized by the commission, the first of which took place on November 14, 1896, with manned and unmanned balloons.
After the first preliminary publication of the results of the main trips, which contained a criticism of Glaisher's measurement methodology, there was not only approval, but sometimes bitter disagreement from specialist colleagues. The respected Swedish meteorologist Nils Ekholm accused the authors of “premature generalization”. He considered the considerable differences in the measured temperature profiles of the London and Berlin aviation flights to be real and called for additional comparison drives in England and Germany using Glaishers and Assmanns instruments. The trips took place on September 15, 1898. Patrick Alexander organized and financed the promotion to Crystal Palace . Berson took the trip with Stanley Spencer at the Excelsior . At the same time Süring rose in the club balloon from Sportpark Friedenau in Berlin. Both journeys were designed as high journeys and actually reached heights of 8,320 and 6,191 m. While there was a temperature difference of 7 degrees on the ground between Berlin and London, it disappeared almost completely at heights of five to six thousand meters. The lowest temperature measured in the Excelsior was −34 ° C, that once measured by Glaisher at an altitude of 8,000 m was −20.6 ° C. The results fully confirmed the previous conclusions of Assmann and Berson.
Results
Scientific results
Due to decisive advances in the instrumentation and measurement methodology, systematic balloon flights could be carried out for the first time, during which reliable values of air temperature and humidity were measured at any time of day and in all weather conditions. It could be shown that the temperature values measured at high altitudes during previous aviation were highly error-prone, which was mainly due to insufficient protection of the thermometers from solar radiation. Berliner Luftfahrten thus set quality standards for regular exploration of the free atmosphere with recording balloons and weather kites . Through international simultaneous ascents, they established a synopsis of the free atmosphere, which, by opening up the third dimension, led to an improvement in weather forecasts .
The aviation offered favorable conditions for studying the stratification of the troposphere. The simultaneous measurement of temperature, pressure and humidity could be combined with observations of the horizontal and vertical wind direction as well as the cloud shape and layering. The fact that the project was not crowned with the discovery of the stratosphere is due to the fact that the manned journeys did not penetrate into this region, and that Aßmann interpreted the temperature increase at altitudes above 10,000 m, which was definitely measured by the recording balloons, as an error due to incomplete shielding of solar radiation. Only after the trip to 10,800 m altitude, which Berson and Süring undertook on July 31, 1901 with the Prussen balloon , and the simultaneous ascent of a registration balloon , Aßmann came to a different assessment. On May 1, 1902, he submitted a work to the Prussian Academy of Sciences on the existence of a warmer air flow at a height of 10 to 15 km . The French meteorologist Léon-Philippe Teisserenc de Bort had already reported the same discovery in Paris three days earlier . It is now believed that the two researchers agreed to publish this groundbreaking discovery simultaneously in their respective home countries.
"The Berlin scientific aviation was the culmination of exploratory research in the troposphere using classical physical and aeronautical methods and formed a milestone in the development of the third dimension for meteorological research and practice."
publication
Immediately after each flight, the results were published in specialist journals such as Das Wetter , Zeitschrift für Luftschifffahrt und Physik der Atmospheric, and Meteorologische Zeitschrift . Aßmann and Berson alone produced 12 and 18 articles, respectively. Assmann gave an interim balance after 49 trips in 1895 in the Meteorological Journal .
A complete publication of the measurement data of all 94 manned and unmanned balloon flights and a detailed scientific analysis and discussion of the same took place in three volumes under the title Scientific Aviation in 1899 (Volume 1) and 1900 (Volume 2 and 3). Assmann and Berson acted as editors. Bashin, von Bezold, Börnstein, Groß, Kremser, Stade and Süring also contributed. After a historical overview of meteorological observations during previous balloon trips, the work contains a description of the balloon material used, the instruments used and the calculation methods. The detailed description of each individual trip in tabular overviews, graphic representations and detailed reports by the respective balloonist about the course of the trip and the observers about the observations made takes up a very large amount of space. This fills half of the first band and all of the second band. The third volume contains the comprehensive presentation and scientific discussion of the observation material, separated according to air temperature, distribution of water vapor, cloud formation, speed and direction of wind, solar radiation and air electricity. The work ends with a theoretical conclusion by Bezolds.
The first copy of Scientific Aviation was given to Kaiser Wilhelm II on June 10, 1900 by von Bezold, Assmann, Berson and Hauptmann Groß. In recognition of their achievements, the Emperor appointed von Bezold to the Secret Upper Government Council and Assmann to the Secret Government Council. Berson and Kremser received the Red Eagle Order IV class and Süring the Crown Order IV class.
The Scientific air trips were very well received by the international community of Aero lodges. By Hugo Hergesell , the President of the International Commission for Scientific Aeronautics , appeared in 1901, a twenty-page review. In the Wiener Luftschiffer-Zeitung , Viktor Silberer , the President of the Vienna Aëro Club, praised Scientific Aviation as “by far the most important and extensive work that the aëronautical literature of all nations on earth has to date” . In 1903, the Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences awarded Aßmann and Berson the Buys Ballot Medal , which is awarded only once a decade for outstanding achievements in the field of meteorology.
literature
- Richard Assmann, Arthur Berson (ed.): Scientific aviation , carried out by the German Association for the Promotion of Airship Travel in Berlin, 3 volumes, Vieweg , Braunschweig 1899 (volume 1) / 1900 (volume 2 and 3).
- Karl-Heinz Bernhardt: To explore the atmosphere with the free balloon - the Berlin scientific aviation (1888-1899). In: Eckart Henning (Ed.): Dahlemer Archive Talks. Volume 6, Archive for the History of the Max Planck Society , Berlin 2000, pp. 52–82.
- Sabine Höhler: Aviation research and aviation myth . Scientific balloon flight in Germany, 1880–1910. In: Campus Research, Volume 792, Campus, Frankfurt am Main / New York, NY 2001, ISBN 3-593-36840-4 (also dissertation at the Technical University of Braunschweig 1999).
- Hermann Stade: 40 years of the Berlin Aviation Association , Berlin 1921.
References and comments
- ↑ K.-H. Bernhardt, p. 58.
- ↑ K.-H. Bernhardt, p. 60.
- ↑ R. Assmann: General overview of the development of scientific aviation up to the year 1887 . In: R. Assmann, A. Berson (Ed.): Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten , Vol. 1, p. 3.
- ↑ GC Lichtenberg: Mixed news about the aërostatic machines . In: Karl Riha (Ed.): Reisen im Luftmeer , Hanser, Munich and Vienna 1983. ISBN 3-446-13682-7 , pp. 58–63.
- ↑ R. Assmann: General overview of the development of scientific aviation up to the year 1887 . In: R. Assmann, A. Berson (Ed.): Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten , Vol. 1, p. 4.
- ↑ R. Assmann: General overview of the development of scientific aviation up to the year 1887 . In: R. Assmann, A. Berson (Ed.): Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten , Vol. 1, p. 9
- ↑ R. Assmann: The observations, the instruments and their use in scientific aviation up to the year 1887 and criticism of the results obtained with the same . In: R. Assmann, A. Berson (Ed.): Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten , Vol. 1, pp. 47-89.
- ↑ S. Höhler, p. 211.
- ^ H. Steinhagen : The weather man. Life and work of Richard Assmann in documents and episodes . Findling, Neuenhagen 2005, p. 99.
- ↑ R. Assmann: The working methods of the aerological observatories . In: Bröckelmann (ed.), Wir Luftschiffer , Ullstein, Berlin and Vienna 1909, p. 117.
- ↑ W. v. Bezold: The importance of aviation for meteorology . In: Zeitschr. f. Luftschiffahrt 7, 1888, 193-203.
- ↑ R. Assmann: The development of the newer scientific aviation . In: R. Assmann, A. Berson (Ed.): Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten , Vol. 1, p. 108.
- ↑ H. Groß: The balloon material . In: R. Assmann, A. Berson (Ed.): Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten , Vol. 1, p. 139.
- ^ H. Stade: 40 Years of the Berlin Aviation Association , Berlin 1921, p. 12.
- ^ H. Steinhagen: On the 150th birthday of Arthur Berson . In: dmg-Mitteilungen 04/2009, pp. 11–13.
- ↑ After Süring ( Scientific ballooning , In: Bröckelmann (eds):. . We aeronauts The development of modern airship technology in monographs , Ullstein, Berlin and Vienna, 1909, page 48) is called in aeronautics of high rides when 5,000- Exceed 6,000 m.
- ↑ H. Groß: The balloon material . In: R. Assmann, A. Berson (Ed.): Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten , Vol. 1, p. 152.
- ↑ H. Groß: The balloon material . In: R. Assmann, A. Berson (Ed.): Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten , Vol. 1, pp. 155f.
- ↑ H. Groß: The balloon material . In: R. Assmann, A. Berson (Ed.): Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten , Vol. 1, p. 156f.
- ^ R. Aßmann: The instruments and the observation methods . In: R. Assmann, A. Berson (Ed.): Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten , Vol. 1, p. 164.
- ^ R. Süring: The simultaneous trips of February 18, 1897. Meteorological results of the trip of the balloon "Condor" . In: R. Assmann, A. Berson (Ed.): Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten , Vol. 2, pp. 515f.
- ↑ H.-C. Gunga: Life and work of the Berlin physiologist Nathan Zuntz (1847–1920) , Matthiesen, Husum 1989 ( Treatises on the history of medicine and natural sciences 58). ISBN 978-3-7868-4058-9 , pp. 170-174.
- ^ V. Kremser: ride of the "Herder" balloon on June 23, 1888 . In: R. Assmann, A. Berson (Ed.): Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten , Vol. 2, pp. 3-16.
- ↑ A. Berson: Ride of the balloon “M. W. “of October 24, 1891 . In: R. Assmann, A. Berson (Ed.): Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten , Vol. 2, pp. 42–49.
- ^ H. Groß: Flight of the "Humboldt" balloon on April 26, 1893 . In: R. Assmann, A. Berson (Ed.): Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten , Vol. 2, pp. 129–132.
- ^ H. Groß: Flight of the "Humboldt" balloon on March 14, 1893 . In: R. Assmann, A. Berson (Ed.): Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten , Vol. 2, pp. 76–79.
- ^ H. Steinhagen: The weather man. Life and work of Richard Assmann in documents and episodes . Findling, Neuenhagen 2005, p. 241.
- ↑ H. Groß, R. Süring, A. Berson: The simultaneous journeys from May 11, 1894 . In: R. Assmann, A. Berson (Ed.): Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten , Vol. 2, pp. 285-304.
- ^ A. Berson, R. Süring: The simultaneous journeys from December 4, 1894 . In: R. Assmann, A. Berson (Ed.): Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten , Vol. 2, pp. 418–438.
- ^ HWL Moedebeck : Die Luftschiffahrt, their past and their future, especially the airship in traffic and in war , Trübner, Strasbourg 1906, p. 35.
- ↑ N. Ekholm: Some remarks on the decrease in temperature with altitude in the free atmosphere . In: Meteorolog. Journal 13, 1896, pp. 480-483.
- ↑ Five miles up in a balloon . In: The New York Times , September 26, 1898, p. 4.
- ^ A. Berson, R. Süring: The simultaneous journeys of September 15, 1898 . In: R. Assmann, A. Berson (Ed.): Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten , Vol. 2, pp. 591–610.
- ↑ A. Berson, R. Süring: A balloon ascent to 10500 m . In: Illustrierte Aeronautische Mitteilungen 4, 1901, pp. 117–119.
- ↑ R. Aßmann: About the existence of a warmer air flow at an altitude of 10 to 15 km . In: session area. d. Royal Prussia. Akad. D. Knowledge zu Berlin 1902, pp. 495–504.
- ↑ L. Teisserenc de Bort: Variations de la temperature de l'air libre dans the zone comprise 8 km et 13 km d'altitude . In: Compt. Rend. Hebd. Séances Acad. Sci. 134, 1902, pp. 987-989 (French).
- ↑ H. Steinhagen: Richard Assmann . In: dmg-Mitteilungen 03/04, 2005, pp. 10–12.
- ↑ K.-H. Bernhardt, p. 74.
- ^ H. Steinhagen: The weather man. Life and work of Richard Assmann in documents and episodes . Findling, Neuenhagen 2005, p. 252.
- ↑ R. Aßmann: Overview of the scientific balloon rides carried out by the "German Association for the Promotion of Airship in Berlin" . In: Meteorol. Journal 12, 1895, pp. 334-344.
- ^ H. Hergesell: The Berlin scientific aviation . In: Meteorolog. Magazine 18, 1901, pp. 439-459.
- ^ V. Silberer, Wiener Luftschiffer-Zeitung 1, Issue 3, 1902, pp. 61–62 .
- ^ R. Süring: Obituary for Arthur Berson . In: Meteorolog. Magazine 60, 1943, pp. 26-28.
