Black rhinoceros

Black rhinoceros
Black rhinoceros ( Diceros bicornis ) in Etosha National Park
Systematics
Subclass : Higher mammals (Eutheria) Superordinate : Laurasiatheria Order : Unpaired ungulate (Perissodactyla) Family : Rhinoceros (Rhinocerotidae) Genre : Diceros Type : Black rhinoceros
Scientific name of the  genus
Diceros
JE Gray , 1821
Scientific name of the  species
Diceros bicornis
( Linnaeus , 1758)

The Black Rhinoceros or Black Rhino ( Diceros bicornis ) is a mammal of the family of rhinos (Rhinocerotidae). It is the second largest rhinoceros species on the African continent after the white rhinoceros ( Ceratotherium simum ) . The animals, which weigh up to 1,400 kilograms, live in the savannahs and open landscapes and can be found today in East and South Africa . There they feed mainly on soft vegetable food, mostly from different types of acacia . They are solitary and live in territories of up to 40 km² in size. As is common with all rhinos, a female gives birth to a single cub per litter, which is suckled for up to two years. The origin of the black rhinoceros is in Africa and goes back up to 17 million years; close relatives of the rhinoceros species also occurred during their tribal history in East Asia . The rhinoceros species are heavily hunted because of the horns and are critically endangered.

features

Black rhinoceros in the Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania .

Black rhinoceros at the Halali waterhole in Etosha National Park

General

The black rhinoceros reaches a head-trunk length of up to 350 cm - in addition there is a tail up to 70 cm long. The shoulder height is around 160 cm. The weight varies between the sexes: cows usually weigh up to 900 kg, while bulls can weigh up to 1.4 t. This makes it the smaller of the two African rhino species. Generally they have a sturdy build with powerful. short legs. As with all modern rhinos, these end in three toes, with the front feet being significantly larger than the rear feet. The back line shows a slight hollow back. The most striking feature of the black rhinoceros are its two horns, the front larger one on the nose (nasal horn) and the rear smaller one on the forehead (frontal horn).

The color of the skin of the black rhinoceros is predominantly gray, but can also take on a yellowish-brown to dark brown color, depending on the intensity of the sunlight. The skin in the abdomen is a little lighter in color. The skin has no wrinkles with the exception of the elbows and knees and the neck behind the ears. Rib-like folds sometimes form on the sides of the body. Furthermore, the black rhinoceros is almost completely hairless, with hairlines only on the ears, the upper and lower eyelids and the tip of the tail. A clear distinguishing feature from the white rhinoceros ( Ceratotherium simum ), the closest related species, is the eponymous finger-shaped, pointed upper lip with which the black rhinoceros plucks leaves and branches from bushes.

Skull and dentition features

Diceros bicornis , skull.
Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris

The skull of the black rhinoceros is very robust and short and wide. It has lengths between 55 and 70 cm. The occiput is short and rather rectangular, which means that the animal keeps its head clearly upright. This distinguishes it characteristically from the white rhinoceros, which has a very low head position due to its elongated occiput. The horizontal to slightly inclined head posture is more similar to the Asian rhinos, but some of them have an even higher head posture. Due to the high posture of the head, the head-back profile of the black rhinoceros is not as clearly curved as that of the white rhinoceros, whose lowered head and high neck hump shows a significantly more arched profile.

In the normal dentition of the black rhinoceros the front teeth are reduced, so that the incisors and the canines are missing or are sometimes only formed as rudimentary stumps. Adult animals have the following dental formula : . But there are also natural variations in which the first premolar is not formed, while the number of molars remains largely constant. Often the first molar is missing in the lower jaw , less often in the upper jaw and even less often in both. The teeth have a low to moderately high crown . ${\displaystyle {\frac {0.0.4.3.}{0.0.4.3.}}}$

horns

Close-up of the head of a black rhinoceros, Hanover Zoo

The nasal horn is usually the larger of the two horns and is on average 50 cm, in rare cases over 1 m long. The longest black rhinoceros horn ever documented measured 138 cm (measured across the front curvature). The rear horn (frontal horn) is usually smaller, but it can also be up to 50 cm long. Female animals often have a larger frontal horn in old age. Occasionally, there are rudiments of a third horn on the forehead. The horns, which consist of keratin and are formed from thousands of thread-like strands (so-called filaments), which give them high strength, grow continuously throughout the life of the animal. The monthly growth rate can be up to 0.7 cm. The horn growth is partially compensated for by constant rubbing against the ground, tree trunks or rocks and is then sometimes only 0.2 cm per month in very active times.

Due to the active use of the horns, mainly the front one, very distinctive traces of abrasion appear on them, which have an individual character in terms of shape and position in each animal. Furthermore, these abrasions also have an influence on the shape of the horns, which, however, is largely determined by gender. Bulls usually have very bulky, wide horns, while cows have much narrower horns and can get very long. Furthermore, the horns can break off as a result of traumatic events such as rival fights or collisions, but sometimes also grow back again.

Sensory performances and vocalizations

Like all rhinos, the black rhinoceros has poor eyesight that does not extend beyond 30 m. Movements are perceived more clearly at a shorter distance. In contrast, the sense of hearing and smell are very well developed. Alarmed or nervous animals emit a snort that is repeated three or four times. Calves use high-pitched yowls or whistles to attract the mother's attention. But it is also expressed by a bull ready to mate towards a cow and additionally or generally in pain and suffering. A sigh-like sound is used by the mother to call the calf, but it may also be made when there is a joyful expectation.

distribution and habitat

Distribution of the black rhinoceros:

Year-round occurrence

Population extinct

Resettlement areas

Assisted colonization (year-round occurrence)

The black rhinoceros once spread over large parts of the African continent south of the Sahara ; it was therefore always much more widespread than the white rhinoceros. The black rhinoceros mainly live in regions with a high number of woody plants or herbaceous vegetation. As a result, its habitat includes not only open forests , wooded landscapes or savannahs , but also semi-desert herbs or subalpine heathland . The population density depends on the food available. In areas with rich vegetation and a high food supply, it can be one animal per square kilometer, while in semi-deserts like Kunene in Namibia there is only one animal per 100 square kilometers.

Today eight subspecies of the black rhinoceros are recognized, the regional distribution of which is partly but very limited; five of these subspecies are considered extinct. The eastern subspecies ( D. b. Michaeli ) lives today in Kenya and Tanzania , while the south-western subspecies ( D. b. Occidentalis ) is largely restricted to Namibia, but some individuals also move to South Africa . The South Central African black rhinoceros ( D. b. Minor ) is the most common subspecies today and is found mainly in South Africa, Zimbabwe , Swaziland and partly in southern Tanzania. Some animals from South Africa were reintroduced into Zambia , Rwanda , Botswana and Malawi after it had already been exterminated there. The subspecies of the western black rhinoceros ( D. b. Longipes ) was widespread in western Africa from south-western Chad via the Central African Republic to Nigeria , but recently comprised only a few individuals and was last sighted in 1996 in Cameroon . Most likely, according to recent reports, it has become extinct.

Way of life

Black rhinoceros in its natural environment in the Maasai Mara, Kenya

Territorial behavior

Like all rhinos, the black rhinoceros is a loner. Among bulls there are dominant and less dominant or subordinate animals, the latter mostly being subadult young bulls who first have to find their own territory, or old bulls that have been pushed back to smaller areas. In these phases of life there is the greatest danger of being injured or even killed in territorial fights with dominant bulls. The size of the districts depends on the food and water supply and can be between 6 and 40 km²; a water point should be less than 10 km away. But they also contain several places to sleep, with the black rhinoceros sleeping on its side for up to three and a half hours. However, the sleep phase in cows is significantly shorter, but takes place at night in both sexes. Territories of dominant bulls are strictly separated, while the territorial borders of cows can overlap. The black rhinoceros marks its territory by spraying urine specifically on bushes, bulls much more often than cows. They also distribute their manure to the ground edges and scratch it along to elongated boundary markers or produce droppings . The more dominant the bull, the bigger the pile.

The normal mode of locomotion for the black rhinoceros is the trot . However, if it is startled or disturbed, it reacts quickly and tries to locate the source, whereby its eyesight is severely hampered. Mostly it runs in the direction of the origin. Often a threatening posture is assumed with the head raised and the tail erect. An aggressive or angry black rhinoceros can run very quickly and can reach speeds of over 50 km / h. The animal is able to change direction very quickly and can also run over obstacles such as bushes. In this phase the head is usually very much lowered so that the horns can be used as a weapon.

Diet

The black rhinoceros prefers soft plant food (browsing), such as leaves , branches , twigs or bark , but also thorns , which are grasped with the finger-shaped upper lip, guided between the jaws and cut off with the molars. They leave behind typical bite patterns, which stand out from other herbivores through a straight cut ("rose shear type"). The most frequently ate plants include the various species of acacia ( Acacia ), the well account for a third of the food source. The food spectrum is much larger, however, and includes more than 100 plant species that are consumed depending on the landscape and climatic conditions. The most important include tamboti ( Spirostachys africana ), capers ( Capparis ) and hibiscus ( Hibiscus ). Grass, on the other hand, is only ingested by chance when grazing for herbs, whereby green, juicy grass may also be consumed. The black rhinoceros only eat large amounts of grass when there is a shortage of food. A black rhinoceros usually drinks water every day, but it can do without water for several days. However, long periods of drought lead to the death of the animal. If water sources then run dry, the black rhinoceros tries to scratch them freely with its feet. The black rhinoceros is mainly active at dusk and at night, during the day it rests or sleeps in the shade or takes mud baths.

Reproduction

Mother with young animal.

Cows are sexually mature at four to six years of age, bulls probably a little earlier. Depending on the development of the cow, it will have its first calf when it is seven to eight years old, sometimes earlier. As a rule, cows give birth every two years. This interval can be longer, depending on the age or the nutritional status of the individual animals. Male and female black rhinos only find each other for a few days during the mating season. During this time, bulls are extremely aggressive towards other bulls, but also towards older young animals, so that fights can sometimes even be fatal. The mating proceeds according to a certain scheme and is characterized by the bull sitting on the cow several times; the sexual act lasts up to 40 minutes. The gestation period is usually given as 15 months (around 450 days), but it can also last up to 18 months (540 days). If the cow has had a calf before, it is driven away and sometimes goes into the care of other cows, and occasionally a white rhinoceros accepts one. The mother animal herself visits a remote, mostly bushy region for birth.

The only calf has a birth weight of around 25 to 40 kilograms and is around half a meter high. Typically, more male calves are born than female calves, but the male death rate is higher. The newborn can already walk after three hours and, at the point where the anterior horn will grow, already has a thickening about one centimeter high after birth; the growth point for the second horn is only marked as a somewhat lighter round spot. The calf is suckled for about two years and during this time the mother defends it against any potential danger. The mother has not been able to have another calf for almost as long. During this time, the calf is hidden in higher bushes and the mother usually only leaves it to find a watering hole. After up to eight months, the mother animal allows the previously born calf to return. Young male bulls do not leave the mother until they are six or seven years old. The lifespan of a black rhinoceros can be 45 years, with bulls often dying earlier from aggressive fighting. Cows often reach old age. The oldest black rhinoceros in human captivity was 46 years old and died in Magdeburg Zoo in early October 2013 .

Interactions with other animal species

The black rhinoceros has no natural enemies. Only lions and hyenas occasionally manage to capture a calf if the mother is careless. Investigations in the Solio game reserve in Kenya revealed five calves killed by lions with an average age of four months between 2008 and 2009, another young animal was injured by big cats at the age of eight months and died six months later. Cases have also been observed where drinking rhinos have been attacked by hippos or crocodiles - but this is not the rule. Signs of such attacks are torn ears or a missing tail. In general, however, the black rhinoceros does not have a pronounced escape behavior towards large predators. Sometimes there are also conflicts with the African elephant , especially at narrow water points, salt licks or when a black rhinoceros gets between a young animal and its mother, which can sometimes be fatal. Often rhinos tolerate the company of maggot cutters and cattle egrets , who sit on their backs and pick up parasites . The birds also act as a warning signal for the black rhinoceros when they fly away startled when danger approaches.

Parasites

Black rhinos are often attacked by parasites ; Ticks , gastric dasseln and filariae are among the most common parasites. The filaria in particular cause wounds the size of the palm of the hand on the body surfaces, which in some populations can affect up to 50% of all individuals, including young animals. Furthermore, wounds that occur during rutting are a frequent place for flies to lay eggs; "Disinfection" is only possible by wallowing in the mud or dust baths.

Systematics

Internal system of recent odd ungulates according to Tougard et al. 2001   Rhinocerotidae    Rhinoceros unicornis      Rhinoceros sondaicus      Dicerorhinus sumatrensis      Ceratotherium simum      Diceros bicornis

The genus Diceros belongs to the Dicerotina, the two-horned rhinos of Africa. The sister genus is Ceratotherium , which includes the white rhinoceros. Of the two genera, Diceros represents the somewhat more primitive type due to the more extensive dentition and more primitive tooth structure. According to molecular genetic studies, both genera separated from each other in the Middle Miocene 17 million years ago.

The original scientific name of the black rhinoceros was given in 1758 by Linnaeus (1707–1778) with Rhinoceros bicornis . The original find on which the description is based no longer exists. The Dutch anatomist Petrus Camper provided a very extensive description using a skull from South Africa in 1776. The skull is still kept in Groningen today . John Edward Gray introduced the generic name Diceros in 1821. In the course of time, various scientific names have been used for the black rhinoceros, some of which appear in a wide variety of combinations:

• Rhinoceros bicornis Linnaeus , 1758
• Rhinoceros africanus Blumenbach , 1797
• Rhinoceros cucullatus Wagner in von Schreber 1835
• Rhinoceros keitloa Smith , 1836
• Rhinoceros ketloa Smith , 1837 ( typo for R. keitloa ).
• Rhinoceros brucii Lesson , 1842
• Rhinoceros gordoni Lesson , 1842
• Rhinoceros camperi Schinz , 1845
• Rhinoceros niger Schinz , 1845
• Opsiceros occidentalis Zukowsky , 1922
• Rhinoceros kulumane Player , 1972

The originally three assumed subspecies were later increased to seven due to differences in the skull structure. Another revision in 2011 lists a total of eight subspecies, but four of them are extinct:

• † D. b. bicornis (Linnaeus, 1758) ; South Africa and Southern Namibia
• † D. b. brucii (Lesson, 1842) ; Somalia and Ethiopia to Sudan
• † D. b. chobiensis Zukowski, 1965 ; Namibia, in the Okawango region
• D. b. ladoensis Groves, 1967 ; Kenya and Sudan
• † D. b. longipes Zukowsky, 1949 ; the West African black rhinoceros; Chad to Nigeria
• D. b. michaeli Zukowsky, 1965 ; the East African black rhinoceros; Tanzania and Kenya
• D. b. minor (Drummond, 1876) ; the South Central African black rhinoceros; from South Africa to Kenya
• D. b. occidentalis (Zukowski, 1922) ; Namibia and Angola

In the past, D. b. bicornis with D. b. occidentalis , where both were mostly considered to be identical. The misunderstanding is based on the fact that Colin Peter Groves in his revision of 1967 D. b. occidentalis was not taken into account. However, further studies have shown that both subspecies can be distinguished on the basis of skull and skeletal features. D. b. bicornis , the nominate form of the black rhinoceros, has been extinct since around 1850, the representative that occurs today in South West Africa belongs to D. b. occidentalis . However , the nominate form is still used mainly in the area of species protection . According to genetic analyzes from 2017, of the 64 documented haplotypes of the shrew rhinoceros there are currently only 20 remaining due to excessive hunting, which equates to a genetic loss of 69%. However, the investigations were also able to determine that the West African black rhinoceros ( D. b. Longipes ), which was officially declared extinct in 2013, was originally distributed as far as East Africa according to the haplotype and still exists there today in the Masai Mara . The animals there are usually assigned to the East African black rhinoceros ( D. b. Michaeli ).

Tribal history

The genus Diceros was first detectable in Africa in the Middle Miocene , more than 10 million years ago. It emerged from the immediately preceding genus Paradiceros . The oldest known record of the genus Diceros comes from Namibia and is assigned to the species Diceros australis . These are finds of a lower jaw and several postcranial skeletal elements, which indicate a very large but slender rhinoceros and are dated in the transition from the Lower to the Middle Miocene; With an age of around 17 million years, the extinct rhinoceros species is very close to the division of white and black rhinoceros determined by molecular genetic studies, but it is not entirely undisputed due to the sparse finds. The other early representatives, such as Diceros primaevus , Diceros douariensis or Diceros praecox , had an even higher head posture than the later black rhinoceros and sometimes had a greater body weight. In addition, the orbit was not that far in the back of the skull. The genus, which was originally restricted to Africa, must have expanded its range considerably, as it was also found in East Asia with Diceros gansuensis in the late Miocene .

The first appearance of the actual black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis is recorded in the early Pliocene . It is then distributed over the Pleistocene throughout sub-Saharan Africa, among other things it occurs with a complete skull in Koobi Fora (Kenya) around 2 million ago, where the white rhinoceros has also been passed on. It seems to have undergone hardly any intraspecific anatomical changes during this time, making it one of the most consistent species in the African savannah. However, it is assumed that the clear specialization in predominantly soft plant food was only fully developed with the species Diceros bicornis , while the older species preferred a mixed diet.

Black rhinoceros and human

South-central African black rhinoceros ( Diceros bicornis minor ) in the Frankfurt Zoo

East African black rhinoceros ( Diceros bicornis michaeli ) in the Zurich Zoo

The danger posed by rhinos has mostly been shown very exaggerated. An approaching person is perceived through the sense of smell. In such a case, the rhinoceros usually fled. Only when the wind is unfavorable and the rhino is surprised does it attack. Its behavior is generally considered to be unpredictable, so that even apparently peaceful animals can suddenly attack. If the person flees, the rhino occasionally turns away. However, if it completes the attack, it can throw a person up with its horn, causing serious injury.

Mainly because of the alleged healing power of the horn in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and the belief in the potency-increasing effect of the horn, which is widespread in some countries, the black rhinoceros was brought to the verge of extinction through poaching . In addition, a dagger made from the horn of the black rhinoceros is considered a symbol of masculinity in Yemen ; Members of the Yemeni upper class are willing to pay the highest prices for illegally imported rhinoceros daggers. While poaching is a huge risk in East Africa due to severe penalties, the immense prices that buyers in East Asia and Yemen are willing to pay for the horns make it a worthwhile business. In order to make rhinoceros hunting unattractive for poachers, rangers in some areas have even started to stun the rhinos and cut off their horns, a procedure that has no painful consequences for the animals, since horns like fingernails are not made of living cells. But even this method did not bring the desired success: poachers who tracked down a rhinoceros without a horn shot it anyway so as not to follow its trail again later. At times there was even a move to have some black rhinos guarded by armed rangers around the clock.

In addition to wild animals, the black rhinoceros are found in most of the world's largest zoos . Most of these animals are wild-caught, which were made as young animals in Africa. It was customary until well into the 1970s to shoot the mother of the animals so that the young could be caught. Successful breeding of black rhinos was first achieved in 1941 in the Chicago Zoo ; In 1956 the first “European” young animal was born in Frankfurt am Main . The Berlin Zoological Garden achieved world fame through regular breeding.

Danger

As a result of hunting, the black rhinoceros became increasingly rare very early on. The supposedly last black rhinoceros was shot in South Africa as early as 1853. From the subspecies D. b. occidentalis , only 50 animals were counted in South Africa in 2001 and only 71 in 2003, while in Namibia in 2003 there were 1238 specimens. The holdings of D. b. occidentalis is increasing, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources , 2008 (IUCN) announced the number of mature specimens with less than 1000 and classifies the subspecies as "threatened" ( Vulnerable ) a.

In the steppes south of the Sahel , the black rhinoceros was also largely exterminated at the end of the 19th century. The West African black rhinoceros ( D. b. Longipes ) lists the IUCN as "critically endangered, possibly extinct". While in 2003 a possible 5 specimens were assumed, a search in 2006 did not find any specimens of the subspecies, and it was concluded that the subspecies is "in all probability" extinct. On March 28, 2013, the IUCN declared the West African black rhinoceros to be extinct in nature.

In the 1960s, the East African ( D. b. Michaeli ) and the south-central African subspecies ( D. b. Minor ) also disappeared from large parts of their range due to increasing poaching . The IUCN classified the black rhinoceros as endangered, later as threatened and finally as critically endangered. Nevertheless, even at a time when protective measures for other wild animals had long been effective, it was becoming increasingly rare. In 1970 there were an estimated 65,000 black rhinos, in 1980 there were only 15,000 individuals, in 1990 around 3,000, and in 1995 the population had finally fallen to just 2,500 animals. In 1980 there was still a healthy population of 3,000 rhinos in the Central African Republic , which was completely eradicated within a few years.

In 2010, there were again 4,800 black rhinos in Africa (including in the Addo Elephant Park , Kruger National Park , Etosha National Park , Hwange National Park , Mana Pools , South Luangwa , Serengeti and in the national parks Tsavo East and Tsavo West ) registered. Above all, the populations in South Africa and Namibia contribute to the total population, as protective measures are really taking effect in the national parks there and the population of the black rhinoceros is growing again, from the low of the population in 1995 to 2014, a total increase of 4.5 percent was recorded. However, there was also an increase in poaching, which killed over 300 white and black rhinos in 2010 alone. Overall, the black rhinoceros are classified by the IUCN as " Critically Endangered ".

etymology

The name "black rhinoceros" is a borrowing from English, where it is called "black rhinoceros" and forms the counterpart to "white rhinoceros", the white rhinoceros. The two types of rhinoceros cannot be distinguished by their skin color. Until the beginning of the 19th century, the black rhinoceros was referred to as the African rhinoceros, as it was the only known species of rhinoceros from this continent in Europe. When the British naturalist William John Burchell (1782–1863) discovered the white rhinoceros in South Africa in 1812 and referred to it as Rhinoceros simus after his return to Europe in 1817 , he did not use a name translation for this species.

The term “white” rhinoceros first appeared in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, also in South Africa. There, English hunters shot several specimens of the then unknown white rhinoceros and called it "white", although they explicitly mentioned the gray skin color in their reports. How this misleading naming came about is unclear, there are at least ten different theories about it. The most common is that of a mistranslation of the term wijd or wyd from Afrikaans , where this means "broad", but was translated as "white" due to the similar phonetic sound to the English word "white". This question has not yet been clarified. The terms "black rhinoceros" and "white rhinoceros" were first used in 1838 to distinguish between black and white rhinos.

The German terms white and black rhinoceros, on the other hand, refer to the formation of the mouth and should therefore be preferred. The black rhinoceros has a pointed upper lip that is capable of reaching forwards, while the white rhinoceros has a flat and wide lip. These characteristics represent adaptations to the different diets of the two rhino species.

literature

• Carol Cunningham, Joel Berger: Horn of Darkness. Rhinos on the Edge. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1997, ISBN 0-19-511113-3 .
• AK Kes Hillman-Smith and Colin Peter Groves: Diceros bicornis. Mammalian Species 455, 1994, pp. 1-8
• Rudolf Lammers, Uwe Anders: Rhinos. On the trail of the horned colossi. Tecklenborg-Verlag, Steinfurt 1998, ISBN 3-924044-41-4 .
• Rudolf Schenkel, Lotte Schenkel-Hulliger: Ecology and Behavior of the Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis L.): A Field Study. Paul Parey Verlag, Hamburg 1969, ISBN 3-490-06918-8 .

Individual evidence

1. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g h} Keryn Adcock, Rajan Amin: Black rhinoceros. In: R. Fulconis: Save the rhinos: EAZA Rhino Campaign 2005/6. Info Pack, London 2005, pp. 61-65.
2. ^ Bernhard Grzimek: The black rhinoceros. In: B. Grzimek (Ed.): Grzimeks Tierleben: Enzyklopaedie des Tierreiches. Zurich 1968, pp. 52–70.
3. ↑ ^{a b c d} Colin P. Groves: The rhinos - tribal history and kinship. In: The rhinos: encounter with primeval colossi. Fürth 1997, ISBN 3-930831-06-6 , pp. 14-32.
4. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g} A. TA Ritchie: The black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis L.). In: East African Wildlife Journal. 1, 1963, pp. 54-62.
5. ↑ Hendrik K. van den Bergh: A note on eyelashes in an African black rhinoceros, Diceros bicornis. In: Journal of Zoology. London 161 (2), 1970, p. 191.
6. ^ ^{A b c} Colin P. Groves: Geographic variation in the Black Rhinoceros Diceros bicornis (L., 1758). In: Journal of Mammals . 32, 1967, pp. 267-276.
7. ↑ Friedrich E. Zeuner: The relationships between skull shape and way of life in recent and fossil rhinos. In: Reports of the Natural Research Society in Freiburg. 34, 1934, pp. 21-80.
8. ↑ Jeremy L. Anderson: Tooth replacement and dentition of the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis Linn). In: Lammergeyer. 6, 1966, pp. 41-46.
9. ↑ ^{a b c} J. M. Harris: Family Rhinocerotidae. In: JM Harris (Ed.): Koobi Fora Research Project. Volume 2. The fossil ungulates: Proboscidea, Perissodactyla, Suidae. Oxford 1983.
10. ↑ Colin B. Groves: Species characters in rhinoceros horns. Zeitschrift für Mammalskunde 36 (4), 1971, pp. 238-252 (248f).
11. ↑ N. Neuschulz: Another black rhinoceros with three horns. Felis 6, 1988, pp. 86-88.
12. ↑ Peter Kemnitz, Wolfgang Puschmann, Michael Schröpel, Dieter Krause, Rüdiger Schöning: Fine tissue studies on the structure and ontogenesis of the horn of rhinoceros, Rhinocerotidae: an atlas with new views on and about an old problem. In: Zoological Garden. 61 (3), 1991, pp. 177-199.
13. ↑ Wolfgang Puschmann: About the horn growth in the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). In: Felis. 5, 1987, pp. 61-62.
14. ^ N. Neuschulz, Wolfgang Puschmann: Loss and regeneration of the front horn in the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). In: Felis. 4, 1987, pp. 51-54.
15. ^ R. Bigalke: The regeneration of the anterior horn of the black rhinoceros, Diceros bicornis (Linn.). In: Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 115, 1946, pp. 323-326.
16. ^ GW Frame, J. Goddard: Black rhinoceros vocalisations. In: East African Wildlife Journal. 8, 1970, p. 207.
17. ↑ ^{a b} Denis Geraads: Rhinocerotidae. In: L. Werdelin, DJ Sanders (Ed.): Cenozoic Mammals of Africa. Berkeley, 2010, pp. 669-683.
18. ^ ^{A b c} Colin Peter Groves and Peter Grubb: Ungulate Taxonomy. Jongs Hopkins University, Baltimore, 2011, pp. 1-416 (pp. 21-26).
19. ↑ iucn news
20. ↑ The legend of the pointed lipped rhinoceros. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. September 12, 2006.
21. ↑ Rachel Santymire, Jordana Meyer and Elizabeth W. Freeman: Characterizing Sleep Behavior of the Wild Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis bicornis). In: Sleep. 35 (11), 2012, pp. 1569-1574
22. ↑ Keryn Adcock: The relevance of 'territorial' behavior in black rhino to their population management. In: BL Penzhorn and others: Proceedings of a symposium on rhinos as game ranch animals. Onderstepoort, Republic of South Africa, September 9-10, 1994. 1994, pp. 82-86.
23. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g} Rudolf Schenkel, Ernst M. Lang : The behavior of the rhinos. In: Handbuch für Zoologie. 8 (46), 1969, pp. 1-56.
24. ↑ Richard H. Emslie, Keryn Adcock: Feeding ecology of black rhinos. In: BL Penzhorn and others: Proceedings of a symposium on rhinos as game ranch animals. Onderstepoort, Republic of South Africa, September 9-10, 1994. , 1994, pp. 65-81.
25. ↑ JB Foster: Mortality and aging of black rhino ceros in East Tsavo Park, Kenya. In: East African Wildlife Journal. 3, 1965, pp. 118-119.
26. ↑ J. Goddard: A note on age at sexual maturity in wild black rhinoceros. In: East African Wildlife Journal. 8, 1970, p. 205.
27. ↑ Volksstimme: The world's oldest rhino dies in the Magdeburg Zoo Volksstimme article, October 2013. (Online)
28. ^ Felix Patton: Lion predation on the African black rhinoceros and its potential effect on management. In: Endangered Species Update. 26 (1/2), 2009, pp. 43-49.
29. ↑ Keryn Adcock: Habitat and nutritional conditions for black rhino in the Ngorongoro Crater. In: A. Mills et al .: Management of black rhino in the Ngorongoro Crater: A report on the workshop held at Serena Lodge, Ngorongoro, 3-4 September 2003. African Wildlife Foundation, Nairobi, 2003, pp. 8-9.
30. ↑ F. Zumpt: Animal Parasites of the Rhinos. In: Nature and Museum. 95 (5), 1965, pp. 191-205.
31. ↑ L. Zukowsky: Cause and meaning of the festering wounds on the body sides of free-living black rhinos. In: The Zoological Garden. 32 (4), 1966, pp. 163-173.
32. ↑ ^{a b} Christelle Tougard, Thomas Delefosse, Catherine Hänni, Claudine Montgelard: Phylogenetic Relationships of the Five Extant Rhinoceros Species (Rhinocerotidae, Perissodactyla) Based on Mitochondrial Cytochrome b and 12S rRNA Genes. In: Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 19, 2001, pp. 34-44.
33. ↑ Ludwig Zukowsky: The systematics of the genus Diceros Gray, 1821. In: Der Zoologischer Garten. 30 (1/2), 1964, pp. 1-178.
34. ↑ Rhino Resource Center
35. ^ A. Tindell Hopwood: The subspecies of the black rhinoceros (abstract). In: Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London. 150 (1), 1938, pp. 447-456.
36. ↑ LC Rookmaker and Colin Peter Groves: The extinct Cape Rhinoceros, Diceros bicornis bicornis (Linnaeus, 1758). Mammal Science Communications 26 (2), pp. 117–126.
37. ↑ ^{a b} Diceros bicornis ssp. bicornis in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011.1. Listed by: IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group, 2008. Retrieved September 7, 2011.
38. ↑ Yoshan Moodley, Isa-Rita M. Russo, Desiré L. Dalton, Antoinette Kotzé, Shadrack Muya, Patricia Haubensak, Boglárka Bálint, Gopi K. Munimanda, Caroline Deimel, Andrea Setzer, Kara Dicks, Barbara Herzig-Straschil, Daniela C. Kalthoff, Hans R. Siegismund, Jan Robovský, Paul O'Donoghue and Michael W. Bruford: Extinctions, genetic erosion and conservation options for the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). Scientific Reports 7, 2017, p. 41417 doi: 10.1038 / srep41417
39. ^ ^{A b} Donald R. Prothero, Claude Guérin, Earl Manning: The history of Rhinocerotoidea. In: Donald R. Prothero, RM Schoch (Ed.): The evolution of the Perissodactyls. New-York, 1989, pp. 321-340.
40. ↑ Esperanza Cerdeño: Diversity and evolutionary trends of the family Rhinocerotidae (Perissodactyla). In: Palaeo. 141, 1998, pp. 13-34.
41. ^ Claude Guérin: The neogene rhinoceroses of Namibia. In: Palaeontologia Africana. 36, 2000, pp. 119-138.
42. ↑ ^{a b} Denis Geraads: Pliocene Rhinocerotidae (Mammalia) from Hadar and Dikika (Lower Awash, Ethiopia) and a revision of the origin of modern African rhinos. In: Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 25 (2), 2005, pp. 451-461.
43. ↑ Deng Tao, Qiu Zhan-Xiang: First discovery of Diceros (Perissodactyla, Rhinocerotidae) in China. In: Vertebrata PalAsiatica. 10, 2007, pp. 287-306.
44. ↑ Richard H. Emslie: African rhino numbers continue to increase. In: Pachyderm. 33, 2002. ( Online ; PDF file; 23 kB)
45. ^ ^{A b} Richard H. Emslie: Rhino population size an trends. In: Pachyderm. 37, 2004. ( Online )
46. ↑ Isabelle Lagrot, Jean-François Lagrot, Paul Bour: Probable extinction of the western black rhino, Diceros bicornis longipes: 2006 survey in northern Cameroon. In: Pachyderm. 43, 2007. ( Online )
47. ↑ Diceros bicornis ssp. longipes in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011.1. Listed by: IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group, 2008. Retrieved September 7, 2011.
48. ↑ Africa's Western Black Rhinoceros Diceros bicornis longipes declared Extinct. Retrieved September 4, 2013 . 
49. ↑ http://www.wwf.de/themen-projekte/bedrohte-tier-und-pflanzenarten/nashoerner/afrikanische-nashoerner/
50. ^ International Rhino Foundation: Annual report. White Oak, IRF, 2010, pp. 1-21. (Online) (PDF file; 736 kB)
51. ^ Richard Emslie: Diceros bicornis. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. , last accessed April 2, 2013.
52. ^ LC Rookmaaker: Why the name of the white rhinoceros is not appropriate. In: Pachyderm. 34, 2003, pp. 88-93.

Web links

Commons : Black Rhinoceros  - Album with pictures, videos and audio files

• Black Rhino (Diceros bicornis). rhinos.org, accessed on October 20, 2010 . 
• Diceros bicornis in the endangered Red List species the IUCN 2010. Posted by: IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group , 2008. Accessed October 20, 2010 ..
• Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). natur-lexikon.com, accessed on October 20, 2010 .