Real fig

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Real fig
Common fig (Ficus carica)

Common fig ( Ficus carica )

Systematics
Rosids
Eurosiden I
Order : Rose-like (rosales)
Family : Mulberry family (Moraceae)
Genre : Figs ( ficus )
Type : Real fig
Scientific name
Ficus carica
L.

The True fig ( Ficus carica ), shortly also fig (of synonymous Middle High German Vige called), is a plant from the genus of the figs ( Ficus ). It is one of the oldest domesticated crops and is grown mainly in the entire Mediterranean area . Like all figs, it has a complex pollination ecology.

description

  • Fig tree in spring

  • bark

  • Foliage leaves

  • illustration

Vegetative characteristics

Autumn leaves of the sultans variety .
Cuttings of the Ronde de Bordeaux variety with the foliage typical of the variety with very narrow, smooth-edged "fingers".

The fig grows as a deciduous and deciduous shrub or small tree with heights of three to ten meters. In Germany, fig trees hardly get over 5 or 6 meters high. Size and habit are strongly dependent on the particular fig variety. The crown of old individuals is usually very broad and expansive, but irregular and low. The trunk is often gnarled, twisted, or curved. The mostly rich branching begins at a low altitude. The branches are relatively thick and straight. The grayish-brown bark has clearly recognizable lenticels . The bark is smooth and light gray. The whole plant contains milky sap which , in connection with sunlight , can lead to photodermatitis after contact , which manifests itself as inflammation of the skin and the formation of blisters.

The leaves are arranged alternately on the branches. The strong petiole is two to eight inches long. The shape of the leaves depends heavily on the type of fig, which makes them an important factor when determining the variety. The firm, stiff and almost leathery leaf blade is 10 to 20 centimeters wide and ovoid and three to seven-lobed, with a length and width of 10 to 20 centimeters, the lobes being ovoid to finger-shaped and the base of the blades being more or less heart-shaped. The leaf margin is usually serrated irregularly. The dark green upper side of the leaf is rough-haired in some varieties. The lighter underside of the leaves is more or less densely covered with small cystolites and short, downy hairs. There are two to four basal nerves and five to seven lateral nerves on each side of the middle nerve. The stipules are sometimes reddish and ovate-lanceolate with a length of about 1 cm.

Inflorescence and flowers

The axillary and individually standing inflorescences are pear or bottle-shaped with a diameter of three to five centimeters. The inflorescences are green and inconspicuous and look like small unripe figs. They arise when the inflorescence axis grows upwards in a jug shape and several hundred individual flowers are shifted inward. At the top of the inflorescence a narrow, concave opening (ostiolum) remains free, which is almost completely closed by scale-like, egg-shaped bracts .

Cultivated figs are gyno- dioecious , but functionally dioecious (dioeciously separated sexes), i. that is, there are male and female plants. There are sterile female and male flowers (hermaphroditic, but functionally male) in the male plants in mixed inflorescences, and in the female plants (only fertile female) flowers in unisexual inflorescences in three generations per year. Three forms in the different generations are possible for male plants (pre-figs: Profichi, summer figs: Fichi, Mammoni, post-figs: Mamme).

The male flowers have four or five calyx teeth and usually three, rarely one, four or five stamens . The female flowers, there are again two forms: the so-called "Gallblüte" with short stylus , it is sterile. The fertile female flower has four or five calyx teeth, an egg-shaped, smooth ovary as well as laterally a long stylus, which ends in two lineal pen branches. The only difference between the two different female flowers is the length of the style and the shape of the stigma. These three flower forms are distributed over two forms of the cultivated fig, which are classically classified as varieties (but see below ):

  • The house or edible fig ( Ficus carica var. Domestica ), which provides edible fruits, has only long-handled fertile female flowers. Since it lacks the male flowers, it cannot reproduce on its own. Functionally, it is the female plant.
  • The box fig, capri, wood or goat fig ( Ficus carica var. Caprificus ), also Caprifig, contains short-handled sterile female "gallblades" and male flowers. The latter are near the ostiolum (opening). The buck fig is functionally the male plant.

Fruits and seeds

After pollination, the inflorescence develops in three to five months into the well-known fig, a fruit association (achene fruit association), more precisely a sykonium or hypanthodium, since the female flowers develop into achenes and are integrated into the flower base . The small kernels are very noticeable when eating. The shape is spherical to pear-shaped. Depending on the variety, the color is green to dark purple. The interior of the false fruit consists of the achenes and the fleshy base of the single flowers and is colored red. The shell thickness also varies according to the variety: in the main cultivation area Turkey the figs are rather thin-skinned, in Greece rather thick-skinned.

The fig tree can bear fruit up to three times a year: in spring those from the buds of last autumn that ripened over winter, at the end of summer those from the buds of spring and in very warm areas with long summers even late figs at the end of autumn from the buds of summer.

The fruits of the goat fig are mostly woody, hard, dry and inedible. However, the goat fig variety White Marseille provides edible fruits that are sweet with a slight banana or melon aroma.

The seeds are lentil-like.

Chromosome set

The number of chromosomes is 2n = 26.

ingredients

In addition to 80% water, the ripe fruits contain about 1.3% protein, 0.5% fat, 12.9% carbohydrates, about 4.5% fiber and 0.7% minerals, especially calcium , phosphorus and iron . The fruit is also rich in vitamin B 1 .

ecology

pollination

The flowering ecology of the real fig is even more complicated than that of the fig genus in general, as not only figs and fig wasps interact, but two fig varieties also have to interact. As with all figs, the flowers are pollinated by a two to three millimeter large fig wasp species, here the fig gall wasp ( Blastophaga psenes ). However, this is even more complicated with the buck fig, since it develops three generations of inflorescences (pre-, summer- and post-figs).

The fig gall wasps develop in the short-handled sterile female flowers (gall flowers) of the buck fig . The adults hatch in the maturing inflorescences. The almost blind males, unable to fly, mate with the females while still inside the fig. Before exiting the fig through the ostiolum , the females collect the pollen on the male flowers, if any . The fertilized and partially pollen-laden females then look for flowering figs. There are now two options:

  • The female finds a buck fig. After penetrating the inflorescence, it drills holes in the ovaries of the short-handled sterile gall flowers with its laying spike, lays the eggs and thus provides for its own offspring.
  • The female finds an edible fig and, when it is loaded with pollen, pollinates the long-handled fertile female flowers. However, since its stylus is longer than the laying stinger, it cannot lay eggs here. Some of the wasps perish, the others look for buck figs again to lay their eggs there.

In the buck figs the next generation of wasps develops, in the edible figs, when they have been pollinated, the edible fruits develop with the seeds.

In order to ensure pollination in fig cultures, flowering buck fig branches are hung in the fig trees ("caprification").

Three generations of figs per year

Both varieties of the cultivated fig produce up to three generations a year: February / March, May / June, August / September. Figs do not bloom in the traditional sense, but have inflorescences that are not recognizable as such from the outside. In the case of the buck fig, the fig generations on the same plant are created differently, as pre-figs, summer figs and post-figs. Only the first figs contain a lot of pollen, the summer figs little and the late figs none, because the male flowers of the summer and late figs are more or less degenerate.

The larvae of the wasps, which develop in the night figs and overwinter, hatch there in March / April, and the males then mate with the females while still in the fig. The males then die, the females fly out and penetrate the 1st generation (previous figs) of the buck and edible figs, but do not pollinate them because the figs from which the females come do not contain any male flowers. Therefore, the 1st generation of figs usually falls off before ripening. In the buck figs of the same generation, the females prick the galls and lay their eggs.

The second generation of wasps leaves the previous figs after mating: the wasps are then loaded with the pollen from the male flowers present there, which they then dump on the stigmas of the second generation of the figs. Since the style of the exclusively long-handled fertile female flowers of the edible figs are longer than the laying stinger of the wasps, they do not lay eggs. This in turn takes place in the summer figs of the buck figs, where the third generation of wasps then grows. These wasps then fly to the 3rd generation of the edible figs, but cannot pollinate them due to a lack of pollen, and to the buck figs (late figs), they sting the gall flowers and lay eggs, from which the larvae develop again. These overwinter, only to hatch again in spring and close the circle.

It can sometimes happen that the male flowers in the previous figs of the buck's figs with their pollen-laden anthers block the ostiulum so that the wasps cannot fly out at all.

So only the figs of the 2nd generation develop into fruits through caprification , because the 1st and 3rd generation have no pollen for fertilization.

Virgin ( parthenocarp ) fig varieties develop their fruits even without pollination and make it possible that only individual trees have to be planted. Depending on the requirements for fruit formation, a distinction is made between three groups of fig varieties:

  1. “Smyrna type” ( smirniaca ): figs only ripen after fertilization by the fig gall wasp . This group includes the important varieties Sari Lob (Smyrna, Calimyrna), Kassaba and Bardacik.
  2. "Adriatic type" ( hortensis ): The fruits develop parthenocarp . There are two sub-types of this fig type: first, the "house fig", also called "Bifera", which forms two generations of figs, first flowering figs (brebas) in summer, then virgin figs in autumn, and secondly the "autumn fig", also called "Unifera" called, which only bears virgin fruits. In Central Europe, figs of this type are grown almost exclusively, as the fig gall wasp for pollination is missing in Central Europe. The first type includes the Madeleine des deux Saisons and Brown Turkey varieties , the latter includes the Martinsfeige and Lussheim varieties . The Adriatic type also includes Dottato and Trojano from Italy, Fraga from Spain, Adriatic and Black Mission from California.
  3. "San Pedro type" ( intermedia ): It occupies an intermediate position, since the first generation of fruit, the flowering figs, produces fruit without pollination, the second only with pollination. The varieties belonging to this are of little commercial importance. In North America, for example, the Desert King variety belongs to this type.

"Sex" determination of the fig

Whether a seed develops into an edible fig or a buck fig is likely to be determined by two dominant-recessive gene pairs, which have not yet been further researched. One also speaks of sex determination, since the buck fig is functionally male, while the edible fig is regarded as the feminine form. Edible figs only arise if both genes are homozygous in the recessive form; all other combinations result in buck figs.

Systematics

The name Ficus carica was given by Linnaeus . It was first published in 1753 in his Species plantarum . 2, p. 1059.

The Latin name ficus for the fig was named for the entire genus fig ( Ficus ).

The specific epithet carica means " from Caria " and refers to an ancient landscape in Asia Minor . In ancient times, dried figs of selected quality were packaged and sold from here.

Ficus carica belongs to the Ficus section in the genus Ficus .

There are at least two subspecies of Ficus carica :

  • Ficus carica L. subsp. carica (Syn .: Ficus caprificus Risso , Ficus carica var. caprificus (Risso) Tschirch & Ravasini )
  • Ficus carica subsp. rupestris (Hausskn. ex Boiss.) Browicz (Syn .: Ficus carica var. rupestris Hausskn. ex Boiss. ): It is native to southwestern Iran , northern Iraq , northern Syria and southwestern Turkey.

The Punjab fig Ficus palmata is closely related to Ficus carica , which produces very small, but edible and tasty fruits. Ficus carica and Ficus palmata can be crossed without any problems and produce fertile offspring.

Distribution and location

The homeland and the wild form of the real fig are not known. It is believed to be native to Southwest Asia (on the Caspian Sea, Pontic Mountains ), but the species has been cultivated in the entire Mediterranean area since ancient times, where it has often been wild. However, genetic studies using RFLP analysis of mitochondrial DNA suggest that the common fig is native to the entire Mediterranean region.

In regions with mild winter it can also thrive far from its home; for example, there are specimens on the Danish Baltic Sea islands and in southern England.

To the north of the Alps, for example in the Swiss municipalities of Sisikon , Weggis or Gersau , fig trees can flourish and produce fruit in areas with a wine-growing climate in well-protected areas, such as on house walls and in bright inner courtyards. In many places in Central Europe, figs are also frost-hardy to minus 15 degrees Celsius, if the location is suitable and the plant has reached a certain age. In Germany, the real fig thrives in the Palatinate wine-growing region on the German Wine Route , also on the Bergstrasse , along the Main , in the Breisgau ( Upper Rhine Graben ) as well as on the Lower Rhine (Rheinaue) and in the Ruhr area. It is also represented in the Dresden Elbe Valley and on Heligoland. In these latitudes, however, figs usually only produce false fruits once ripe, the so-called "brebas", which usually ripen at the beginning of midsummer, the autumn fruits almost never ripen.

The fig tree makes little demands on the soil; However, this should be reasonably profound for high-yield, commercial cultivation, but figs also thrive in wall remains and in rocky regions. The tree also thrives in areas with very little rainfall, but it is sensitive to waterlogging and excessive moisture, especially when fruit is ripe. It is considered to be relatively compatible with salt.

The fig tree needs warm summers and mild winters. In the leafless state, it is somewhat frost-resistant, but it is very sensitive to clear frosts - and late frosts as soon as the buds have started to burst. The hardiness of frost is strongly dependent on the particular fig variety. Popular varieties that are relatively hardy for Germany are, for example, Ronde de Bordeaux , Brown Turkey and Brunswick , which can withstand temperatures of around −15 ° C. Only varieties that produce fruit without pollination are suitable for Germany because the fig gall wasp required for this is missing in Germany.

Cultivation and use

  • Fig in Obersöllbach (Baden-Württemberg)

  • Fig tree in Speyer

  • Fig variety Panachee

  • Ripe blue and white figs

  • Imago of the fig butterfly

  • The web of the fig splatters

Cultivation

Harvest quantities 2018 (in tons)
country harvest
TurkeyTurkey Turkey 306,499
EgyptEgypt Egypt 189,339
MoroccoMorocco Morocco 128,380
AlgeriaAlgeria Algeria 109.214
IranIran Iran 59,339
SpainSpain Spain 47,750
SyriaSyria Syria 35,300
United StatesUnited States United States 28,874
TunisiaTunisia Tunisia 25,696
AlbaniaAlbania Albania 24,448
GermanyGermany Germany * 80
Source: FAO

* Estimate for
the main growing area Palatinate 2014.

The commercial cultivation of figs is concentrated in the Mediterranean area , but also takes place in Iran , the USA and Brazil . The harvest in 2018 was around 1.1 million tons of fresh figs. Figs are also grown on a less grand scale in South Africa , Australia , New Zealand , India , China , Japan , Chile and Mexico . However, cultivation mainly for personal consumption also takes place in other Central and South American countries, in West , Central and Southeast Asia and in West Central Europe .

Fig cultivation is also possible in Germany outdoors in protected locations in wine-growing areas , but cultivation is only carried out by enthusiasts, usually in home gardens and nowhere commercially.

In culture, the common fig is propagated using cuttings from one or two-year-old woody shoots. This method quickly produces resilient and handsome plants. However, much older branches and trunk pieces can also be successfully rooted. Tissue culture is also used for propagation, primarily to multiply rare clones in large numbers.

The trees are planted in densities of 80 to 1200 trees per hectare, depending on the variety, soil and rainfall. In areas with little precipitation, the plantings are not as dense. The height of the trees in culture is usually kept well below the potentially possible size to facilitate processing. Without pruning, the real fig can reach a height of around ten meters, but in typical high Mediterranean climates it usually remains significantly lower.

The fig cultures require little fertilization. A high nitrogen supply is rather unfavorable for the quality of the fruit, especially shortly before the fruit ripens. Care is quite simple and is usually limited to pruning before spring shoots and removing the tips of the fruit shoots . The latter leads to earlier and more uniform fruit ripeness.

harvest

The trees can already bear fruit in the planting year. Full yield usually occurs after five to eight years and lasts for around 50 years. In good locations, the annual yield is 15 to 20 tons of fresh fruit per year and hectare, which results in around five to seven tons of dried fruit. A full-grown single tree of a high-yielding variety such as Brown Turkey can produce up to 100 kilograms of fresh figs a year.

Figs for fresh consumption are harvested in commercial cultivation before they are fully ripe so that they are still firm enough for transport. However, since figs no longer ripen after harvest, it is best to grow them as close as possible to the end consumer, which means that figs for fresh consumption are often grown in the end consumers' home garden, as this is how they taste the best. Since fresh figs do not have a long shelf life, they are mainly consumed in the growing countries.

Figs for drying are harvested fully ripe when the water content of the fruit on the tree has already decreased by 30 to 50%. They are harvested by hand, felled from the trees or harvested by machine.

Processing, use

Dried figs

Most figs are dried. This is done in the sun or in hot air ovens. The water content is reduced to 33 to 18%, the sugar content increases to around 60%. The commercially available rolls are made by pressing the dried figs using hot steam. Figs are mainly used fresh or dried as fruit.

A dessert wine is also made from the juice of ripe figs. In Spain and Portugal there are "fig cheese" the ripe figs, hazelnuts -, pine nuts , almonds, pistachios and spices contains. Roasted figs are also processed into fig coffee .

In the trade, the figs are usually not traded under the name of the variety, but named after their origin: Smyrna figs (Turkey, especially the Meander Valley), Bari figs ( Puglia province , Italy), Fraga figs ( Huelva province , Spain), Calamata figs ( Peloponnese , Greece), bougie figs ( Algeria ).

In folk medicine, the white milk that comes out when the leaves are broken off the branches is used to relieve insect bites and remove warts. The enzyme ficain contained in milk juice is used to determine blood groups and as a meat tenderizer .

Wood

In the 13th and 15th centuries, fig wood was considered to be extremely suitable for making wooden panels for painting.

Domestication

The domestication of figs started very early and is probably even older than agriculture. In a roughly 11,400 year old house near Jericho , remains of figs that no longer correspond to the wild form were found. All ancient civilizations of the Mesopotamian and Mediterranean regions knew and used the fig. For example, the Assyrians built them as early as 3000 BC. In their gardens. In Greece it became 700 BC. Introduced and spread from there throughout the rest of the Mediterranean.

Meaning, literature and myth

India

The fig tree (aśvattha) is one of the most beautiful and tallest trees, which is why many people in India worship it daily in one of their morning rituals.

In chapter 10 of the Bhagavad Gita it says: “The blessing Lord said: Yes, I will tell you about my glorious manifestations ... I am the Self ... that dwells in the hearts of all creatures. [... Verse 26:] Of all trees I am the holy fig tree ... "

Greece

In ancient Greece , the fig was endowed with aphrodisiac properties. It was sanctified to the god Dionysus . In Attica he was nicknamed philosykos = the fig friend, in Naxos after the name there for fig meilichios . Images of the god were therefore often carved out of fig wood, including the large phalluses for the Dionysus processions, about which Heraclitus was indignant. The largest phallus of all time is said to be the one at the Ptolemy festival in Alexandria in 271 BC. With over 50 meters in length. Also in Sparta there were cults around the fig Dionysus, because it was believed that he brought the fig to the people.

According to an anecdote by Plutarch , the Athenians were so proud of their figs that they forbade their export. People who reported violations of this prohibition were called sycophants . In Plutarch's time, the term was generally used for informers .

The fig tree is also used in connection with suicide . Cicero mentioned that a suicidal woman hanged herself from a fig tree, whereupon the neighbor asked the widower for cuttings. It is known about Timon of Athens : One day the well-known misanthropist climbed onto the speaker's platform and announced that the fig tree near his house, where quite a few people had already hanged themselves, had to be felled. So he asks all those tired of life to hurry up with their suicide.

Rome

In the case of the ancient Romans, the fig tree had a predominantly positive connotation. Figures of the god Priapus and others were carved out of the wood . a. the protector of figs. As in the Bible and with the Greeks, the fig also had a sexual meaning. Isidor (XVII 7.17) derives ficus from the Latin fecundus = fertile. Athenaios (594 D) compared a hetaera with a fig that she served everyone.

The Ficus Ruminalis , which was shown under Augustus on the western foot of the Palatine Hill , was of particular importance for Rome . Legend has it that the twins Romulus and Remus, who were exposed in a tub in the flood of the Tiber , washed up under this tree and were found and suckled by the she-wolf.

On the Comitium at the Roman Forum there was a second Ruminalian fig tree that embodied the fate of Rome. It was replanted by the priests every time it died.

The fig sometimes had a negative meaning: For example, monsters were burned on pyre made of fig wood.

According to Pliny the Elder , the fig also once played a highly political role. Cato the Elder propagated the war against Carthage, which was regained after the Second Punic War . To demonstrate the dangerous proximity of the enemy, Cato pulled a fresh fig ( ficus praecox ) out of his toga during a speech and said that it had been picked in Africa the day before yesterday. According to Pliny, this convinced the senators and they decided the Third Punic War.

The Roman cook Apicius is said to have fed his pigs with Syrian figs to bring the meat to completion. In Rome, figs were very popular with all classes of the population. Pliny reports that when dried they served the same purposes as bread and similar foods; According to Columella , dried apples and pears, but above all dried figs, were the most important winter supplies of the rural population.

Bible and Christianity

Expulsion from paradise ; Adam and Eve with and without fig leaf ( fresco by T. Masaccio , 1426-27)
Oswald Goetz : The Fig Tree (1965)

The fig is the first plant mentioned by name in the Bible and also the only plant mentioned by name in the Garden of Eden . After Adam and Eve had eaten from the tree of knowledge, they became aware of their nakedness: They stapled fig leaves together and made an apron ( Genesis 3 : 7). Hence the fig leaf metaphor for shameful concealment. The fig is also the classic fruit tree in the Bible, as it is mentioned 38 times compared to four mentions of the apple. In general, however, the fig in the Old Testament represents peace and prosperity.

In addition to elderberries and lilacs , for which this is technically difficult, the fig tree has also been mentioned in post-biblical tradition since the 4th century as the tree from which Judas hanged himself. The pilgrim from Piacenza named Jerusalem as the location of the suicide tree to the right of the east gate in 560 , at other times other places were named.

Augustine expressed the sensual meaning of the fig: ficus foliis significantur pruritus libidinis - " Fig leaves mean the itching of sensuality".

Islam

The Koran also refers to the fig, for example in the 95th sura.

Middle Ages and Modern Times

In southern Europe, the gesture "show someone the fig ", where you put your thumb between your index and middle finger , is widespread . The gesture is attributed to Emperor Friedrich Barbarossa . The Milanese had humiliated his wife Beatrix by leading her face back through the city on a donkey. After the reconquest of Milan, Friedrich only pardoned those people who could use their teeth to pull a fig out of the anus of a donkey and put it back again. The gesture serves not only to reject an imposition, but also to ward off all possible evils such as bewitching, screaming and the evil eye .

The equation of the fig with the vulva led so far in some languages ​​that the original word for fig was replaced by another. In Turkey, the fig is often referred to as “Yemis” = “I'm full”. "Yemis" = fruit, fruit tree, fruit.

With the ancient Greeks, the fig was also equated with the testicle , as with the Berbers, for whom the word “ingir” = “autumn” is usually used for the fruit in conversation.

Common names

The other German-language trivial names exist or existed for the real fig : Feige, Feigenbaum, Feygen ( Middle High German ), Fichboum ( Old High German ), Ficheffele (plural, ahd.), Figa (based on the fruit, ahd.), Fîg ( Low German ), Fig (ndt.), Figenbaum (mhd.), Figenbaym (mhd.), Figenbôm (mhd.), Figenboum (mhd.), Figenpawm (mhd.), Fygen, Smakka, Smakkabagms ( Gothic ), Veigenpoum, Veyg (mhd.), Vichboum (mhd.), Vick (mhd.), Vyck (mhd.), Vig ( Middle Low German [gml]), Vige (gml), Vigbom (gml), Vigenbom (gml), Vigboum (mhd. ), Vighen, Vyghen, Wighen and Wyk (mhd.).

history

swell

Historical illustrations

literature

  • Christoph Seiler: Figs from your own garden . Publisher Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 2016.
  • Pierre Baud: Le Figuier: Pas à pas . Aix-en-Provence 2008.
  • Pierre Baud: Figues . Vaison la Romaine 2005.
  • Alexander Demandt : Above all tops. The tree in cultural history. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2005, ISBN 3-491-96140-8 .
  • Gunther Franke (Ed.): Useful plants of the tropics and subtropics. Volume 2: Special crop production. Ulmer, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-8252-1768-X , pp. 240-250.
  • Bruno P. Kremer: Trees. Native and introduced species in Europe. Mosaik, Munich 1984, ISBN 3-570-01188-7 , p. 154 f.
  • Doris Laudert: The myth of the tree. History - Customs - 40 portraits. 6., through. Edition. blv, Munich 2004, ISBN 3-405-16640-3 , pp. 217-223.
  • Susanne Talabardon : Under the fig tree. Reconstructions on a Judeo-Christian topic (= Judaism - Christianity - Islam. Volume 9). Ergon, Würzburg 2011, ISBN 978-3-89913-801-6 .
  • Zhengyi Wu, Zhe-Kun Zhou, Michael G. Gilbert: Moraceae: Ficus carica ( efloras.org ). In: Wu Zhengyi, Peter H. Raven, Deyuan Hong (Eds.): Flora of China . Volume 5: Ulmaceae through Basellaceae . Science Press / Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing / St. Louis 2003, ISBN 1-930723-27-X , pp. 52 (English). (Section description and systematics).

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Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Zhengyi Wu, Zhe-Kun Zhou, Michael G. Gilbert: Moraceae: Ficus carica. In: Wu Zhengyi, Peter H. Raven, Deyuan Hong (Eds.): Flora of China . Volume 5: Ulmaceae through Basellaceae . Science Press / Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing / St. Louis 2003, ISBN 1-930723-27-X , pp. 52 (English). ( efloras.org ).
  2. ↑ Christoph Seiler: Figs from your own garden. Stuttgart 2016, pp. 64 and 78.
  3. ^ Jules Janick: Horticultural Reviews. Vol. 34, Wiley, 2008, ISBN 978-0-470-17153-0 , p. 165.
  4. ^ Michael G. Simpson: Plant Systematics. Academic Press, 2006, ISBN 0-12-644460-9 , p. 387.
  5. ↑ Christoph Seiler: Figs from your own garden. Stuttgart 2016, pp. 93–94.
  6. ^ Erich Oberdorfer : Plant-sociological excursion flora for Germany and neighboring areas. 8th edition. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-8001-3131-5 , p. 320.
  7. ↑ Values ​​according to Wolfgang Franke: Nutzpflanzenkunde. 4th edition. Thieme, Stuttgart 1989, ISBN 3-13-530404-3 , p. 312.
  8. ↑ Gunther Franke (ed.): Useful plants of the tropics and subtropics. Volume 2: Special crop production. Ulmer, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-8252-1768-X , pp. 240-250.
  9. ^ A b Wolfgang Franke: Nutzpflanzenkunde. 4th edition. Thieme, Stuttgart 1989, ISBN 3-13-530404-3 , p. 214 f.
  10. ↑ Abraham H. Halevy: Handbook of Flowering. Volume 6, CRC Press, 1989, ISBN 0-8493-3916-2 , p. 343.
  11. ↑ G. Franke 1994, p. 244.
  12. ^ Wayne P. Armstrong: Sex Determination & Life Cycle Of Ficus Carica. In: Wayne's Word. Accessed July 12, 2020 (English, with details and references).
  13. ^ Ficus carica at Tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis.
  14. ↑ Helmut Genaust: Etymological dictionary of botanical plant names. 3rd, completely revised and expanded edition. Birkhäuser, Basel / Boston / Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-7643-2390-6 , p. 128 (reprint ISBN 3-937872-16-7 ).
  15. ^ A b Ficus carica in the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN), USDA , ARS , National Genetic Resources Program. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.
  16. ↑ Christoph Seiler: Figs from your own garden. Stuttgart 2016, pp. 95-97.
  17. ↑ B. Khadari, C. Grout, S. Santoni, F. Kjellberg: Contrasted genetic diversity and differentiation among Mediterranean populations of Ficus carica L .: A study using mtDNA RFLP. In: Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. Volume 52, Issue 1, February 2005, pp. 97-109, doi: 10.1007 / s10722-005-0290-4 .
  18. ↑ Bruno P. Kremer 1984, p. 154.
  19. ↑ P. Keil, R. Fuchs, C. Buch, R. Schmitt: Real figs (Ficus carica) in Mülheim an der Ruhr after the cold winter of 2008/2009. In: Decheniana . Volume 163, 2010, pp. 61-70.
  20. ↑ Crops> Figs. In: Official FAO production statistics for 2018. fao.org, accessed on April 20, 2020 .
  21. ↑ The fig harvest in Kraichgau and Palatinate is in full swing in the Rhein-Neckar-Zeitung .
  22. ↑ Schütt among others: Lexicon of tree and shrub species. Nikol, Hamburg 2002, ISBN 3-933203-53-8 , p. 172.
  23. ↑ The fig harvest in Kraichgau and Palatinate is in full swing in the Rhein-Neckar-Zeitung .
  24. ↑ G. Franke, 1994, p. 249.
  25. ↑ Laudert, 2004, p. 222.
  26. ^ W. Franke: Nutzpflanzenkunde. 1989, p. 316.
  27. ↑ Victoria Finlay: The secret of colors. A cultural story. 7th edition. Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-548-60496-1 , p. 20.
  28. ↑ Katharina Schöbi: In the beginning there was the fig. In: Wissenschaft.de. June 2, 2006, accessed September 8, 2019 . (with reference to Ofer Bar-Yosef [Harvard University, Cambridge] and others) In: Science . Volume 312, p. 1372.
  29. ↑ VS. 22 B 15.
  30. ↑ Athenaios : 201 E.
  31. ↑ Athenaios: 78 C.
  32. ↑ Athenaios: 74 DE.
  33. ^ Cicero: De oratore . II 278.
  34. ↑ Plutarch , Antonius 70.
  35. ↑ Plutarch 4.
  36. ↑ Laudert, 2004, p. 220.
  37. ↑ Pliny the Elder , Historia naturalis. XV, 74 f.
  38. ↑ Demandt, 2002, p. 21.
  39. ^ Augustine, PL. 38, p. 442.
  40. ↑ Laudert 2004, p. 221.
  41. ↑ Laudert, 2004, p. 220.
  42. ^ Georg August Pritzel , Carl Jessen : The German folk names of plants. New contribution to the German linguistic treasure. Philipp Cohen, Hannover 1882, p. 152 ( scan in the Internet Archive ).
  43. ↑ Pedanios Dioscurides . 1st century: De Medicinali Materia libri quinque. Translation. Julius Berendes . Pedanius Dioscurides' medicine theory in 5 books. Enke, Stuttgart 1902, pp. 147-150 (Book I, Chapter 183-186): figs. Wild fig tree. Winter figs. Ashes of the fig tree. (Digitized version)
  44. ↑ Pliny the Elder , 1st century: Naturalis historia book XXIII, chapters lxiii – lxiiii (§ 117–130): Ficus (digitized version ) ; Translation Külb 1855 (digitized version )
  45. ^ Galen , 2nd century. De alimentarum facultatibus liber , Book II, Chapter VIII (based on the Kühn 1826 edition, Volume VI, pp. 570-573): De ficibus (digitized version ) . De simplicium medicamentorum temperamentis ac facultatibus liber VIII, Chapter 18, Section 43 (based on the Kühn 1826 edition, Volume XII, pp. 132–133): De ficis (XII, pp. 132–133) (digital copy ) ; Chapter 18, Section 44: (based on the Kühn 1826 edition, Volume XII, p. 133): De ficu arbore (digitized version )
  46. ↑ Avicenna , 11th century: Canon of Medicine . Translation and adaptation by Gerhard von Cremona , Arnaldus de Villanova and Andrea Alpago (1450–1521). Basel 1556, Volume II, Chapter 283: Ficus (digitized version)
  47. ^ Pseudo-Serapion 13th century, print. Venice 1497, sheet 126v (No CCVIII): Ficus (digitized)
  48. ↑ Abu Muhammad ibn al-Baitar , 13th century, Kitāb al-jāmiʿ li-mufradāt al-adwiya wa al-aghdhiya. Translation. Joseph Sontheimer under the title Large compilation on the powers of the well-known simple healing and food. Hallberger, Stuttgart Volume I 1840, pp. 221–225: Ficus carica (digitized version)
  49. ^ Charles Victor Daremberg and Friedrich Anton Reuss (1810–1868). S. Hildegardis Abbatissae Subtilitatum Diversarum Naturarum Creaturarum Libri Novem. Physica , Book III, Chapter 14: Fig . Migne, Paris 1855. Sp. 1227 (digitized) . Translation Marie-Louise Portmann 1991: Vom Feigenbaum. The fig tree is more warm than cold, and it will always have warmth, and the cold does not suit it, and it denotes the fear. But take its leaves and bark, and crush them moderately and boil them strongly in water, and also (take) bear fat and a little less butter and make an ointment like this. And if you have a headache, put it on your head. Or if your eyes become sore, anoint your temples and the area around your eyes, but so that the inside of your eyes is not touched. But if you have chest pain, anoint the chest. If you have pain in your loins, anoint it with it and you will feel better. But if his wood is lit in the fire and if his smoke reaches someone, it does them some harm, so that they pass out. Or if someone carries a stick made of this wood in his hand, it weakens his strength in the same way, that is he passes out. But the fruit of this tree is not digestible for a person who is healthy in the body, because it causes him to become indulgent and fickle, what is gluttonous and lustful, so that he strives for honor, is greedy and unstable Will have a nature so that it does not remain in a constant sense. But even the human body (the fruit) is not digestible for eating, because it makes his flesh melt and because it resists all human juices, so that it irritates them to evil as if they were their enemy. But for the sick person, who is weak in the body, (the fruit) is good to eat because he is weak in the mind and body, and he eats it until he is better, and afterwards he should avoid it. If a healthy person wants to eat them, he first marinates them in wine or in vinegar to moderate their frailty, and then eats them, but only moderately. But it is not necessary for a sick person to temper them in this way, that is, to stain them.
  50. ^ Konrad von Megenberg , 14th century: Book of nature. Output. Franz Pfeiffer . Aue, Stuttgart 1861, p. 322 (IVa / 16): Veigenpaum (digitized version )
  51. ↑ Gart der Gesundheit . Mainz 1485, Chapter 191: Ficus (digitized version)
  52. ↑ Hortus sanitatis 1491, Mainz 1491, Part I, Chapter 194: Ficus (digitized version)
  53. ^ Otto Brunfels : Ander Teyl des Teütschen Contrafayten Kreüterbůchs . Johann Schott, Strasbourg 1537, pp. 159–161: Feigenbaum (digitized version)
  54. ↑ Leonhart Fuchs : New Kreütterbuch… Michael Isingrin, Basel 1543, Chapter 290: Feigenbaum (digitized version)
  55. ↑ Hieronymus Bock : New Kreütter Bůch . Wendel Rihel, Strasbourg 1546, Part III, Chapter 47: Figs (digitized version)
  56. ^ Pietro Andrea Mattioli : Commentarii, in libros sex Pedacii Dioscoridis Anazarbei, de medica materia. Translation by Georg Handsch, edited by Joachim Camerarius the Younger , Johan Feyerabend, Franckfurt am Mayn 1586, sheets 101v – 102v: figs (digitized)
  57. ↑ Nicolas Lémery  : Dictionnaire universel des drogues simples. , Paris 1699, p. 300: Ficus (digitized) ; Translation. Complete material lexicon. Initially designed in French, but now after the third edition, which has been enlarged by a large [...] edition, translated into high German / By Christoph Friedrich Richtern, [...] Leipzig: Johann Friedrich Braun, 1721, Sp. 455–456 : Ficus (digitized version)
  58. ↑ Albrecht von Haller (Ed.): Onomatologia medica completa or Medicinisches Lexicon which clearly and completely explains all names and artificial words which are peculiar to pharmaceutical science and pharmacy [...] Gaumische Handlung, Ulm / Frankfurt am Main / Leipzig 1755, Sp. 314: Carica (digitized version )
  59. ^ William Cullen : A treatise of the materia medica. Charles Elliot, Edinburgh 1789. Volume, p. 254: Dried figs (digitized) . German. Samuel Hahnemann . Schwickert, Leipzig 1790. Volume I, p. 279: Dry figs (digitized version)
  60. ↑ August Friedrich Hecker 's practical medicine theory. Revised and enriched with the latest discoveries by a practicing doctor . Camesius, Vienna, Volume I 1814, p. 93: Carica, Feigen (digitized version )
  61. ↑ Jonathan Pereira’s Handbook of Medicines Doctrine. From the point of view of the German Medicin edited by Rudolf Buchheim . Leopold Voss, Leipzig 1846-48, Volume II 1848, p. 192: Ficus carica (digitized version)
  62. ^ Robert Bentley , Henry Trimen : Medicinal plants. J. & A. Churchill, London 1880, Volume 4, No 228 (digitized version)
  63. ^ Theodor Husemann : Handbook of the entire drug theory. Springer, Berlin 2nd edition 1883, p. 353 (digitized version)
  64. ↑ Transcription and translation of the text by Franz Unterkircher. Tacuinum sanitatis ... Graz 2004, p. 45: Fichus recentes . complexio calida et humida in primo. Meliores ex eis albe mundate et excorticate. iuvamentum: mundificant renes ab arenis, humores subtiliant et praeservant a veneno. nocumentum: fatiunt inflationem et grossitiem. Remotio nocumenti: cum muri et siropo acetoso. Quid generant: humorous laudabilem. Cui complexioni, cui etati, quo tempore, in qua regione magis conveniunt: frigidis nature, etati senili et decrepite, tempore autumpni, in regione septentrionali. Fresh figs : Complexion: warm and moist in the first degree. The better of them are the white ones, cleaned and peeled. Benefit: they clean the kidneys of sand, refine the juices and protect against poison. Damage: they cause gas and heavy blood. Preventing the harm: with salt water and vinegar syrup. What they produce: praiseworthy juices. Which complexion, which age, at which time, in which region they are particularly beneficial: the naturally cold, the aged and weakened old age, in autumn, in northern regions.
  65. ↑ Transcription and translation of the text by Franz Unterkircher. Tacuinum sanitatis ... Graz 2004, p. 94: Ficus sice : complexio calida et sicca in primo. Electio: tartarece retunde, alias albe pingues. iuvamentum: conferunt pectori et praeservant a veneno. Nocumentum: faciunt opilationes, ventositates et pediculos. Remotio nocumenti: cum nucibus et amigdalis. Quid generant: sanguinem temperatum, alias acutum. conveniunt frigidis, senibus, hyeme et septentrionalibus; alias Vere et temperatis regionibus. Dried figs : Complexion: warm and dry in the first degree. Preferable: tartar, round, white and fat according to others. Benefit: they are good for the chest and protect against poison. Damage: they cause constipation, windiness and lice. Preventing the harm: with nuts and almonds. What they produce: moderate blood, after others sharp blood. Beneficial for people with cold complexion, for old people, in winter and in northern areas, after others in spring and in temperate areas.