Eastern cliff elephant shrew

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Eastern cliff elephant shrew
Eastern cliff elephant shrew (Elephantulus myurus)

Eastern cliff elephant shrew ( Elephantulus myurus )

Systematics
Superordinate : Afrotheria
without rank: Afroinsectiphilia
Order : Elephant jerk (Macroscelidea)
Family : Elephant jerk (Macroscelididae)
Genre : Elephant shrews ( Elephantulus )
Type : Eastern cliff elephant shrew
Scientific name
Elephantulus myurus
Thomas & Schwann , 1906

The eastern cliff elephant shrew ( Elephantulus myurus ), also known as cliff elephant shrew or eastern elephant shrew, is a species of the elephant shrew genus that is found predominantly in southeastern Africa from South Africa to Zimbabwe . Its habitat includes the partly dry grasslands of the Veld , where it occurs relatively frequently. The species shares the trunk-like nose, which is characteristic of all representatives of the elephant shrews, as well as the long hind legs and, in contrast, short front legs. She lives on the ground and forms monogamous couples, but their bond is rather weak. The reproduction takes place depending on the seasons, a litter consists of two, sometimes only one young. The diet consists mainly of insects , in addition to which plants are consumed much less frequently. The first description of the Eastern Cliff Elephant Shrew took place in 1906 as a subspecies of the Western Cliff elephant shrew . It has only been recognized as an independent species since 1935. The stock is classified as not endangered.

description

Habitus

The eastern cliff elephant shrew is a medium-sized to large representative of the elephant shrews and reaches a total length of 20.2 to 29.2 cm. Of this, the tail takes between 10.1 and 16.0 cm, which corresponds approximately - or slightly more (110%) than - the remaining body length. The weight varies from 41 to 98 g. There is no pronounced sexual dimorphism between the sexes. Male animals weigh on average 60.9 g, female 60.0 g. A study of more than 115 individuals in the Goro Game Reserve in northeastern South Africa revealed an average weight of 51.1 g for males and 51.9 g for females. In general, the eastern cliff elephant shrew resembles the other elephant shrews and is characterized by a large head with an elongated, trunk-like nose and short front and long hind legs. The fur is soft and woolly. The individual hairs can be up to 13 mm long on the back. They are glossy black in color, while the tip appears yellowish-brown. Scattered in the fur are long, completely black hairs that may have a tactile function. The back and top of the head show an overall yellowish-gray-brown coloration that becomes more gray to the sides and downwards. The belly stands out with a light gray to whitish tint. The snout has a washed out to pale gray color. The ears are 18 to 30 mm long and slightly rounded at the tips. Their predominantly brown color is only interrupted on the inner edges of the auricle by light gray or whitish-gray hair, which sometimes looks slate-gray at the base. There is a yellowish-brown spot behind the ears, but it is not as distinct as that of the western cliff elephant shrew ( Elephantulus rupestris ). The eyes are large and are framed by a narrow, whitish-gray ring. The long, narrow tail is dark on the top and lightly colored on the underside, but completely dark towards the tip. Unlike the western cliff elephant shrew, it has only a sparse coat of fur consisting of short hair. In addition, it lacks the tuft of hair that is characteristic of this species or of the Cape elephant shrew ( Elephantulus edwardii ) at the end. The front and rear legs end in five-pointed hands and feet that have short, curved claws. The upper side is mostly light gray to whitish in color, the underside is provided with a thick, black-colored skin pad. The rear foot length is 29 to 42 mm.

Skull and dentition features

The skull is on average 38.5 mm long, its width at the zygomatic arches is 20.4 mm. The length of the nasal bone is about 15 mm. The tympanic bladder is characterized by a significant swelling. The bone seam between the middle jaw bone and the upper jaw is slightly curved. The dentition consists of 40 teeth together and has the following dental formula : . The inner incisor (I1) of the upper row of teeth is significantly larger than the two outer ones. The canine is small and pointed. In contrast to the western cliff and dryland elephant shrew ( Elephantulus intufi ), the first upper premolar lacks the tongue-side cusps on the chewing surface. On the second upper premolar, there is usually only one little cusp on the tongue, which sometimes divides into two closely spaced ones. This is also only half as high as the cusps on the cheek side. The entire upper row of teeth from the first incisor to the last molar reaches 20.6 mm.

distribution

Distribution area (blue) of the eastern cliff elephant shrew

The eastern cliff elephant shrew is endemic to Africa , where it occurs in the south-eastern part of the continent from eastern South Africa to the south-west of Mozambique , the south-east of Botswana to Zimbabwe . In Swaziland the species has not yet been found. Originally also found in western Lesotho in the 1990s, it has not been included in field studies there since 2000. Its habitat includes the semi-arid grasslands of the Highveld and the Zambezi-Woodland Biozone. There she mainly inhabits rocky landscapes on hillsides and mountain slopes, Kopjes or on scree fields, in which, however, rock caves and crevices must be present as a basic requirement for the presence of the animals. In addition, overhanging rocks or regional vegetation are necessary, which can guarantee protection from birds of prey and other predators during the activity phases. The eastern cliff elephant shrew can occur very frequently locally, but the respective population density depends on ecological factors. In times of increased precipitation and the resulting large food supply, one hectare can accommodate up to 88 individuals. This high density then usually dissolves into isolated groups at the beginning of the dry season. The range partially overlaps with that of the short-nosed elephant shrew ( Elephantulus brachyrhynchus ), which, however, prefers sandy and flat habitats .

Way of life

Territorial behavior

Landscape of the Highveld near Johannesburg

The eastern cliff elephant shrew is mainly diurnal with a main phase during the twilight period. But it can also occur at night. The times with the least activity thus include the hours around and well after midnight (11:00 pm to 5:00 am) and from noon to late afternoon (12:00 pm to 5:00 pm). Especially in the early morning hours, the animals take extensive sunbaths on boulders. They are fast (cursorial) ground runners, some of which jump on four feet. They can jump over distances of up to one meter between two boulders. The individual individuals maintain activity spaces , within which there are numerous hiding places in the form of crevices, holes or overhangs. However, special nests are not created. The boundaries of the grazing areas vary greatly. According to studies in the Weenen Nature Reserve in the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal , the size of males for a monthly activity cycle is around 0.4  ha , females around 0.2 ha. Within five months, the area used by males can be on average 1 ha, in females are around 0.36 ha. Comparable values ​​were found during a four-year study in the Goro Wirltierreservat in Limpopo Province . Here the males have an average territory size of 0.68 ha and females of 0.5 ha. Variations arise mainly during the reproductive phase. Then their size almost doubles, which is possibly caused by the higher energy demand during this time. The average distance between the activity centers of the districts is 114 m. What is striking here is that female animals keep a significantly greater distance from one another than is the case among males. Investigations north of Bethulie in the South African province of Freistaat at an altitude of around 1,600 m revealed larger areas on average, which reached up to 3.96 ha in males and around 1.1 ha in females. As a special feature, the action areas on steep slopes with dense bush vegetation turned out to be markedly smaller with only a fifth of the size of those in flat plains.

The social structure consists of monogamous couples. The territories of the tied animals often overlap, with that of the female being defended by the associated male. However, joint activities that go beyond reproduction hardly take place. After the death or disappearance of a partner, new pairs quickly form with unbound, but sometimes also with tied animals, which usually shifts the territorial boundaries. It is possible that there is greater competition among males for unbound females, which could also explain the noticeably larger activity areas of the male animals. These overlap much more frequently with the grazing areas of the female animals than the other way round, which gives the males the opportunity to search the boundaries of their areas for females that are released. Overall, the pair bonds within the Eastern Cliff Elephant Shrew can be viewed as rather weak.

Internal communication takes place in different ways. Typical is a cat-like "meow" at a frequency of 1.47 kHz that lasts up to 468 ms. When uttering the sound, an animal stretches its head upwards, pulls back its trunk-like nose and keeps its mouth open. In addition, a characteristic drumming is used, which is produced by hitting the rear feet on the ground. This foot drumming consists of a sequence of 3 to 4 regular beats with an interval of 25 to 40 ms, followed by another sequence after a pause of 250 to 350 ms. An entire series of such drum-like noises can last between 5 and 20 seconds, but sometimes several minutes.

nutrition

The eastern cliff elephant shrew feeds primarily on insects . Investigations of droppings in the grasslands of the Highveld near Marondera in north-eastern Zimbabwe showed that around 90% of the diet consists of invertebrates . About 22.4% of the amount of food consumed comprised ants , another 19.5% termites . Beetles are also eaten, making up 15.1%. Among these, black beetles and weevils dominated . The proportion of other invertebrates, which were mainly arthropods such as spiders , butterflies or two-winged birds , was comparatively low . The remaining 10% of the amount of food was distributed among plant remains. Here mainly sweet grasses and seeds of herbs dominated. The animals use their excellent sense of smell to search for food and use their long noses to rummage through crevices and between rocks for prey. The prey is picked up with the long tongue. The eastern cliff elephant shrew catches larger prey such as grasshoppers with short leaps and eats them in hidden places. As in all of its habitat, it prefers stony ground for foraging and avoids sandy areas.

The average body temperature of the Eastern Cliff elephant shrew is 35.7 to 37.7 ° C and fluctuates only minimally during the day. The annual outside temperatures in the distribution area, on the other hand, vary considerably and can drop to freezing point in the cold season . Under unfavorable conditions, for example at low outside temperatures, the animals go into a state of rigidity ( torpor ). This can start at 25 ° C, but is then rather short at around 12 minutes. On average, the rigid phases last around 9 to 10 hours. The longest documented torpor lasted 20 hours and 18 minutes at an outside temperature of 3.7 ° C. The Torpor is not only associated with a reduction in respiratory performance to around 2%, but also with a drop in body temperature. The lowest value measured was 7.5 ° C, while the ambient temperature was 2.7 ° C. As a rule, such physical freezes appear in the cold season and then begin during dusk, rarely at dawn. They were also found more frequently in female animals. However, the torpor can also be used in unfavorable feeding conditions outside of the cold season. In this case, it never lasts longer than 18 hours.

Reproduction

The offspring are mainly born during the warm and humid season between September and March. A direct influence on reproduction by the duration and intensity of solar radiation as a result of seasonal cycles cannot be proven, the restriction to the rainy season can be explained by the stronger plant growth and the higher activity of the prey animals. As a result, the male and female individuals of the Eastern Cliff Elephant Shrew also begin their fertility cycle with the beginning change from the dry to the rainy season. Males generally only have small testicles compared to animals of about the same size. The sperm production is relatively low during the dry season, but increases with the end of the season significantly, which is associated with swelling of the testicles. The main reproductive activity of the males takes place between October and December. At around the same time, females enter the oestrus phase , which is indicated, among other things, by the swelling of the ovary and an increase in the concentration of progesterone . The estrous persists in female animals until March. As a result, the eastern cliff elephant shrew, along with the North African elephant shrew ( Elephantulus rozeti ) and partly also the dryland elephant shrew ( Elephantulus intufi ), is one of the few representatives of the genus in which the reproductive phase is strictly limited by the season.

The gestation period is around eight weeks. As a rule, a litter consists of two young animals, but there are also numerous references to only singular young. The newborns have a head-trunk length of about 5 cm and a weight of about 8 g and are relatively well developed with a pronounced, soft fur and open eyes. In addition, they can walk independently shortly after birth. The first time they spend in hiding, there is no paternal care. The daily weight gain is around 1 g, with a body weight of around a third of an adult animal, the young animals leave the shelter and eat solid food. Female animals reach sexual maturity at around five to six weeks. The known life expectancy in the wild is one year and one month and a maximum of one year and seven months, relatively short and significantly shorter than that of the other elephant shrew species.

During a reproductive phase, females can have offspring a total of three times. The low life expectancy and the limited reproductive cycle mean that they only give birth to three to four times in their entire life. The maximum is six throws, but this is rarely achieved. Females born early in the reproductive phase have cubs twice during this phase and then go into the anestrus phase, while those born very late switch directly to the sexual pause after their sexual maturity. As a result, they do not receive their first offspring until the next reproductive phase. Females who are pregnant at the onset of anestrus lose the embryos by abortion .

Predators and enemy behavior

The most important predators are the barn owl and Cape eagle owl . The eastern cliff elephant shrew is sometimes also captured by snakes such as the rhombus sheep-stick , but studies on 94 stomach contents from the Orange Free State only provided one clue. In the event of a disturbance, an animal flees to a hiding place, but appears again very quickly on the surface after the danger has been deducted. In general, the individual individuals are always alerted.

Parasites

Numerous external parasites of the eastern cliff elephant shrew are known. These include ticks such as Amblyomma , Ixodes and Rhipicephalus . The latter genus in particular occurs frequently; the size of the infestation depends on the seasons, the amount of rain and the outside temperatures. In this way, less parasite infestation can be observed during the reproductive phase. Since this phase falls in the warmer season with a higher supply of food, it is assumed that the cooler temperatures and the smaller amount of food outside of the reproductive period are associated with a reduced function of the immune system of the elephant shrew and thus the higher proportion of ticks is favored. However, females are attacked more frequently than males during the reproductive phase, which in turn is explained by the higher energetic costs during pregnancy and the rearing of the young. Rhipicephalus is also considered to be the host of the anaplasma bacterium , a pathogen causing anaplasmosis that is partially transmitted to the eastern cliff elephant shrew. Other parasites include mites and lice . Among the internal parasites include tongue , band and nematodes , of the latter, especially the species is Maupasina represented dominant.

Systematics

Internal systematics of elephants according to Heritage et al. 2020
 Macroscelididae  
  Macroscelidinae  
  Macroscelidini  


 Galegeeska


   

 Petrodromus


   

 Petrosaltator




   

 Macroscelides



  Elephantulini  

 Elephantulus



  Rhynchocyoninae  

 Rhynchocyon



Template: Klade / Maintenance / Style

The eastern cliff elephant shrew is a species from the genus of elephant shrews ( Elephantulus ). This genus, which is quite rich in shape and occurs in large parts of southern and eastern Africa , currently comprises a total of nine species. The elephantulus form part of the family of shrews (Macroscelididae) within the same order (Macroscelidea). The elephants are a group of smaller mammals that are endemic to Africa. Today they can be divided into two subfamilies. One is represented by the Rhynchocyoninae , which only contain the proboscis ( Rhynchocyon ) and are therefore monotypical . They form the largest representatives of the elephants and predominantly inhabit densely forested habitats . The Macroscelidinae appear as their sister group , which includes the elephant shrews , the proboscis ( Petrodromus ), the North African elephant shrew ( Petrosaltator ), the Somali elephant shrew ( Galegeeska ) and the species of the genus Macroscelides . The representatives of the Macroscelidinae live in dry and open landscapes in savannas and even in desert-like regions. According to molecular genetic studies, the two subfamilies separated from each other in the Lower Oligocene about 32.8 million years ago. The Macroscelidinae became more fragmented from the Upper Oligocene around 23.5 million years ago.

Internal system of elephant shrews according to Smit et al. 2011
 Elephantulus  


 Elephantulus fuscus


   

 Elephantulus fuscipes



   



 Elephantulus rufescens


   

 Elephantulus brachyrhynchus



   

 Elephantulus rupestris


   

 Elephantulus intufi




   

 Elephantulus myurus


   

 Elephantulus edwardii


   

 Elephantulus pilicaudus






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The representation here neglects the positions of Petrodromus , Petrosaltator , Galegeeska and Macroscelides , all four of which are currently deeply embedded in Elephantulus , making the genus of elephant shrews paraphyletic .

The molecular genetic analyzes also showed that the elephant shrews currently form a paraphyletic group, since Petrosaltator , Petrodromus and Macroscelides are currently still deeply embedded in the genus Elephantulus . However, there is a group of South and East African species that is well supported by the genetic studies. The closest relatives of the eastern cliff elephant shrew are the Cape elephant shrew ( Elephantulus edwardii ) and the newly described Karoo cliff elephant shrew ( Elephantulus pilicaudus ), all three representatives form a common clade . Somewhat outside this family group there are other forms of southern Africa, such as the western cliff elephant shrew ( Elephantulus rupestris ) as well as the dryland elephant shrew ( Elephantulus intufi ). It is possible that the ancestors of the species group were originally native to eastern Africa. During a phase of increasing aridization of the continent around 11.5 million years ago at the beginning of the Upper Miocene , they migrated to the south and southwest and thus to the current areas of distribution. As a result of the further drying up of the landscapes of southern Africa in the transition from the Upper Miocene to the Pliocene around 6 million years ago, there was then further diversification.

Particularly in the first half of the 20th century, individual subspecies were described, such as E. m. jamesoni (around Johannesburg ), E. m. mapogonensis ( Limpopo ) and E. m. centralis (southern distribution area). However, there are no strong morphological differences, for example in the color of the coat, so that these are usually not recognized. Only a decrease in size from south to north (measurable in the length of the upper row of teeth) could be determined. However, this is not considered sufficient to separate subspecies. However, E. m. fitzsimonsi from the vicinity of Nyanga in Zimbabwe may be a subspecies that differs from the nominate form . It is characterized by a more gray color on the back, a black top of the tail and a more distinct yellowish-brown spot behind the ear. Fossil finds of the eastern cliff elephant shrew are not known.

The first scientific description of the eastern cliff elephant shrew dates back to 1906. It was carried out by Oldfield Thomas and Harold Schwann , with a female specimen measuring 12.7 cm in length and 15.4 cm in tail length. This was caught in Woodbush in the Limpopo province in northeastern South Africa in mid-May 1905 , the place also represents the type region. Both authors saw the eastern cliff elephant shrew but as a subspecies of the western cliff elephant shrew. The differences to the western species lie in a less hairy tail and the lack of a hair bush at the tail end. The species name myurus , which comes from the Greek (μείουρος or μύουρος) and means something like "short-tailed" or "mouse-tailed", also refers to this. It was not until 1935 that Austin Roberts raised the eastern form at the species level. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Cape elephant shrew was partially assigned to the Eastern Cliff elephant shrew. However, there are numerous diagnostic dental features that distinguish the two types.

Threat and protection

There are currently no known major threats to the population of the Eastern Cliff elephant shrew. The preferred landscape area with mainly rocky or stony subsoil is hardly affected by human activities. Therefore, and due to the wide distribution in southeast Africa, the IUCN classifies the species as "not endangered" (least concern) . It is present in several protected areas.

literature

  • Stephen Heritage: Macroscelididae (Sengis). In: Don E. Wilson and Russell A. Mittermeier (eds.): Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 8: Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2018, pp. 206-234 (pp. 233-234) ISBN 978-84-16728-08-4 .
  • Mike Perrin and Galen B. Rathbun: Elephantulus myurus Eastern Rock Sengi (Eastern Rock Elephant-shrew). In: Jonathan Kingdon, David Happold, Michael Hoffmann, Thomas Butynski, Meredith Happold and Jan Kalina (eds.): Mammals of Africa Volume I. Introductory Chapters and Afrotheria. Bloomsbury, London, 2013, pp. 270-271.
  • Galen B. Rathbun: Elephantulus myurus Thomas & Schwann, 1906 - Eastern Rock elephant-shrew. In: John D. Skinner and Christian T. Chimimba (Eds.): The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 31-33.
  • Galen Rathbun and Hanneline Smit-Robinson: Elephantulus myurus - Eastern Rock Sengi. The Red List of Mammals of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland, 2016 ( [3] ).

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b K. Medger, CT Chimimba and NC Bennett: Seasonal reproduction in the eastern rock elephant-shrew: influenced by rainfall and ambient temperature? In: Journal of Zoology 288, 2012, pp. 283-293.
  2. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Galen B. Rathbun: Elephantulus myurus Thomas & Schwann, 1906 - Eastern Rock elephant-shrew. In: John D. Skinner and Christian T. Chimimba (Eds.): The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 31-33.
  3. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Mike Perrin and Galen B. Rathbun: Elephantulus myurus Eastern Rock Sengi (Eastern Rock Elephant-shrew). In: Jonathan Kingdon, David Happold, Michael Hoffmann, Thomas Butynski, Meredith Happold and Jan Kalina (eds.): Mammals of Africa Volume I. Introductory Chapters and Afrotheria. Bloomsbury, London, 2013, pp. 270-271.
  4. ↑ a b c d e f g h Stephen Heritage: Macroscelididae (Sengis). In: Don E. Wilson and Russell A. Mittermeier (eds.): Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 8: Insectivores, Sloths and Colugos. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2018, pp. 206-234 (pp. 233-234) ISBN 978-84-16728-08-4 .
  5. ↑ a b Oldfield Thomas and Harold Schwann: The Rudd exploitation of South Africa. V. List of mammals obtained by Mr. Grant in the North East Transvaal. In: Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 1906, pp. 575-591 ( [1] ).
  6. ^ A b G. B. Corbet and J. Hanks: A revision of the elephant-shrews, Family Macroscelididae. In: Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Zoology 16, 1968, pp. 47-111.
  7. ^ CD Lynch: The mammals of Lesotho. In: Navorsinge van die Nasionale Museum, Bloemfontein 10 (7), 1994, pp. 177–241.
  8. ↑ Galen Rathbun and Hanne Line Smit-Robinson: Elephantulus myurus - Eastern rock Sengi. The Red List of Mammals of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland, 2016.
  9. ^ I. van der Merwe, MK Oosthuizen, NC Bennett and CT Chimimba: Circadian rhythms of locomotor activity in captive eastern rock sengi. In: Journal of Zoology 286, 2012, pp. 250-257.
  10. ^ A b c David O. Ribble and Michael R. Perrin: Social organization of the Eastern Rock Elephant-shrew (Elephantulus myurus): the evidence for mate guarding. In: Belgian Journal of Zoology 135 (suppl.), 2005, pp. 167-173.
  11. ^ Sasha Hoffmann, Nigel C. Bennett, Bettine Jansen van Vuuren and Heike Lutermann: Space use and the evolution of social monogamy in eastern rock sengis. In: Ethology 126 (4), 2020, pp. 393-402, doi: 10.1111 / eth.12983 .
  12. ^ Gea Olbricht, Alexander Sliwa and Nico L. Avenant: Sengi research in the Free State, South Africa. In: Afrotherian Conservation 9, 2012, pp. 7–8.
  13. ↑ AS Faurie, ER and MR Dempster Perrin: Footdrumming patterns of southern African elephant-shrews. In: Mammalia 60 (4), 1996, pp. 567-576.
  14. ↑ Sara Churchfield: A note on the diet of the rock elephant shrew, Elephantulus myurus in Zimbabwe. In: Journal of Zoology 213, 1987, pp. 743-745.
  15. ↑ Mohammad A. Abu Baker and Joel S. Brown: Patch use behavior of Elephantulus myurus and Micaelamys namaquensis: the role of diet, foraging substrates and escape substrates. In: African Journal of Ecolology 50, 2011, pp. 167-175.
  16. ↑ Nomakwezi Mzilikazi and Barry G. Lovegrove: Daily torpor during the active phase in free-ranging rock elephant shrews (Elephantulus myurus). In: Journal of Zoology 267, 2005, pp. 103-111.
  17. ^ BG Lovegrove, J. Raman and MR Perrin: Heterothermy in elephant shrews, Elephantulus spp. (Macroscelidea): daily torpor or hibernation. In: Journal of Comparative Physiology 171, 2001, pp. 1-10.
  18. ↑ Nomakwezi Mzilikazi, Barry G. Lovegrove and David O. Ribble: Exogenous passive heating during torpor arousal in free-ranging rock elephant shrews, Elephantulus myurus. In: Oecologia 133, 2002, pp. 307-314.
  19. ^ BG Lovegrove, J. Raman and MR Perrin: Daily torpor in elephant shrews (Macroscelidae: Elephantulus spp.) In response to food deprivation. In: Journal of Comparative Physiology 171, 2001, pp. 11-21.
  20. ↑ K. Medger, CT Chimimba and NC Bennett: Is reproduction of male eastern rock sengis (Elephantulus myurus) from southern Africa affected by photoperiod? In: Canadian Journal of Zoology 94 (11), 2016, pp. 747-752.
  21. ^ Zelda G. Stoch: The Male Genital System and Reproductive Cycle of Elephantulus myurus jamesoni (Chubb). In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 238 (653), 1954, pp. 99-126.
  22. ^ PF Woodall and JD Skinner: Seasonality of reproduction in male rock elephant shrews, Elephantulus myurus. In: Journal of Zoology 217, 1989, pp. 203-212.
  23. ↑ a b C. J. van der Horst: Elephantulus Going into Anoestrus; Menstruation and abortion. In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 238 (653), 1954, pp. 27-61.
  24. ^ BR Neal: The ecology and reproduction of the Short-snouted Elephant-Shrew, Elephantulus brachyrhynchus, in Zimbabwe with a review of the reproductive ecology of the genus Elephantulus. In: Mammal Review 25, 1995, pp. 51-60.
  25. ↑ HRH Tripp: Captive, laboratory care and breeding of Elephant-shrews (Macroscelididae). In: Laboratory Animals 6, 1972, pp. 213-224.
  26. ^ Gea Olbricht: Longevity and fecundity in sengis (Macroscelidea). Afrotherian Conservation 5, 2007, pp. 3-5.
  27. ^ JH van Wyk: The diet of the Rhombic Skaapsteker, Psammophylas rhombeatus rhombeatus (Serpentes: Colubridae). In: Navorsinge Van Die Nasionale Museum Bloemfontein 5 (16), 1988, pp. 455-470.
  28. ↑ Heike Lutermann, Katarina Medger and Ivan G. Horak: Effects of life-history traits on parasitism in a monogamous mammal, the eastern rock sengi (Elephantulus myurus). In: Naturwissenschaften 99, 2012, pp. 103–110.
  29. ↑ Heike Lutermann, Katarina Medger and Ivan G. Horak: Abiotic and biotic determinants of tick burdens in the eastern rock sengi (Elephantulus myurus). In: Medical and Veterinary Entomology 26, 2012, pp. 255-262.
  30. ^ Alan Harrison, Armanda DS Bastos, Katarina Medger and Nigel C. Bennett: Eastern rock sengis as reservoir hosts of Anaplasma bovis in South Africa. In: Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases 5, 2013, pp. 503-505.
  31. ↑ Alan Harrison, Kevin J. Bown and Ivan G. Horak: Detection of Anaplasma bovis in an undescribed Tick species collected from the Eastern Rock Sengi Elephantulus myurus. In: Journal of Parasitology 97 (6), 2011, pp. 1012-1016.
  32. ↑ LJ Fourie, JS du Toit, DJ Kok and IG Horak: Arthropod parasites of elephant-shrews, with particular reference of ticks. In: Mammal Review 25, 1995, pp. 31-37.
  33. ↑ Heike Lutermann, Katarina Medger and Kerstin Junker: Endoparasites of the eastern rock sengi (Elephantulus myurus) from South Africa. In: Journal of Parasitology 101 (6), 2015, pp. 677-681.
  34. ↑ a b Steven Heritage, Houssein Rayaleh, Djama G. Awaleh and Galen B. Rathbun: New records of a lost species and a geographic range expansion for sengis in the Horn of Africa. In: PeerJ 8, 2020, p. E9652, doi: 10.7717 / peerj.9652 .
  35. ↑ a b c Hanneline Adri Smit, Bettine Jansen van Vuuren, PCM O'Brien, M. Ferguson-Smith, F. Yang and TJ Robinson: Phylogenetic relationships of elephant-shrews (Afrotheria, Macroscelididae). In: Journal of Zoology 284, 2011, pp. 133-143.
  36. ^ Mike Perrin and Galen B. Rathbun: Order Macroscelidea - Sengis (Elephant-shrews). In: Jonathan Kingdon, David Happold, Michael Hoffmann, Thomas Butynski, Meredith Happold and Jan Kalina (eds.): Mammals of Africa Volume I. Introductory Chapters and Afrotheria. Bloomsbury, London, 2013, pp. 258-260.
  37. ↑ Patricia A. Holroyd: Macroscelidea. In: Lars Werdelin and William Joseph Sanders (eds.): Cenozoic Mammals of Africa. University of California Press, Berkeley, London, New York, 2010, pp. 89-98.
  38. ^ Austin Roberts: Scientific results of the Vernay-Lang Kalahari Expedition, March to September 1930. Mammals. In: Annals of the Transvaal Museum 16 (1), 1935, pp. 187–249 ( PDF part 1 ) ( PDF part 2 ).
  39. ↑ C. Stuart, C. FitzGibbon, M. Perrin (IUCN SSC Afrotheria Specialist Group) and H. Smit (Stellenbosch University): Elephantulus myurus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3 ( [2] ); last accessed on February 20, 2015.

Web links

Commons : Eastern Cliff Elephant Shrew  - Collection of images, videos, and audio files