Ant trees
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Ant trees ( Cecropia ) are a genus of 61 species of dioecious trees in the nettle family (Urticaceae). The majority of their species live as ant plants in a symbiosis called myrmecophylaxis with ants of the genus Azteca . Original and main distribution area of the genus is the Neotropic .
features
Ant trees are perennial trees . Most species reach heights of stature between five and 15 meters. Specimens of the species Cecropia distachya , Cecropia herthae , Cecropia insignis and Cecropia sciadophylla , however, grow significantly larger and reach heights of up to 40 meters. Cecropia ulei , for example, remains particularly low ; plants of this species rarely grow taller than five meters.
The age that the ant trees can reach is just as variable as the height. If specimens of Cecropia hololeuca can live to be more than a hundred years old, trees of the species Cecropia glaziovii can only reach an age between 30 and 40 years. Specimens of Cecropia ulei that only live a few years live even shorter .
Growth forms
Ant trees are usually only slightly branched with a chandelier- like branch system . In some species the branching is reduced to such an extent that the tree only consists of a single stem axis . Examples of these growth forms are Cecropia megastachya and Cecropia ulei . Many species, such as Cecropia concolor or Cecropia ficifolia , grow unbranched until the first flower and branch out for the first time with the development of seeds, whereby the branches grow out of the axes of the cross-opposite (dekussed) leaf stalks.
Cecropia garciae and Cecropia hispidissima are more branched. Here the branches start at a height of between half a meter and one meter. The plants get a rather bush-like habit . In most species, the branches are at a flat angle to the trunk (at least greater than 45 °) and give the crown an umbrella-like shape. However, some species such as Cecropia putumayonis or Cecropia uncubambana develop branches at a more acute angle, which results in a more compact crown.
root
All types of ant trees develop adventitious roots that develop into stilt roots . During growth, the stilt roots are not lifted out of the substrate by the longitudinal growth of the stem axis, but grow out of lenticels above ground .
The roots do not anchor themselves very deeply in the substrate (the soil). Even in fully grown plants, they rarely go deeper than three meters. They spread out radially and reach a diameter of about four meters. Individual roots, typically up to three, can grow up to 15 meters long. Fine, pile-forming roots are only found in the top 10 centimeters of the substrate.
A clear distinction between the roots in the classes of macrorhizae (multi-dividing thick roots for length and depth growth) and brachyrhizae (two-part thin roots) proposed by Jeník and Sen is not possible for the ant trees.
Cecropia's roots can grow into the thick roots of neighboring trees such as Miconia poeppigii and species in the genus Clusia .
Stem axis
The internodes of the shoot axes are hollow in almost all species and only have a thin layer of a white, soft pith on the edge . With Cecropia bullata and Cecropia gabrielis, however, they are completely filled with a harder brown pulp, with Cecropia schreberiana or Cecropia telealba partially filled. In general, it can be said that the medullary layer in slower growing, montane species is rather thicker than in fast growing species. The trunk of young plants often thickens towards the top, this can happen gradually or more or less abruptly.
The leaf attachment points ( nodes ) are thickened. There, partitions (septa) form inside the stem, so that the individual parts of the shoot are spatially separated between the nodes ( internodes ). The marrow in the internodes is surrounded on all sides by a thin skin of extremely hard sclerenchyme . These sclerenchymal layers continue horizontally at the nodes and make the partitions very stable.
Most species form small depressions called prostomata at the upper limits of the internodes . These are often located exactly in the middle, above the attachment point of a petiole. The wall of the internode is particularly thin there. Schimper also called the prostomata diaphragm in his work from 1888. In the myrmecophylactic species, the prostomata are often bitten through by the ants and form a small hole in the axis of the shoot.
The length of the internodes varies considerably within a plant. Young trees usually form longer internodes, in adult specimens the length of the newly formed internodes is shortened to 0.5 to two centimeters. In the distal parts of the branches, the internodes are usually longer than two centimeters.
In many species, the shoot axes show clear scars in the places where old leaves have fallen off. With Cecropia annulata , Cecropia engleriana and Cecropia litoralis , the age of the tree can be read from these ring-shaped scars, similar to annual rings .
Trichilium
In most ant tree species, the underside of the leaf bases is covered with one or two hair pads (Trichilium). These consist of very different trichomes , but they always consist of a single cell. They are mostly white or brownish.
On the trichilium, pearl-like small droplets of a latex-like juice, which is rich in proteins and fats , the so-called Müllerian bodies, form. A single trichilium forms around 2500–8000 of these bodies per week, which corresponds to around 10 grams.
Some species do not develop any Trichilia at all, for example: Cecropia holoeuca , Cecropia pittieri , Cecropia sciadophylla and Cecropia tacuna , these are mainly montane species that do not know myrmecophylaxis.
leaves
The leaves of all adult ant tree species are strikingly large and shield-shaped, with an almost circular circumference. The blade sits eccentrically, outside the center, on the petiole . The nerve is finger-veined, and the blade is incised between the main nerves, so that hand-shaped leaves in different gradations (palm-shaped lobes, palm-shaped split, palm-shaped divided, palm-shaped cut) or even finger-shaped leaf shapes result. In some species, such as Cecropia sciadophylla , these incisions extend to the leaf stalk and the individual leaf parts are on their own small stalks. In other species, such as Cecropia putumayonis or Cecropia subintegra , the lower part of the blade is hardly or not at all incised and only the upper part is split. The number of leaf segments varies between the species from five to over 20, within a species the number varies within narrower limits.
The course of the main nerves is relatively uniform within the species of the genus. The nerve of the side nerves, however, varies greatly between the species. The epidermis (leaf surface) is leathery to paper-like. Leathery leaves are often smooth, whereas papery leaves are rather rough.
The petiole is about as long as the blade, in some species, such as Cecropia marginalis or Cecropia virgusa , but also only half as long. However, petioles that are longer than 40 centimeters are rare. The blades are often folded at the base and spread out towards the tip. In Cecropia angustifolia and Cecropia montana , the leaf base is often rolled up around the petiole.
Leaf development
The cotyledon (cotyledon) of the ant trees is small and cartilaginous. It is chlorophyllless and has no nerves. The first trophophylls , leaves that feed the plant through photosynthesis , are opposite. They are broadly lanceolate, annoyed and have a short petiole. In the further development, the petioles become longer and the leaves are initially cut in two places. After the leaf with three leaf segments is incised twice, leaves with five segments develop, then seven-segment leaves and so on. The leaf size also increases from generation to generation.
Stipules
The stipules of the ant trees are grown in pairs to the right and left of the base of the petiole. Their length varies from five to 50 centimeters. The tip is often bent or fused to form a bud.
Inflorescences
Usually in each leaf axil there are two inflorescences with a lateral bud between them. In many species there is a basal bract opposite the inflorescence . The bracts vary in size from species to species, but are no longer than 2.5 centimeters.
The inflorescence consists of a pedicel that carries several ears . First of all, each of these ears is completely wrapped in a flower sheath , the spathe. In the anthesis , the spathe first opens adaxially and then falls down. Cecropia hololeuca is the only species that does not develop any flower sheaths. Before the anthesis, the spathe is always longer than the longest ear. The shape, surface and color of the spathe is always similar to the flower stalks.
The number of ears of wheat varies between species. In female plants it is usually four ears. in Cecropia gabrielis, however, only one and in Cecropia garciae and Cecropia hispidissima up to 20. Male flowers usually have significantly more spikes, and Cecropia membranacea even up to 100. The flowers are mostly yellowish.
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Male flowers
The male flowers are free in all species, only in Cecropia purpurascens the upper parts of the flower covers are fused. The length of the perianth varies depending on its position within the ear, they become shorter towards the base and tip, and its shape is tubular. The tepals are almost completely fused and leave only a narrow slit-shaped opening free. Only in Cecropia marginalis are the tepals free-leaved. The upper part of the flower is often thickened and hollow. In contrast to the female flowers, the male flowers are smooth towards the tip.
The male flowers vary more between species than the female flowers. The stamen in particular is often very divergent. The anthers are towards the axis and the stamens are flat and more or less thickened. According to the shape of the stamen, the male ant tree blossoms are divided into five groups:
- Cecropia peltata type: The most common type. The anthers detach from the stamens but stick to the flower opening and stay there.
- Cecropia latiloba -type: In anthesis, the anthers are almost completely detached from the stamens. The flower is more open and the whole anthers can be carried away by the wind.
- Cecropia sciadophylla type: the flowers and anthers are elongated and convexly curved. The anthers detach from the stamens, but remain connectedto the flowerby tracheids .
- Cecropia heterochroma type: The anthers point out of the flower and remain connected to the stamens.
- Cecropia membranacea type: the anthers are fused with the filaments. The flower is greatly shortened.
The pollen is dry and is often blown in large clouds. Cecropia pollen in sedimentary rock was used for paleoecological studies.
Female flowers
The female flowers are free in most species, for example in Cecropia peltata or Cecropia litoralis , however, they are fused at the base. The perianth is fused into a tube and there is only a gap that is big enough to let the stigma through. The upper part of the flowers is thickened and convexly curved. In all species, the outside of the flower is covered with cobweb-like hairs. The female flowers have upper ovaries from a single carpel . The scar is either head-like and brushy or stalked and wingless.
Fruits and seeds
The fruits are achenes , a special form of the nut fruit . They are encompassed by enlarged, more or less fleshy parts of the inflorescence. They are green and remain green even when fully ripe. Their shape is elongated, ellipsoidal, ovoid or, conversely, ovoid. The pericarp , the fruit casing, is mostly smooth and dark green to brown. The seed coat is very thin. The embryo with two identical, flat cotyledons is embedded in the endosperm . The seeds have a high germination capacity and can survive in the soil for a long time. The germination is triggered by sunlight and temperature changes.
distribution
The genus is distributed in almost the entire Neotropic , that is, in the tropical part of America. In Argentina there is only one species ( Cecropia pachystachya ) in the extreme northeast of the country; the genus is absent in the Altiplano of Bolivia and Peru; there are small stocks in Uruguay. The northern limit of the distribution extends over the border of the state of Veracruz in Mexico. Most ant trees live in the lowlands up to 1000 m, but some montane species occur in cloud forests at altitudes up to 2600 m.
The species Cecropia peltata (trumpet tree) has spread as a neophyte to other continents; for example there are stocks in Malaysia and Ivory Coast .
In general, the genus is widespread, but some species are classified as threatened by the IUCN , for example Cecropia pastasana or Cecropia multiflora . Some species with a very small distribution area, such as Cecropia multisecta , or with a high degree of specialization, such as Cecropia putumayonis and Cecropia utcubambana , are in principle endangered.
ecology
Ant trees have a high demand for light and grow as pioneer plants in secondary forests , in clearings , along rivers or, today, along roads that were built through the forest. They grow very quickly, around 2.40 meters per year, and can, for example, colonize a sandbank that has emerged after a flood in a short time. The hollow trunks and branches are likely an adaptation to the rapid growth in height: the tree invests in the growth in height and dispenses with a massive trunk so as not to be shaded by competing trees.
Ant trees are separate sexes. Female trees produce up to 900,000 seeds in a year. The seeds remain viable for four to five or even nine years. In surveys in Suriname , depending on the species , an average of between 20 and 80 Cecropia seeds per square meter of jungle soil was found. Because of the clearing of the rainforests by humans, there are more and more secondary forests and the ant trees have expanded greatly.
pollination
The morphology of the male flowers and inflorescences suggests that ant trees are wind- flowering plants . Either whole ears can be blown by the wind or the anthers reach out from the flower and the pollen is shaken out by movements of the flower. The pollen is dry and can easily be blown away.
Nevertheless, there are also indications of entomogamy , although the transport of pollen by insects has not yet been observed. Small beetles and flies lay their eggs in the inflorescences. Black beetles of the genera Epitragus and Ophtalmoborus feed on the pollen of Cecropia pachystachya , but whether pollination takes place is unclear. The female flowers of the species produce small amounts of nectar . However, the nectar probably serves to better adhere the pollen than to attract insects.
Symbiosis with ants
A total of 48 of the 61 species of the ant trees (see section systematics) live with ants of the genus Azteca in a special symbiosis , the myrmekophylaxis . Both parties can survive without the symbiotic partner; the symbiosis is therefore optional. The stalk wall of the Cecropia is very thin above the leaf attachments on the prostomata and can easily be bitten through by the ants. The chambers are then used as living space. About 60% of the ant colonies keep cultures of cup scale insects (Coccidae) in the hollow shoot axes, which feed exclusively on the phloem sap of the plants and are "milked" by the ants. Obviously, older peoples resort to such cultures more than younger ones. The ants probably introduce the scale insects into the plant when their colony reaches a certain size. Moreover Futterkörperchen be at the bottom of the petiole base on the Trichilium adapted the protein and fat suppliers and especially from the Azteca - larvae are used. They are referred to as Müller's corpuscles after their discoverer Johann Friedrich Theodor Müller . If there are no scale insect cultures, they are also used more intensively by adult ants.
Three species are inhabited by knot ants (Myrmicinae) of the genus Crematogaster , which also live symbiotically with trees of the paleotropic genus Macaranga . The internodes in the lower part of the stem axis of many myrmecophylactic species are often inhabited by a variety of genera of other ants. These include knot ants, for example fire ants ( Solenopsis ), pheidols , Wasmannia or Procryptocerus, but also primeval ants ( Ponerinae) such as Pachycondyla or scale ants such as Camponotus and Myrmelachista . The genus Pseudomyrmex , which lives with acacias as ant plants in Myrmekophylaxis , and other ants can also be found here.
The ants defend the trees against pests and predators, e.g. B. against leaf cutter ants of the genus Atta . If predators or herbivores climb onto the plant, they are usually aggressively attacked and driven away by the Azteca ants present .
In addition, the ants free the ant trees from growth such as epiphytes and climbing plants . Both of these would put a strain on the light-hungry and lightweight trees through shading and the additional weight to be borne. Belt flowers , for example, are noticeably seldom found on ant trees, and if so only very local, but plentiful there.
A side effect of myrmecophylaxis is an increased number of woodpeckers on the ant trees. The birds can easily eat the ants on the trees and also damage the trunks. The Azteca receive living space and food, but are exposed to an increased risk of woodpeckers compared to ants living on the ground. Were also Chance Chalcidoidea the genus Conoaxima observed that the Azteca enforce. The high energy consumption required by the aggressiveness against the plant pests is also associated with a high mortality rate for young colonies. The trees have to use energy for the Muller bodies to feed the ants. In addition, woodpeckers damage them more than other trees. To do this, the ants protect them from pests as well as from climbing plants and epiphytes. The trees also benefit from the nitrogen-rich excretions of the ants ( myrmecotrophy ). An investigation of the symbiosis with a Doebeli-Knowlton model showed that the mutual advantages outweigh the disadvantages. However, young trees benefit more from the connection than older specimens. Neophytic ant trees generally have to do without Azteca ants, as these only occur in the Neotropic.
Relationship to other animals
For ant trees, vertical growth is paramount. The stem axis does not branch out until it has reached a certain height and does not develop any flowers or fruits for generative reproduction . Young plants in particular develop only small crowns with four to twelve leaves; A lot of sun is very important for them, but shade from larger plants is critical. Eating on the leaves is also dangerous for young plants; if a young plant loses a third of its leaves, its growth is reduced by a factor of three.
Due to the myrmecophylaxis, the ant trees are not protected from all predators. The large, showy leaves are particularly popular with three-toed sloths ( Bradypus spp.) , For example . Butterfly caterpillars also feed on the large leaves, especially Hypercompe icasia , a species of bear moth .
Weevils of the genus Pseudolechriops specialize in living on ant trees. They use live or dead petioles to lay their eggs, and the larvae then grow up in the petioles. Some species can Azteca -Ameisen by mimicry imitate and are protected from them.
A total of 33 bird species from eleven families eat the fruits and flowers of Cecropia species. 15 species of birds feed on Müller's corpuscles. These are, for example, some types of Schillertangaren ( Tangara ), some species of the family of Warblers (Parulidae), but also the Toucan Barbet ( Semnornis ramphastinus ) and other birds.
The fruits are also eaten by a wide variety of Neotropical bats . In contrast to browsing by sloths, this is advantageous for the plants: They can spread their seeds through the animals ( zoochory ). The fleshy calyx as well as the outer part of the fruit (exocarp) and the middle part (mesocarp) are partially digested, but many seeds pass through the digestive tract of the bats undamaged. In the soil, the germination capacity of the seeds remains unaffected for over a year. But fish also seem to be involved in the spread of seeds by eating fruits that have fallen into the water.
The Puerto Rican wood warbler ( Dendroica angelae ) on Puerto Rico are also harmless to the ant trees . They build their nests from the large dry leaves of the genus.
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Systematics
Traditionally, the genus was assigned to the mulberry family (Moraceae). In 1978 Cornelis Christiaan Berg set up his own family Cecropiaceae, which in addition to the ant trees included five other genera (for example Coussapoa and Pourouma ). However, genetic studies indicate that the genus belongs to the stinging nettle family (Urticaceae). The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group also followed this view .
The genera Poikilospermum and pilea ( Pilea ) are be sister . These two now in turn form a sister clade to the ant trees. These three genera form a clade that has a lot of morphological support, the following cladogram shows the relationship again:
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Emil Heinrich Snethlage made the first attempt at dividing the genus into sections and subsections in 1923. He divides the genus into two sections and eight subsections as follows:
- I. Section Tomentosae
- A. Aequales
- B. Subaequales
- C. arachnoid
- II Section Atomentosae
- D. Centrales
- E. Angulatae
- F. Elongatae
- G. Abbreviatae
- H. Polystachyae
However, several species such as Cecropia montana do not find a place in this classification. In 1990, Cornelis Christiaan Berg therefore proposed a division into only two larger groups with no taxonomic rank.
- I. Cecropia peltata group
- II. Cecropia telenitida group
According to the last monograph on the genus, it includes 61 species. The types are:
| Art | Myrmecophylaxis |
| Cecropia alibicans Trécul | yes, but not in the whole distribution area |
| Cecropia andina Cuatrec. | No |
| Cecropia angulata I.W.Bailey | Yes |
| Cecropia angustifolia Trécul | yes, except for a subspecies without a M. in the south of Ecuador |
| Cecropia annulata C.C. Berg & P.Franco | Yes |
| Cecropia bullata C.C. Berg & P.Franco | No |
| Cecropia chlorostachya C.C. Berg & P.Franco | probably not |
| Cecropia concolor Willd. | Yes |
| Cecropia distachya Huber | Yes |
| Cecropia elongata Rusby | Yes |
| Cecropia engleriana Snethl. | Yes |
| Cecropia ficifolia Snethl. | Yes |
| Cecropia gabrielis Cuatrec. | No |
| Cecropia garciae Standl. | Yes |
| Cecropia glaziovii Snethl. | Yes |
| Cecropia goudotiana Trécul | Yes |
| Cecropia granvilleana C.C. Berg | Yes |
| Cecropia herthae Diels | Yes |
| Cecropia heterochroma C.C. Berg & P.Franco | Yes |
| Cecropia hispidissima Cuatrec. | yes, but with a different species of ants |
| Cecropia hololeuca Miq. | No |
| Cecropia idroboi Cuatrec. | Yes |
| Cecropia insignis Liebm. | Yes |
| Cecropia kavanayensis Cuatrec. | Yes |
| Cecropia latiloba Miq. | Yes |
| Cecropia litoralis Snethl. | Yes |
| Cecropia longipes Pittier | Yes |
| Cecropia marginalis Cuatrec. | Yes |
| Cecropia maxima Snethl. | Yes |
| Cecropia megastachya Cuatrec. | yes, but with a different species of ants |
| Cecropia membranacea Trécul | yes, but sometimes with another species of ants |
| Cecropia metensis Cuatrec. | Yes |
| Cecropia montana Snethl. | Yes |
| Cecropia multisecta P.Franco & CCBerg | Yes |
| Cecropia mutisiana Mildbr. ex Cuatrec. | Yes |
| Cecropia obtusa Trécul | Yes |
| Cecropia obtusifolia Bertol. | Yes |
| Cecropia pachystachya Trécul | Yes |
| Cecropia palmata Willd. | Yes |
| Cecropia pastasana Diels | Yes |
| Cecropia peltata L. | yes, but not in the whole distribution area |
| Cecropia pittieri B.L.Rob. | No |
| Cecropia plicata Cuatrec. | Yes, mostly |
| Cecropia polystachya Trécul | Yes |
| Cecropia purpurascens C.C. Berg | Yes |
| Cecropia putumayonis Cuatrec. | Yes |
| Cecropia reticulata Cuatrec. | Yes |
| Cecropia sararensis Cuatrec. | Yes |
| Cecropia saxatilis Snethl. | Yes |
| Cecropia schreberiana Miq. | No |
| Cecropia sciadophylla C. Mart. | No |
| Cecropia silvae C.C. Berg | No |
| Cecropia strigosa Trécul | Yes |
| Cecropia subintegra Cuatrec. | Yes |
| Cecropia tacuna C.C. Berg & P.Franco | No |
| Cecropia telealba Cuatrec. | No |
| Cecropia telenitida Cuatrec. | yes, but not in the whole distribution area |
| Cecropia ulei Snethl. | Yes |
| Cecropia utcubambana Cuatrec. | Yes |
| Cecropia velutinella Diels | probably not |
| Cecropia virgusa Cuatrec. | Yes |
etymology
The German trivial name is derived from myrmecophylaxis and thus from the close relationship between the genus and ants.
The naming history of the Latin generic name is unclear. It has often been assumed that it comes from the Latin name Cecrops , ancient Greek Κέκροψ Kékrops , without any reference to the ant tree. Kekrops was an autochthon, that is, a son of Gaia . He was a hybrid of man and snake.
A more plausible theory relates to Kekrops II , the son of Erechtheus and early king of Attica . The first specimen of the real fig ( Ficus carica ), a mulberry plant , is said to have stood in Attica. The ant tree genus was also counted among the mulberry family in the past, so it made sense to use it as a reference.
Ingredients and effects
None of the components of ant trees are poisonous to humans, but some of the leaves are sharp-edged and can easily cut into the skin. The Azteca ants on the trees bite people. Their bites lead to itchy wheals .
The ingredients of ant trees are still insufficiently researched, the best known are active ingredients from Cecropia peltata , the leaves contain ergomitrin, an ergot alkaloid , oxytocin , serotonin as well as acetylcholine and prostaglandins . Many of these substances can trigger labor . For example, farmers in Honduras give Cecropia peltata leaves to animals during childbirth to speed up the confinement or to promote the loosening of the afterbirth .
An extract from the leaves is effective against gonorrhea . Traditionally, ant trees are mainly used in Mexico, but also in other parts of South and Central America against a variety of diseases. Cecropia pachystachya has a sedative and positive inotropic (heart-strengthening) effect and is used in Argentina to treat asthma . Cecropia obtusifolia is used for diabetes in Mexico. The toxicity of the aqueous extract was also tested on this plant; it is rated as low. The dried leaves of the species are considered psychoactive and they are occasionally offered (also under the synonym Cecropia mexicana ) as a substitute for marijuana in appropriate “herbal” mixtures. There are no pharmacological studies available.
use
The finger-shaped fruit clusters of various Cecropia species are edible. They are gummy bear-like , sweet and gelatinous, meaty with a pleasant taste.
The wood of ant trees is very light and flexible. C. peltata , for example, has a relative density of 0.29 in relation to water, which is only slightly more than most balsa woods . However, it is restricted in its use and is only used locally. It is mainly used to make musical instruments and tool handles, for example traditional tonewoods are made from ant tree wood in Nariño , but flutes and guitars are also made from the wood.
The wood is also used to make matches and cheap boxes. The halved, hollow trunks are rarely used as water pipes. Attempts have been made to use the wood for papermaking , and there are some plants that produce wood pulp from Cecropia. Because of its high resin and milky sap content, the wood is only poorly suited for this. In Puerto Rico , the shredded wood is mixed with cement as a building material or used as insulation.
The main use of ant trees is for afforestation . They make little demands on the soil and grow very quickly. In this way , areas threatened by soil erosion can be fortified. The soil is initially held back and new biomass is introduced so that other species can settle again.
Fibers of the bark can be twisted into ropes. Bowstrings and hammocks are made from such ropes. The fruit bunches are edible and are traded in Bolivia under the name " bananitas ". The pith of the petioles is used in Napo , Ecuador for making traditional headdresses.
Traditionally, the fresh leaves of ant trees are burned and the ashes are mixed with roasted and powdered coca leaves . This quill is placed under the tongue between the cheek and gums. The leaves of C. ficifolia , C. palmata , C. peltata and C. sciadophylla are used for this.
literature
- Cornelis Christiaan Berg, Pilar Franco Rosselli: Cecropia (Cecropiaceae) . In: Flora Neotropica Monographs . tape 94 , 2005, ISBN 978-0-89327-461-0 .
- Sandra Burger: Comparative inventory of ant plants along a transect in the tropical lowland rainforest of Costa Rica . Diploma thesis at the University of Vienna, Vienna September 2003 ( ( page no longer available , search in web archives: lagamba.at ) [accessed on July 17, 2007]).
- Servando Carvajal, Luz María Gonzáles-Villarreal: La familia Cecropiaceae en el estado de Jalisco, México . 1st edition. Universidad de Guadalajara , Guadalajara 2005, ISBN 978-970-27-0683-0 ( bdigital.unal.edu.co [PDF]).
Individual evidence
- ↑ J. Jeník, DH Sen: Morphology of root systems in trees: a proposal for terminology . In: Tenth International Botanical Congress, Edinburgh. Abstracts . 1964, p. 393-394 .
- ^ Jindrich Pavlis, Jan Jeník: Roots of pioneer trees in the Amazonian rain forest . In: Trees - Structure and Function . tape 4 , no. 18 , August 5, 2000, pp. 442-455 , doi : 10.1007 / s004680000049 .
- ^ Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper: Interrelationships between plants and ants in tropical America . In: Botanical messages from the tropics . tape 1 . G. Fischer, Jena 1888, p. 25 ( txt [accessed July 17, 2007]). txt ( Memento of the original from September 30, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Fred R. Rickson: Ultra structural differentiation of the Mullerian Body glycogen plastid of Cecropia peltata L. . In: American Journal of Botany . tape 63 , no. October 9 , 1976, p. 1272-1279 , doi : 10.2307 / 2441743 .
- ↑ Kam-Biu Liu, Paul A. Colinvaux: A 5200-Year History of Amazon Rain Forest . In: Journal of Biogeography . tape 15 , no. 2 , March 1988, p. 231-248 , doi : 10.2307 / 2845412 .
- ^ FE Putz, NM Holbrook: Further observations on the dissolution of mutualism between Cecropia and its ants: the Malaysian case . In: Oikos . tape 53 , 1988, pp. 121-125 .
- ↑ L. Ake Assi: Cecropia peltata Linne (Moracees): ses origines, introduction and expansion dans l'est de la Cote d'Ivoire . In: A. Sciences Naturelles series . tape 42 . Institut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire , 1980, p. 96-102 .
- ↑ a b c John Kricher: A Neotropical Companion . Princeton University Press , 1999, ISBN 0-691-00974-0 , pp. 71-73 .
- ↑ JC Andrade: Observações preliminares sobre a eco-etologia de quatro coleópteros (Chrysomelidae, Tenebrionidae, Curculionidae) que dependem da embaúba (Cecropia lyratiloba var. Nana - Cecropiaceae), on resting Janea do Recreio dos Bandeirantes . In: Rev. Bras. Entomol. tape 28 , 1984, pp. 99-108 .
- ↑ C. de Andrade: Epizootia natural causada por Cordyceps unilateralis (Hypocreales, Euascomycetes) em adultos de Camponotus sp. (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) na região de Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil . In: Acta Amazonica . tape 10 , 1980, pp. 671-677 .
- ↑ A. Benjamin, M. Giambruno, M. Lyke, AB Pyle, R. Warner: A lesson in ABC's of La Selva (Ants, bugs, Cecropia) . (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on September 27, 2007 ; Retrieved June 21, 2007 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Dennis J. O'Dowd: Pearl Bodies as Ant Food: An Ecological Role for Some Leaf Emergences of Tropical Plants . In: Biotropica . tape 14 , no. 1 , March 1982, p. 40-49 , doi : 10.2307 / 2387758 .
- ↑ Jerry F. Downhower: The Distribution of Ants on Cecropia Leaves . In: Biotropica . tape 7 , no. 1 , April 1975, p. 59-62 , doi : 10.2307 / 2989801 .
- ^ The Cecropia-Azteca association in Costa Rica . John T. Longino, accessed August 22, 2007 .
- ↑ P. Jolivet: Relative protection of Cecropia trees against leaf-cutting ants in tropical America . In: RK Vander Meer, K. Jaffe, A. Cedeno (Eds.): Applied myrmecology: a world perspective . Westview Press , Boulder 1990, pp. 251-254 .
- ^ WM Wheeler: Studies of neotropical ant-plants and their ants . In: Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology . tape 90 . Harvard 1942, p. 1-262 .
- ^ David Logue: The Costs and Benefits of the Cecropia-Azteca-Coccidae Symbiosis. Archived from the original on May 20, 2008 ; Retrieved February 24, 2013 .
- ^ Daniel H. Janzen: Dissolution of mutualism between Cecropia and its Azteca ants . In: Biotropica . tape 5 , 1973, p. 15-28 .
- ↑ Jerry F. Downhower: The Distribution of Ants on Cecropia Leaves . In: Biotropica . tape 7 , no. 1 , April 1975, p. 59-62 .
- ^ Henry A. Hespenheide, Louis M. Lapierre: A review of Pseudolechriops Champion (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Conoderinae) . In: Zootaxa . tape 1384 , 2006, ISSN 1175-5326 , p. 1–39 ( mapress.com [PDF; accessed July 31, 2007]).
- ↑ Kazuya Naoki, Efraín Toapanta: Müllerian Body Feeding by Andean Birds: New Mutualistic Relationship or Evolutionary Time Lag? . In: Biotropica . tape 33 , no. 1 , 2001, p. 204-207 .
- ↑ Tatyana A. Lobova, Scott A. Mori, Frédéric Blanchard, Heather Peckham, Pierre Charles-Dominique: Cecropia as a food resource for bats in French Guiana and the significance of fruit structure in seed dispersal and longevity . In: American Journal of Botany . tape 90 , 2003, p. 388-403 ( amjbot.org [accessed June 18, 2007]).
- ↑ G. Gottsberger: Seed dispersal by fish in the inundated regions of Humaita, Amazonia . In: Biotropica . tape 10 , 1978, p. 170-183 .
- ^ W. Burger (Ed.): Flora Costaricensis, Family # 52, Moraceae. Fieldiana, Botany 40 . 1977, p. 94-215 .
- ↑ Cornelis Christiaan Berg: Cecropiaceae, a new family of Urticales . In: Taxon . tape 27 , 1978, p. 39-44 , doi : 10.2307 / 1220477 .
- ^ WS Judd, RW Sanders, MJ Donoghue: Angiosperm family pairs: preliminary phylogenetic analyzes . In: Harvard papers in Botany . tape 5 , 1994, pp. 1-51 .
- ↑ The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group : An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II . In: Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society . tape 141 , no. 4 , 2003, p. 407 , doi : 10.1046 / j.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x .
- ^ WS Judd, RW Sanders, MJ Donoghue: Angiosperm family pairs: preliminary phylogenetic analyzes . In: Harvard papers in Botany . tape 5 , 1994, pp. 27-28 .
- ^ Emil Heinrich Snethlage: Contributions to the knowledge of the genus Cecropia and its relationship to the other Conocephaloideen . Friedrich Wilhelms University Berlin, Berlin 1923.
- ↑ Cornelis Christiaan Berg, Pilar Franco Rosselli: Cecropia (Cecropiaceae) . In: Flora Neotropica Monographs . tape 94 , 1990, ISBN 0-89327-461-5 .
- ↑ Helmut Genaust: Etymological dictionary of botanical plant names. 3rd, completely revised and expanded edition. Nikol, Hamburg 2005, ISBN 3-937872-16-7 , pp. 136f. (Reprinted 1996).
- ^ V. Hehn: Cultivated plants and domestic animals in their transition from Asia to Greece and Italy as well as to the rest of Europe . 8th edition. Bornträger, Berlin 1911 (with historical linguistic studies by O. Schrader and botanical contributions by F. Pax).
- ↑ J. Paquet: Manual de Dendrologia de Algunas Especies de Honduras . Programa Forestal ACDI-COHDEFOR, 1981.
- ↑ A. Caceres, H. Menendez, E. Mendez, E. Cohobon, BE Samayoa, E. Jauregui, E. Peralta, G. Carrillo: Antigonorrhoeal activity of plants used in Guatemala for the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases . In: Journal of Ethnopharmacology . tape 48 , 1995, pp. 85-88 .
- ^ Treating Livestock with Medicinal Plants: Cecropia spp. . Retrieved June 21, 2007 .
- ↑ Alicia E. Consolinia, María Inés Ragonea, Graciela N. Miglioria, Paula Confortib, María G. Volonté: Cardiotonic and sedative effects of Cecropia pachystachya Mart. (ambay) on isolated rat hearts and conscious mice . In: Journal of Ethnopharmacology . tape 106 , no. 1 , June 15, 2006, p. 90-96 , doi : 10.1016 / j.jep.2005.12.006 .
- ^ Adolfo Andrade-Cetto, Michael Heinrich (2005): Mexican plants with hypoglycaemic effect used in the treatment of diabetes. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 99: 325-348. doi: 10.1016 / j.jep.2005.04.019
- ^ Christian Rätsch: The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications. Park Street Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0-89281-978-2
- ^ JL Diaz (1977): Ethnopharmacology of Sacred Psychoactive Plants Used by the Indians of Mexico. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology Vol. 17: 647-675 doi: 10.1146 / annurev.pa.17.040177.003243
- ^ Justiniano Velazquez: Contribución al conocimiento de las especies del género Cecropia L. Moraceae "Yagrumbos" de Venezuela . In: Acta Botánica Venezolana . tape 6 , 1971, p. 25-64 .
- ↑ EL Keller, RM Kingsbury, DJ Fahey: Neutral sulfite semichemical pulping of guaba (Inga vera), yagrumo hembra (Cecropia peltata) and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus robusta) from Puerto Rico . In: USDA Forest Service, Report 2127 . Forest Products Laboratory , Madison, WI 1958, p. 7 .
- ^ WS Chalmers: Observations on some Caribbean forests . In: Caribbean Forester . tape 19 , no. 12 , 1958, pp. 30-42 .
- ↑ Susan R. Silander, Ariel E. Lugo: Cecropia peltata L. Yagrumo Hembra, Trumpet tree . In: Silvics of North America . tape 2 . United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service , Washington, DC 1990, p. 496–497 ( na.fs.fed.us [PDF; accessed August 6, 1007]).
- ↑ Richard Evans Schutes: A new method of coca in the preperation Columbean Amazon . In: Botanical Museum Leaflets . tape 17 . Harvard University, 1957, pp. 241-264 .
- ^ Christian Rätsch, Jonathan Ott: Coca and cocaine, ethnobotany, art and chemistry . AT Verlag, Aarau, Switzerland 2003, ISBN 3-85502-707-2 .
Web links
- Longino, JT (2005): The Cecropia-Azteca association in Costa Rica . Article about the myrmecophylaxis Crecropia ↔ Azteca (English)
- Cecropia in Flora de Nicaragua (Spanish)
- Cecropia in Peru (PDF; English; 163 kB)
- Entry in the flora of the Andes of Ecuador (Spanish)
- Scanned herbarium specimens from the Field Museum (Chicago) (English)
