Brown-throated sloth

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Brown-throated sloth
Bradypus.jpg

Brown-throated sloth ( Bradypus variegatus )

Systematics
Order : Tooth arms (pilosa)
Subordination : Sloths (folivora)
Superfamily : Megatherioidea
Family : Three-toed sloth (Bradypodidae)
Genre : Three-toed sloth ( Bradypus )
Type : Brown-throated sloth
Scientific name
Bradypus variegatus
Schinz , 1825

The brown-throated sloth ( Bradypus variegatus ) is a species from the family of three-toed sloth (Bradypodidae). It is distributed over large parts of South and Central America and lives predominantly in tropical rainforests . The brown-throated sloth is a pure tree dweller and feeds on leaves, with individual individuals specializing in certain plant species. It lives solitary and sometimes multiplies seasonally, with only one young being born at a time. Characteristic features of the brown-throated sloth are an eponymous brown throat patch and a dark eye stripe. The brown-throated sloth population is not considered endangered. It was first described in 1825, but there was a frequent systematic confusion with the white-throated sloth well into the 20th century .

description

Habitus

The brown-throated sloth reaches a total length of 42 to 80 cm, with a tail of 2.5 to 9 cm rather short but stubby. The weight varies from 2.3 to 5.5 kg; there is no pronounced gender dimorphism . However, the individual populations show noticeable differences in size. Some groups on the islands off the east coast of Central America are markedly smaller than those on the mainland. The small round head has 1 to 1.5 cm long ears that are not visible from the outside, but are hidden under the fur. Furthermore, the face is brownish to yellowish in color, but there is a partly lighter color around the eyes, with a darker eye stripe in contrast. The lateral head, throat, shoulders and the rest of the body are tinted brown. It is also rare that individual animals with a completely light coat color appear, which is caused by albinism or leucism . In general, the color of the fur is relatively variable between the individual populations. In males, an orange spot appears on the back, divided by a vertical dark stripe. The intensity of the color spot increases with age. In general, the coat consists of a dense, short undercoat and overlying, long hair. The long hair often have transverse fractures in which symbiotically living algae settle. As a result, the fur seems to take on a greenish hue depending on the incidence of light, which occurs more often during the rainy season. This symbiosis is mainly used to camouflage from predators. As with all sloths, the top of the fur lies on the stomach, which allows rainwater to drain off better. The arms are significantly longer than the legs. Both front and rear legs end in feet with three functional toes each, the rear foot is up to 18 cm long. The front and rear feet have hook-shaped claws, the middle one being enlarged. The front can be up to 8 cm long, the back up to 5.5 cm long.

Skull and dentition features

The skull becomes between 6.8 and 8.6 cm long. At the cheekbones it reaches a maximum width of 5.4, but behind the eyes only 3.1 cm. Another typical feature is the non-closed zygomatic arch , which, however, has an elongated, narrow, downwardly directed extension at the front attachment. The bit has each half of the upper jaw 5, in the lower jaw 4 to 5 teeth on for a total of 18 to 20. The posterior teeth are molarenartig designed, the front, however, is rather small in each case, a corner and cutting teeth are not formed. The length of the upper row of teeth is up to 2.7 cm.

Vocalizations

Only a few vocalizations of the brown-throated sloth are known. Young animals whistle when they are separated from their mother, the sound increasing from 1.9 to 2.6 kHz and being held for just under a second. Aggressive males also make high-pitched voices.

distribution

Distribution area (red) of the brown-throated sloth

The brown-throated sloth occurs in large parts of the subtropical and tropical Central and Central South America . Its main distribution area extends from Honduras and Nicaragua in the north via Costa Rica , Panama and Ecuador to Colombia , the north and south of Venezuela , the east of Peru and large parts of Brazil and Bolivia . It originally appeared in northern Paraguay and Argentina , but it is probably extinct there. In northern South America there is a distribution gap north of the Amazon and east of the Rio Negro up to the Guiana Shield . Instead, the white-throated sloth ( Bradypus tridactylus ) occurs here. The tropical rainforests and Atlantic coastal rainforests ( Mata Atlântica ) serve as living space . In the eastern coastal area the habitat continues to overlap with that of the collar -necked sloth ( Bradypus torquatus ), but only the brown-throated sloth occurs here at altitudes of over 1500 m. Furthermore, representatives of the brown-throated sloth have been found in partly deciduous forests, cloud forests and on cocoa plantations ; in 2017, the presence of the species in the cerrado forests was documented for the first time . The total height distribution ranges from sea level to 2400 m. The entire distribution area is given as 10 million square kilometers and is the largest of the sloth species living today. The population density is quite high in places. On Barro Colorado Island in the Panama Canal , it is up to 8.46 individuals per hectare (846 individuals per square kilometer), the sloth species alone making up 40 to 48% of the biomass of terrestrial mammals . In Mamirauá in the Brazilian state of Amazonas , the population density is still 6.72 individuals per hectare. In the Colombian department of Antioquia , however, it is much lower and is calculated at 0.008 to 0.002 individuals per hectare (0.8 to 0.2 individuals per square kilometer) during the dry season .

Way of life

Territorial behavior

Brown-throated sloth in the branches with greenish shimmering fur

The brown-throated sloth lives solitary and is both diurnal and nocturnal. Pair bonds exist only between mother and young animal. It is mainly found in the crowns of tall trees, often more than 16 m above the ground ( arboreal way of life). She spends most of the day, between 15 and 18 hours, sleeping. An animal prefers branches or branches for sleeping. The hind legs are wrapped around them, the head rests on the chest and the front legs lie around the body. This position is also taken during thunderstorms, as the brown-throated sloth does not seek natural hiding places. The other daytime activities include eating, locomotion, and grooming. The individual frequencies of activities in the daily routine vary over the year and depend on the season . In the dry season, longer rest periods can be observed than in the rainy season . The locomotion takes place mainly in the branches both horizontally and vertically and is very slow. About every three days the brown-throated sloth switches to another tree, which is often done through the branches. On the ground, the animals move rather awkwardly and are unable to fall into normal four-footed movement. Rather, they use the hind feet, elbows and the long claws of the front feet. On the other hand, brown-throated sloths are excellent swimmers and keep their bodies high up in the water. The daily distance (within 24 hours) for searching for food is on average 23 to 38 m, but it can also increase to 133 m. Individual animals use action areas of 0.1 to 19.9 ha in size with an average of around 5.4 ha. In areas with a high population density, these only reach an average of 1.6 ha in size. In general, there are hardly any noticeable differences in the extent of the action spaces between the sexes; sometimes those of the female animals can be slightly larger than those of the males. Within the action areas, individual animals only prefer a certain number of trees of preferred tree species and are very picky about it. They often stay in ant trees . Rarely is there more than one individual on a tree. Aggressive behavior between the animals has only been observed on a few occasions. However, it increases in the reproductive phase between males and generally in areas with a high population density, then females can also be involved. Mostly it comes to blows with the sharp claws of the front feet, which is partly connected with an intense vocalization. About every 8 days leaves the brown-throated sloth his tree to feces drain. To do this, it usually digs a small hollow in the ground with its stubby tail and later fills it with leaves.

food

Three-toed sloth

The brown-throated sloth is a herbivore that specializes in soft foods . As a result, leaves take up 99.4% of its total nutrition, 67% of which are young and 27% older leaves. Subordinately, it also eats fruits and flowers . Examined stomach remains revealed a total of 51 different plant species, mainly trees and lianas. However, individual individuals are each only specialized in a few plant species, which they may learn from the mother during rearing. Representatives of the ant trees are among the most important food plants . Depending on the local distribution, figs , lacmellea and poulsenia in Panama and Coussapoa , pseudobombax and piranheiras in Mamirauá in Brazil are also found as resources . In northern Venezuela also could Clethra be detected as used food sources in northern Colombia also Cavanillesia , Guazuma and Brownea . The preferred plant species continue to change with the seasons. According to observations in Colombia, some animals ate mainly the leaves of Cavanillesia representatives during the dry season , while during the rainy season they ate those of Guazuma , among other things . Since the brown-throated sloth is very picky, it usually does not consume the leaves completely. The daily amount of food is around 192 to 196 g of fresh leaves, which corresponds to an average of 17.3 g of dry matter per kilogram of body weight. The amount of leaves picked up increases as the ambient temperature rises.

Reproduction

The mating season is probably possible all year round, but the majority of the births fall seasonally limited in the rainy season. According to studies from Panama, the animals mostly mate between January and March. As a rule, mating takes place in the branches, although observations have shown that this can be done with the male and female face to face as well as with the male on the back of the female. After mating, both sexes separate again. Studies of a population in a heavily fragmented forest area in Costa Rica revealed a markedly polygynous behavior in the males. According to this, only 25% of all resident males produced offspring, with 50% of the young animals examined being descended from a single male. This reproduction strategy is possibly caused by the forest island-like character of the habitat, whereby individual males acquire a dominant status. The gestation period is around six months (sometimes only four months are given), after which the female gives birth to a young animal. Until now, females with two young animals have been spotted very rarely. The birth weight is around 260 to 340 g, the length of the newborn is 19 cm. This is completely hairy with dark or light fur and has open eyes. The young animal usually spends the first five to six months of life on its stomach, less often on its mother's back. There is also mutual playing and cleaning of their fur with each other, and the young animal sometimes moves away from the mother and learns to climb in the branches. Weaning begins after about a month. A youngster begins to eat its first solid food after 4 days, but sometimes not until after two weeks. It first licks the leaf remnants from the mother's lips and thus gets to know the preferred food. After weaning, the young animal is independent, but it stays with the mother for up to 23 months. This leaves the area of ​​the action space in which the baby was raised at the end of the suckling phase, but returns there at every birth. The interval between two births is around a year. The maximum age of the brown-throated sloth in the wild is unknown.

Predators and enemy behavior

The harpy , one of the brown-throated sloth's major predators

The harpy eagle is one of the most important predators of the brown-throated sloth . Observations of a nesting bird in the eastern Amazon over a period of 15 months resulted in a total of 9 captured brown-throated sloths, whereby it was also determined that the birds of prey sometimes return several times to feed on the carcasses of their captured animals. Furthermore, the owl represents a potentially dangerous predator for the brown-throated sloth, as does the jaguar and the tayra . Above all, the descent from the trees to the ground turns out to be particularly dangerous for the animals, as it significantly increases the number of possible predators . It is estimated that around half of all adult brown-throated sloths are killed.

Parasites and commensals

Numerous internal and external parasites attack the brown-throated sloth. The ticks of the genus Amblyomma belong to the external ones , as well as fleas like Polygenis , mosquitoes like Deinocerites and mites like Edentalges . Beetles still live in the fur of the brown-throated sloth, such as uroxys and trichillum , on which the yellow-headed caracara feeds by pecking them out of the fur. The internal parasites mainly include roundworms . The leiuris , who are implanted in the duodenum , and Monierzia are important . Furthermore, protozoa such as Endotrypanum and Leishmania as well as the single cell Trypanosoma could be detected.

There is also a special relationship with some moths , in particular from the genus Cryptoses , which are also called "sloth moths". These also live in the fur of the sloth species and lay their eggs in their dung , which in turn feeds their larvae . Research has shown that there is a symbiotic relationship, as the moths release nitrogen compounds into the fur, which promote the growth of the algae that live in the fur . While grooming, the brown-throated sloth eats the algae and thus receives important supplements that it cannot absorb due to the rather low-energy leaf diet. The higher concentration of algae in the fur enhances the camouflage effect in the branches, while the moths get to their egg-laying places when the brown-throated sloth descends from the tree to deposit its faeces.

Systematics

Internal systematics of recent sloths according to Delsuc et al. 2004
  Pilosa  

 Vermilingua (anteaters) 


  Folivora (sloths)  
  Choloepodidae  

 Choloepus (two-toed sloth)


  Bradypodidae  

 Bradypus (three-toed sloth)




Template: Klade / Maintenance / Style

The brown-throated sloth is one of four species from the genus of the three-toed sloth ( Bradypus ). This in turn forms the monotypic family of the Bradypodidae , which, within the suborder of the sloths (Folivora), is either compared to all other groups of sloths as a sister group according to skeletal anatomical characteristics or is assigned to the superfamily of the Megatherioidea according to molecular genetic studies and protein analyzes . The next related group within today's sloths are the two-toed sloths ( Choloepus ) from the Choloepodidae family . The sloths form together with the anteaters (Vermilingua) the closer family group of the tooth arms (Pilosa), an order within the secondary articulated animals (Xenarthra). With the help of molecular genetic studies, a split of the sloths from the common line with the anteaters in the end of the Paleocene could be determined about 58 million years ago. The two genera Bradypus and Choloepus , which are still alive today, separated, however, according to the same studies in the Oligocene , around 29 million years ago.

Internal systematics of the genus Bradypus according to Gibb et al. 2015
  Bradypus  

 Bradypus torquatus


   

 Bradypus pygmaeus


   

 Bradypus tridactylus


   

 Bradypus variegatus





Template: Klade / Maintenance / Style
Historical drawing of the brown-throated sloth from 1871

The genus Bradypus diversified very early. In the Lower Miocene 19 million years ago, the collar sloth ( Bradypus torquatus ) separated from the common line of the white-throated ( Bradypus tridactylus ) and brown-throated sloth and the pygmy sloth ( Bradypus pygmaeus ); the last three species formed their own lines in the course of the Middle and Upper Miocene or in the transition to the Pliocene 12 to 5.7 million years ago. The closest related species of the brown-throated sloth is possibly the pygmy sloth, which differentiated itself through island dwelling on the island of Escudo de Veraguas off the north coast of Panama around 10,000 years ago . Fossil evidence of the brown-throated sloth is not known.

A total of seven subspecies (originally nine) are distinguished today:

  • B. v. boliviensis ( Gray , 1871); in the southwestern Amazon basin of Bolivia and Brazil
  • B. v. brasiliensis de Blainville , 1840; southeastern Brazil in the highlands and the adjacent Atlantic lowlands
  • B. v. ephippiger Philippi , 1870; northern Colombia to northwestern Venezuela , west of the Andes to Ecuador , eastern Panama
  • B. v. gorgon Thomas , 1926; Colombia, on the island of Gorgona
  • B. v. infuscatus Wagler , 1831, Colombia and Venezuela east of the Andes, eastern Peru and Ecuador, western Brazil,
  • B. v. trivittatus Cornalia , 1849; Brazil, in the lower Amazon basin south of the Amazon
  • B. v. variegatus Schinz , 1825; Brazil, from the southeastern Amazon to the Atlantic coast

From a genetic point of view, the brown-throated sloth population can be divided into two clades : an Andean group and a lowland group in the Amazon basin . Both groups are monophyletic , their separation from one another reaches a temporal depth, as it is also proven for the two species of the two-toed sloth. For this reason, it was proposed as early as 2016 to recognize the Andean clade as a separate species under the name Bradypus ephippiger . At the same time, the participating scientists emphasized the need for more intensive studies.

The first description of the brown-throated sloth was made in 1825 by Heinrich Rudolf Schinz , the scientific name Bradypus variegatus he had previously used informally in the year. Robert Mertens only gave the type locality a hundred years later as “South America”, limited to “Brazil (probably Bahia)”. Over time, the sloth species was assigned over 50 other scientific synonym names , including Bradypus tridactyltus in 1840 by Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville , which is actually reserved for the white-throated sloth. Up until the 1970s there was frequent confusion between the two species or incorrect allocation of individuals, which also applies to museum specimens. It was not until 1982 that Ralph M. Wetzel clarified the systematic assignment of the scientific names for the two species of sloth. In general, the brown-throated sloth differs from the white-throated sloth in the brown fur color on the throat and the black eye stripes, which lacks these and which also has a golden-yellow face and throat color. The species name variegatus refers to the varying colors and patterns of fur within the sloth species.

Danger

There are no known major threats to the population of the brown-throated sloth. Since the sloth species is highly adapted to its habitat, it is extremely sensitive to changes. The destruction of the tropical rainforests is the biggest problem, especially in Colombia and Brazil, which endangers individual populations locally . In addition, some indigenous peoples hunt the animals for food. In north-eastern Brazil and the Amazon region , these are also used for medicinal purposes, and captured brown-throated sloths also serve as pets. Illegal trade is increasing overall. The species is on the Red List of the IUCN "not at risk" due to the widespread and in some regions high population density ( least concern out).

literature

  • DP Gilmore, CP Da Costa, DPF Duarte: Sloth biology: an update on their physiological ecology, behavior and role as vectors of arthropods and arboviruses. In: Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research. 34 (1), 2001, pp. 9-25.
  • Virginia Hayssen: Bradypus variegatus (Pilosa: Bradypodidae). In: Mammalian Species. 42, (1), 2010, pp. 19-32.
  • Jonathan N. Pauli: Bradypodidae (Three-toed sloths). In: Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (eds.): Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 8: Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2018, pp. 118-132 (pp. 130-131) ISBN 978-84-16728-08-4 .

Individual evidence

  1. ^ A b H. Hugh, Genoways, Robert M. Timm: The Xenarthrans of Nicaragua. In: Mastozoologia Neotropical. 10 (2), 2003, pp. 231-253.
  2. ↑ Gileno Antonio Araújo Xavier, Maria Adélia Borstelmann de Oliveira, Adriana Alves Quirino, Rinaldo Aparecido Mota: Albinismo Total em Preguiças-de-Garganta-Marrom Bradypus variegatus (Schinz, 1825) no Estado de Pernambuco, Brazil. In: Edentata 11 (1), 2010, pp. 1-3.
  3. ^ Ana Cecília Pires de Azevedo Lopes, Epitacio Correia de Farias Junior, Marco Antônio de Freitas, Karina Theodoro Molina: Primeiro registro de leucismo em Bradypus variegatus (Schinz 1825, Xenarthra: Bradypodidae), município de Maceió, Alagoas, Brasil. In: Edentata 20, 2019, pp. 39–43.
  4. ↑ a b c d D. P. Gilmore, CP Da Costa, DPF Duarte: Sloth biology: an update on their physiological ecology, behavior and role as vectors of arthropods and arboviruses. In: Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research. 34 (1), 2001, pp. 9-25.
  5. ^ A b c Robert P. Anderson, Charles O. Handley, Jr: A new species of three-toed sloth (Mammalia: Xenarthra) from Panamá, with a review of the genus Bradypus. In: Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 114, 2001, pp. 1-33.
  6. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Virginia Hayssen: Bradypus variegatus (Pilosa: Bradypodidae). In: Mammalian Species 42, (1), 2010, pp. 19-32.
  7. ↑ a b c d e Jonathan N. Pauli: Bradypodidae (Three-toed sloths). In: Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (eds.): Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 8: Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2018, pp. 118-132 (pp. 130-131) ISBN 978-84-16728-08-4 .
  8. ^ Pedro B. Garcia, Flávio HG Rodrigues, Adriano G. Chiarello: First record of the brown-throated sloth (Bradypus variegatus Schinz, 1825) in the Cerrado of Minas Gerais, Brazil. In: Edentata 18, 2017, pp. 73-77.
  9. ^ Adriana Garcia Chiarello, Tinka Plese, Nadia Moraes-Barros: Bradypus variegatus. In: Edentata 11 (2), 2010, pp. 124-125.
  10. ^ A b c Adriano Garcia Chiarello: Sloth ecology. An overview of field studies. In: Sergio F. Vizcaíno, WJ Loughry (Ed.): The Biology of the Xenarthra. University Press of Florida, 2008, pp. 269-280.
  11. ↑ a b Juan Fernando Acevedo-Quintero, Diana Sánchez Granada, Tinka Plese: Abundancia y preferencia de hábitat de Bradypus variegatus y Choloepus hoffmanni durante la época seca en dos fragmentos de bosque seco en Arboletes, Antioquia, Colombia. In: Edentata 12, 2011, pp. 36-44.
  12. ↑ a b B. Urbani, C. Bosque: Feeding ecology and postural behavior of the three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus flaccidus) in northern Venezuela. In: Mammalian Biology 72 (6), 2007, pp. 321-329.
  13. ↑ a b Leyn Castro-Vásquez, Marlon Meza, Tinka Plese, Sergio Moreno-Mora: Activity Patterns, Preference and Use of Floristic Resources by Bradypus variegatus in a Tropical Dry Forest Fragment, Santa Catalina, Bolívar, Colombia. In: Edentata 11 (1), 2010, pp. 62-69.
  14. ^ A b c d Alfred L. Gardner: Mammals of South America, Volume 1: Marsupials, Xenarthrans, Shrews, and Bats. University of Chicago Press, 2008, pp. 158-164 ISBN 978-0-226-28240-4 .
  15. ^ A b Jonathan N. Pauli, M. Zachariah Peery: Unexpected Strong Polygyny in the Brown-Throated Three-Toed Sloth. In: PLoS ONE 7 (12), 2012, p. E51389, doi: 10.1371 / journal.pone.0051389 .
  16. ^ Harry W. Greene: Agonistic behavior by three-toed sloths, Bradypus variegatus. In: Biotropica 21, 1989, pp. 369-372.
  17. ↑ Elaine Pessoa Pedrosa, Arieno Zevêdo De Araújo, Carla Soraia Soares De Castro: Agonistic interactions in the brown-throated three-toed sloth, Bradypus variegatus (Pilosa: Bradypodidae), in an urban environment in Rio Tinto, Paraíba, Brazil. In: Edentata 19, 2018, pp. 42–46.
  18. ^ Jairo Andrés Díaz Arcia, Julio J. Chacón Pacheco: Nuevos casos de comportamiento agonístico entre machos adultos de Bradypus variegatus en el Caribe colombiano. In: Edentata 20, 2019, pp. 26-30.
  19. ↑ Rebecca N. Cliffe, Ryan J. Haupt, Judy A. Avey-Arroyo, Rory P. Wilson: Sloths like it hot: ambient temperature modulates food intake in the brown-throated sloth (Bradypus variegatus). In: PeerJ 3, 2015, p. E875; doi: 10.7717 / peerj.875 .
  20. ↑ Bruna Martins Bezerra, Antonio da Silva Souto, Lewis George Halsey, Nicola Schiel: Observation of brown-throated three-toed sloths: mating behavior and the simultaneous nurturing of two young. In: Journal of Ethology 26, 2008, pp. 175-178.
  21. ↑ CA Soares, RS Carineiro: Social behavior between mothers and young of sloths Bradypus variegatus Schniz, 1825 (Xenarthra, Bradypodidae). In: Brazilian Journal of Biology 62, 2002, pp. 249-252.
  22. ^ Paula Lara-Ruiz, Adriano Garcia Chiarello: Life-history traits and sexual dimorphism of the Atlantic forest maned sloth Bradypus torquatus (Xenarthra: Bradypodidae). In: Journal of Zoology 267, 2005, pp. 63-73.
  23. ^ Mauro Galetti, Oswaldo de Carvalho Jr .: Sloths in the Diet of a Harpy Eagle Nestling in Eastern Amazon. In: The Wilson Bulletin 112 (4), 2000, pp. 535-536.
  24. ↑ Matthew T. Springer, Clayton K. Nielsen, Andrew D. Carver, Nestor J. Correa: Harpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja) Feeding Behavior on a Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus variegates). In: Journal of Raptor Research 45 (1), 2011, pp. 100-103.
  25. ↑ James Bryson Voirin, Roland Kays, Margaret D. Lowman, Martin Wikelski: Evidence for Three-Toed Sloth (Bradypus variegatus) Predation by Spectacled Owl (Pulsatrix perspicillata). In: Edentata 8-10, 2009, pp. 15-20.
  26. ↑ Carolina Sáenz-Bolaños, Victor Montalvo, Eduardo Carillo, Todd K. Fuller: Tayra (Eira barbara) predation of a brown-throated three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus) in Costa Rica. In: Edentata 19, 2018, pp. 70–73.
  27. ^ A b Jonathan N. Pauli, Jorge E. Mendoza, Shawn A. Steffan, Cayelan C. Carey, Paul J. Weimer, M. Zachariah Peery: A syndrome of mutualism reinforces the lifestyle of a sloth. In: Proceedings of the Royal Society B 281, 2014, p. 20133006, doi: 10.1098 / rspb.2013.3006 .
  28. ↑ Filipe Dantas-Torres, Daniel B. Siqueira, Luciana C. Rameh-De-Albuquerque, Denisson Da Silva E Souza, Alexandre P. Zanotti, Débora RA Ferreira, Thiago F. Martins, Michelle B. De Senna, Paulo GC Wagner, Marcio A. Da Silva, Maria FV Marvulo, Marcelo B. Labruna: Ticks Infesting Wildlife Species in Northeastern Brazil with New Host and Locality Records. In: Journal of Medical Entomology 47 (6), 2010, pp. 1243-1246.
  29. ^ Alan H. Krakauer, Thomas H. Krakaue: Foraging of yellowheaded caracaras in the fur of a three-toed sloth. In: Journal of Raptor Research 33, 1999, p. 270 ( [1] )
  30. ↑ Karen D. Sibaja-Morales, Jaqueline B. de Oliveira, Ana E. Jiménez Rocha, Jorge Hernández Gamboa, Jorge Prendas Gamboa, Francisco Arroyo Murillo, Janet Sandí, Yessenia Nuñez, Mario Baldi: Gastrointestinal Parasites and Ectoparasites of Bradypus variegatus and Choloepus Hoffmanni Sloths in Captivity from Costa Rica. In: Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 40 (1), 2009, pp. 86-90.
  31. ↑ a b Frédéric Delsuc, Sergio F Vizcaíno, Emmanuel JP Douzery: Influence of Tertiary paleoenvironmental changes on the diversification of South American mammals: a relaxed molecular clock study within xenarthrans. In: BMC Evolutionary Biology 4 (11), 2004, pp. 1-13.
  32. ↑ Timothy J. Gaudin: Phylogenetic relationships among sloths (Mammalia, Xenarthra, Tardigrada): the craniodental evidence. In: Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 140, 2004, pp. 255-305.
  33. ↑ Luciano Varela, P. Sebastián Tambusso, H. Gregory McDonald, Richard A. Fariña: Phylogeny, Macroevolutionary Trends and Historical Biogeography of Sloths: Insights From a Bayesian Morphological Clock Analysis. In: Systematic Biology 68 (2), 2019, pp. 204-218.
  34. ↑ Frédéric Delsuc, Melanie Kuch, Gillian C. Gibb, Emil Karpinski, Dirk Hackenberger, Paul Szpak, Jorge G. Martínez, Jim I. Mead, H. Gregory McDonald, Ross DE MacPhee, Guillaume Billet, Lionel Hautier, Hendrik N. Poinar : Ancient mitogenomes reveal the evolutionary history and biogeography of sloths. In: Current Biology 29 (12), 2019, pp. 2031-2042, doi: 10.1016 / j.cub.2019.05.043 .
  35. ↑ Samantha Presslee, Graham J. Slater, François Pujos, Analía M. Forasiepi, Roman Fischer, Kelly Molloy, Meaghan Mackie, Jesper V. Olsen, Alejandro Kramarz, Matías Taglioretti, Fernando Scaglia, Maximiliano Lezcano, José Luis Lanata, John Southon, Robert Feranec, Jonathan Bloch, Adam Hajduk, Fabiana M. Martin, Rodolfo Salas Gismondi, Marcelo Reguero, Christian de Muizon, Alex Greenwood, Brian T. Chait, Kirsty Penkman, Matthew Collins, Ross DE MacPhee: Palaeoproteomics resolves sloth relationships. In: Nature Ecology & Evolution 3, 2019, pp. 1121-1130, doi: 10.1038 / s41559-019-0909-z .
  36. ↑ a b c Gillian C. Gibb, Fabien L. Condamine, Melanie Kuch, Jacob Enk, Nadia Moraes-Barros, Mariella Superina, Hendrik N. Poinar, Frédéric Delsuc: Shotgun Mitogenomics Provides a Reference Phylogenetic Framework and Timescale for Living Xenarthrans. In: Molecular Biology and Evolution 33 (3), 2015, pp. 621-642.
  37. ↑ a b Nadia de Moraes-Barros, Juliana AB Silva, João Stenghel Morgante: Morphology, molecular phylogeny, and taxonomic inconsistencies in the study of Bradypus sloths (Pilosa: Bradypodidae). In: Journal of Mammalogy 92 (1), 2011, pp. 86-100.
  38. ↑ a b Manuel Ruiz-García, Diego Chacón, Tinka Plese, Ingrid Schuler, Joseph Mark Shostell: Mitogenomics phylogenetic relationships of the current sloth's genera and species (Bradypodidae and Megalonychidae). In: Mitochondrial DNA Part A 29 (2), 2018, pp. 281-299, doi: 10.1080 / 24701394.2016.1275602 .
  39. ↑ Nadia Moraes-Barros, Maria Clara Arteaga: Genetic diversity in Xenarthra and its relevance to patterns of Neotropical biodiversity. In: Journal of Mammalogy 96, 2015, pp. 690-702.
  40. ↑ Nadia de Moraes-Barros, Ana Paula Giorgi, Sofia Silva, João Stenghel Morgante: Reevaluation of the Geographical Distribution of Bradypus tridactylus Linnaeus, 1758 and B. variegatus Schinz, 1825. In: Edentata 11 (1), 2010, p. 53 -61.
  41. ↑ Sergio Moreno, Tinka Plese: The Illegal Traffic in Sloths and Threats to Their Survival in Colombia. In: Edentata 7, 2006, pp. 10-18.
  42. ^ Adriana Garcia Chiarello, Nadia Moraes-Barros, Tinka Plese: Bradypus variegatus. In: IUCN 2013. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. ( [2] ); last accessed on February 6, 2014.

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