Fictional violence

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Fictional violence includes the representation of violence within the framework of fiction , in contrast to the documentation of real scenes of violence. The media of film , literature , comics and computer games (hence the term media violence ) are in the focus of the controversy and the scientific research into the subject . The aim of scientific research is to reveal the effects of such representations on people. Research is conducted into the effects of depictions of violence in the disciplines of sociology , psychology , pedagogy , law, and communication and media studies (especially in media impact research ).

Depiction of violence

The media mainly affected by depictions of violence are films, literature, comics and computer games. In recent years, computer games with depictions of violence have been particularly criticized. Due to the interactive nature of the games, in which the players themselves participate in virtual acts of violence, a particularly strong effect is assumed. On the other hand, criticism of films depicting violence seems to have decreased. In the case of films and print media, people do not act themselves, rather behavior is given. This is problematic because the consumer does not control the behavior himself. Thus, these works have a role model function that can influence the actions of the consumer.

Computer games

In many computer games, a special game atmosphere is to be created through the most realistic possible representation of the game world. In games with combat or war scenarios, this also includes the representation of violence. With increasing technical development, violence is depicted more and more realistically.

Violence occurs primarily in first-person shooters , in which the player sees the virtual world from a first-person perspective. The degree of violence shown varies: while shooters like Doom or Quake almost exclusively depict the killing of opponents and are often impressively staged, other games such as Call of Duty , Battlefield or Medal of Honor provide a realistic representation of combat events including tactical maneuvers Focus. In so-called tactical shooters, e.g. B. Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six or Operation Flashpoint , in the extreme case Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell ( stealth shooter ), the emphasis is on tactical movements with the intention of outsmarting opponents or achieving one's goals without attracting much attention.

A similar level of violence can be found in some beat 'em up games , such as the Mortal Kombat franchise.

Many real-time strategy games , such as the well-known Command & Conquer series, also depict violence, but not as explicitly as first-person shooters due to a different game perspective. Here the player commands a war party and usually has to defeat one or more other powers with tactical skill.

Above all, the unreflective handling of violence is criticized, i.e. without illuminating or questioning why the use of violence was necessary to achieve the goal of the game and whether a certain problem could not have been solved without violence.

Movie and TV

Of particular interest is the effect of violence on television on children and adolescents, as they are more susceptible to influence than adults. Children and young people are still in the process of acquiring values ​​and norms ( model learning from Albert Bandura ). They lack a subtle understanding of morals in order to be able to deal with sensational television violence. In addition, children can only distinguish between fiction and reality from the age of six to seven. This is particularly difficult for children if they identify with the aggressive character and the more realistic the depictions of violence are. On the one hand, there is a social learning process with television - children learn new behaviors here. On the other hand, there is a desensitization to violence, i. This means that repeated confrontation with media violence reduces the emotional susceptibility to scenes containing violence. A loss of reality can also be recorded. Violence is shown as a legitimate means on the side of the "good guys" and children now see violence as justified. The picture of the world is distorted.

In the 1960s, field studies found a link between television violence and aggressive behavior. However, no causal (causal) conclusion can yet be drawn from a connection. The effect can be described as follows: Children who consume a lot of violence on television behave more aggressively than children who rarely watch television. However, it cannot be concluded that watching violence on television causes aggressive behavior. Different variables, so-called third variables, could be both the cause of the uncontrolled consumption of violence and the aggressive behavior, e.g. B. lack of parental supervision, or low social status. Aggressive children also tend to choose a violent television program. So one can assume a mutually influencing process. Violence makes children more aggressive (socialization hypothesis), and more aggressive children are more likely to watch violence (selection hypothesis).

Explanatory approaches and motives for the use of media violence

There are different explanations for the consumption of media violence and media horror. Kunczik and Zipfel summarize the current state of research on the various approaches in their study manual “Media and Violence”. Since the reasons for and consumption of violent content in the media depends on the recipient, the following approaches cannot exclusively explain the use of violent content, but complement one another.

Aesthetic function

This approach assumes that media depictions of violence fulfill an aesthetic function. It is assumed that scenes of violence are perceived as pleasant sensory impressions regardless of the context through noises, movements and colors. However, the thesis has not been proven empirically.

Evolutionary approaches

In the context of this approach, it is assumed that the attraction of the new and unusual is the reason for the consumption of media violence. Some authors speak of a “morbid curiosity” about danger, injury and death. Other authors blame voyeurism or the unusual violation of social norms in everyday life as a motive for the consumption of violent media content.

Mood management

Mood management theory assumes that the use and selection of media content serves to regulate mood. In this context, the consumption of media violence can be used to increase a level of arousal that is too low and thus contribute to achieving an optimal level of arousal.

Excitation transfer

The excitation transfer theory is related to the mood management theory also developed by Dolf Zillmann. It is based on the assumption that states of arousal increase the intensity of feelings that are not related to the actual stimulus. Accordingly, a state of increased excitement caused by media depictions of violence can lead to the relief of the outcome of the fear-inducing situation being perceived more intensely.

Disposition theory

The disposition theory is based on the assumption that media content is reacted to in the same way as to events in reality. When consuming media content, viewers build up sympathies and antipathies for the protagonists. If unsympathetic protagonists experience violence, this is perceived positively by the audience, as this is perceived, for example, as a “just punishment”.

Sensation seeking

According to the sensation-seeking approach developed by Marvin Zuckermann, there are individuals who have a strong tendency to search for new, more intense and risky stimuli and experiences. Consuming violent media content can serve to achieve the optimal level of arousal and thus leads to a gratification. The connection between sensation seeking and consumption of media violence has not yet been scientifically proven.

Group membership and identity formation

Further approaches to the motives for consuming media violence can be subordinated to the terms group membership and identity formation. They are based on the importance of peer groups and relate primarily to young people. Accordingly, on the one hand, the consumption of violent films satisfies the need for group membership. Knowledge shows courage and the content can be discussed. On the other hand, the joint consumption of violent content increases the sense of community.

Coping with fear and lust for fear

Coping with fear or the lust for fear is discussed as a further motive for using the media to depict violence. Schachter, for example, found that television can be used as an instrument to reduce anxiety.

Aggressive predisposition

The connection between aggressive personality and consumption of media violence has been confirmed in various studies. The recipient's aggressive predisposition can thus be used to consume media violence. However, it could not be determined whether the consumption of media violence favors an aggressive attitude or vice versa. It is therefore assumed that both factors interact.

Framework conditions (Germany)

Legal basis In Germany , access to works that depict violence is formally restricted by the Youth Protection Act if there is a possibility that the development of a child or adolescent can be influenced by depictions of violence. This is justified with Article 2 of the Basic Law (GG). By 2003, this was implemented in such a way that the Federal Examination Board for Writings Harmful to Young People (BPjS) had to decide whether a work depicting violence is harmful to young people and whether it should be indexed as a result . Since 2003, it is mainly the entertainment software self-control , USK for short, that has had to decide on the suitability of children and young people in the form of an age system.

In the form of § 131 StGB ( representation of violence ) there is another regulation that regulates the representation and distribution of media that depict inhuman acts of violence against people or human-like beings, and in particular their disclosure to minors. In the event of a violation, there is a risk of imprisonment for up to one year.

In addition, Section 184a of the Criminal Code ( violent pornography ) prohibits the distribution of any pornographic representation of violent activities. Violation is punishable by imprisonment for up to three years or a fine.

Legal changes

In 1992 the Federal Constitutional Court ruled in the case of the horror film Tanz der Teufel that Section 131 of the Criminal Code only regulates the glorification of violence or the minimization of violence in the case of violence against people, but not in the case of violence against non-human beings (e.g. zombies ). This legal situation changed with an amendment to the paragraph in 2003, which has since also included human-like beings.

Social changes

The values ​​change over time. In 1984 the BPjS classified the game River Raid as harmful to young people and therefore indexed it. In 2002 it was removed from the index after a renewed examination and approved by the USK for all age groups.

This different assessment of the representation of violence in computer games shows the dependence on prevailing values ​​in the respective society. While in the USA depictions of violence in computer games are protected by freedom of expression in the broadest sense, there is controversy as to whether implied or explicitly portrayed sexual acts lead to brutality and moral degradation , while this plays a far less important role in the German discussion than depictions of violence.

Problems

One problem with trying to effectively limit the circulation of illegal , violence-glorifying titles is the Internet. Some young people use file sharing networks to illegally download games from the Internet. Often there is also indexed material among them. Thus, indexes or bans generally only have their full effect on those people who do not have access to high-speed internet connections or these file-sharing sites or who cannot use untranslated versions of games due to a lack of foreign language skills. The English versions are also increasingly being used, as many game manufacturers self-censor their products for the German market in order to prevent indexing. It even goes so far that sometimes there is only one multilingual and one German version. It is also possible to obtain uncensored versions by purchasing from overseas providers. There are patches on the Internet that reverse the German censorship of some games. Due to the special international situation in Germany, some products were not even released on the local market.

Current state of research

In media impact research, there are various theoretical approaches about the effects of violence in media on human behavior:

  • The theory of inhibition : Depictions of violence in the media can generate fear and thereby inhibit the willingness to aggression.
  • The stimulation theory : depictions of violence can promote the willingness to be aggressive.
  • The habitualization theory : According to this theory, violence in the media can have a dulling and habituating effect.
  • The catharsis theory : Depictions of violence in the media can relieve tension and reduce the willingness to use violence.

All four theories are only theoretical approaches of how violence in the media can affect people . However, these effects can only be observed individually; Generally valid statements or proofs for or against a theory are not possible.

It has not been scientifically proven that computer games always have the same, constant negative influence or any influence at all on the consumer. Meanwhile, there is a third, far more complex approach, namely that the effects of violence in computer games depend on the consuming individual and his / her social situation. This thesis postulates that a familial and social, i.e. H. amicably bound person, who is ideally also satisfied with their job, training or school, is much more likely to benefit from the entertainment value of a computer game than an isolated, dissatisfied player who is more likely to enjoy the brutality aspect of a game.

But even if there are many different theses, claims and assumptions, it would be premature to conclude that there is no research corpus that is condensing in one direction. In the scientific context, there is no such thing as “definitive definitive evidence” per se. At any point in time, however, the research work that has existed up to that point can be summarized in meta-analyzes .

Meta-analyzes

The results of some current meta-analyzes show a positive connection between the consumption of violent computer games and real aggression. The size of the positive association varies from meta-analysis to meta-analysis. The size of the relationship found in current meta-analyzes ranges from “weakly positive” to “very strongly positive”. Some analyzes come to the conclusion that the aggression increased by computer games quickly flattens off again and therefore has no lasting impact on the consumer.

Meta-analyzes that contradict this, such as that of Christopher Ferguson, also provide a very contradictory overall picture. In summary, Ferguson sums up in the journal Psychiatric Quarterly about a meta study he carried out, which is based on the results of many available primary studies, that there is no relationship between video games and aggressive behavior. He goes on to translate: “It is not difficult to establish a connection between violence in games and reality if you want to. Finally, 98.7% of young adults play computer games to some extent. On the basis of an almost universal behavior, however, it is difficult to draw conclusions about rare behavior. "

Another meta-analysis, which dealt with the noticeably strongly divergent results of the scientific articles, found methodological deficiencies in many studies. The researchers fear that the agendas of conservative and left-wing circles will unite in a “perfect storm” of political opportunism and that many of these studies will be conducted on the basis of ideological or political dogmas.

Germany

psychology

Manfred Spitzer advocates in his book Beware of the Screen! the following thesis: “Due to the screen media, there will be around 40,000 deaths in Germany in 2020 from heart attacks, brain attacks, lung cancer and long-term effects of diabetes; In addition, there are several hundred additional murders, several thousand additional rapes and several tens of thousands of additional violent crimes against people ". He is also of the opinion that reports of the positive effects of computer games did not stand up to critical evaluation. Rather, he assumes that violence is practiced more actively in computer games than in passive television viewing.

Ingrid Möller from the Institute for Psychology in Potsdam came to the following conclusion: "Players with an aggressive tendency like to play aggressive games, and aggressive games increase the aggressiveness of the players."

Psychologists from the Ludwig Maximilians University in Munich and the Allianz Center for Technology found that the more intensely racing games are consumed, the more frequently the test persons reported behavior that was harmful to safety in traffic. But those who preferred more neutral games tended to drive more cautiously in traffic.

Bert T. te Wildt, a specialist in psychiatry and psychotherapy, comes to the following statement: “Many computer gamers defend themselves against being denigrated as potential violent criminals. In fact, not every gamer becomes a killer right away. But there are types who are particularly at risk - this is shown by a study by the Institute for Clinical Psychiatry and Psychotherapy at the Hannover Medical School ”.

Psychologists and educationalists around Günter Huber from the University of Tübingen interviewed 650 secondary school students from Bavaria in a two-year study. The study comes to the conclusion: Children and adolescents who consume a lot of violent media are prone to violence themselves. As a consequence of the study, the scientists are calling for “a ban on extremely violent video and computer games at the political level”. At the same time, however, Huber also warns against demonizing computer games and making them solely responsible for the aggressive behavior of young people: “It is much more important that the existing laws are complied with and that only people who are old enough to get the games get their hands on them . "

The psychologist Julia Kneer from the University of Cologne explained her latest findings after a conference of empirically working psychologists at the University of Jena : First of all, it should be noted that the previous studies seem very contradictory and therefore did not allow any clear statements. According to the researchers, such games can cause a certain potential for violence, but at the same time Kneer made it clear that the games are not the factor that causes the violence to be lived out. "For example, violence takes frustration, which comes first," says Kneer. Nor does she see any direct correlation between the consumption of violent games and rampages in recent years: "The gunmen had these games at home, but which 18-year-old didn't?"

During her experimental investigations with regular players and non-players of violent games, Julia Kneer found that "the duration of play has no effect on the willingness to be aggressive" . Frequent gamers would not associate these games with violence, but rather the joy of playing. Not so with the non-players. Since they built up certain aggressions before the experiment, because they also associate it with games, they also showed an increased reaction to aggressive stimuli after the experiment. The researchers attribute this fact to the "negative media influence" .

Neuroscience

Christina Regenbogen and Thorsten Fehr from the University of Bremen found in investigations of the brain activity of 22 male test persons that different regions of the brain are stressed during real violence and violence in games. According to the researchers, game scenes tended to stimulate parts of the cerebrum. Real brutality, on the other hand, tended to stimulate the limbic system . Based on this, Thorsten Fehr comes to the following conclusion: "The result is a strong argument against the assumption that fictional and real scenes overlap with frequent use of violent games on the computer."

Jurisprudence

Christian Pfeiffer , former director of the Criminological Research Institute Lower Saxony (KFN), comes to the following conclusions in his work:

Through a survey of a total of 23,000 children and adolescents between the ages of ten and 15, Pfeiffer came to the conclusion that their most important leisure activities are television and computer games. He says they have a bad influence. Computer games had a particularly negative impact. “The more brutal the content and the more often the content is played, the worse the school performance. The only fleetingly stored school knowledge is displaced by the pictures of the games. ” According to Pfeiffer, an increased propensity for violence among young people is based on this fact: Even in fourth graders who can call their own television, the teasing and hitting of classmates increases significantly. Game console owners have even doubled their risk of violence. Pfeiffer continues: “The highest risk of violent behavior is with the students who have all the devices in their room - that is, television, games consoles and computers.” His conclusion: “A society that lets games like this on the market is sick. A state that plays along undermines its moral credibility. "

In another study by the Criminological Research Institute of Lower Saxony (KFN) published in May 2007, this time on the age ratings of 62 computer games by the USK , Pfeiffer comes to another damning verdict. According to this, the age rating is set too low in 37% of the titles, and in a further 27% it is at least doubtful. Although this study was classified as dubious by many critics, as the result was declared as proven in advance, some politicians are calling for a ban on the production and distribution of computer games, a separate offense in the criminal code and significantly increased penalties as a consequence.

The KFN study, which followed in February 2008, attempted once again to underline the connection between higher media consumption and poorer school performance assumed by the institute by placing the previous results in direct connection with the PISA study . The key message: the groups of students who did poorly in PISA are also those with the highest media consumption.

The Technical University of Darmstadt tried to create a profile based on data from seven people who ran amok in Germany . Accordingly, all of the perpetrators showed an interest in violent media, but only four of them regularly played violent video games.

Media studies

Helga Theunert, scientific director of the Institute for Media and Pedagogy in Munich, said in an interview on the connection between virtual violence and actual aggression: “Regarding computer games, it has to be said that the studies that are available are anything but comprehensive Above all, aspects that I consider to be crucial are missing. ” In relation to games with a militaristic ambience, she also said that potential risks cannot be dismissed out of hand.

The Federal Highway Research Institute has commissioned a study to find out whether the problematic handling of traffic rules in racing games poses real dangers for road safety. Christoph Klimmen , media scientist at the University of Hanover, analyzed 54 games, interviewed over 1000 players and carried out experiments. His conclusion is: “We did not find any connections between the consumption of racing games and risky driving styles.” Kl htt is one of the few German researchers who has been dealing with the phenomenon of computer games for a long time. About the gunman from Emsdetten, Klektiven says: "He obviously had a number of social and psychological <sic!> Problems." But it would not occur to him to attribute the crime to his passion for computer games.

Various researchers from different disciplines are critically examining the effects of violent computer games on attitudes, social behavior and school performance in children and adolescents. The university lecturer and social worker Elke Ostbomk-Fischer from the Cologne University of Applied Sciences comes to a very critical assessment:

“Killer games” are special forms of computer games that are designed to undermine the basic consensus of a humane society. One of the essential characteristics of “killer games” is that the players are encouraged to “individually or collectively perceive other people as opponents or enemies, to make these people contemptible, to humiliate, torture and kill them, and to destroy their livelihoods . "

However, some media educators also have a positive opinion on video games. They assume that video games are by no means the cause of violence and anti-social behavior, but are even educationally valuable and make people more intelligent. Among other things, they use the study by the Munich Institute for Media Education JFF. These examined 30 popular video games - including Counter-Strike , for example - for their potential to promote skills. Their result: Each of these games covered at least one of their educational criteria, but mostly several at the same time: moral judgment, perception and attention, sensorimotor coordination, analytical and creative thinking, emotional self-control and critical self-reflection. Their conclusion: “Normal” games often even have a higher educational potential than specialized learning software, because: “Sufficient motivational potential can be considered a general prerequisite for promoting competence.” The media educator Christian Swertz: “Of course, a list of 15 additions can be included prepare a fight against the bad ice king more amusing than in the math exercise book. The game character is lost. It would be much more effective to develop games with educational content that don't come across as a disguised test, but as a real game. ” Furthermore, according to these proponents, the investigation of the gaming community also showed that even the most eager players have an intact circle of friends and whole show normal, real social contacts: “The common cliché of socially lonely computer kids finds no equivalent in empirical reality.”
A (non-representative) pilot project carried out by media educators at seven different schools supports their thesis and very obviously indicated it that the games promote social communication during the learning process and thus have a significant educational potential.

Media impact research goes through cycles in which the same debate is always held. In the eighties, for example, it was about splatter horror films , now it's about killer games - but no thesis about their allegedly devastating effect is considered to be anywhere near certain. A famous meta-analysis at the time showed: “There is a study for every opinion” ( Rolf Nohr, Braunschweig Institute for Media Research ).

According to the media and violence study by the German government , a connection between the willingness to use violence and the use of computer games has not yet been clearly proven. According to the study by the Ministry of Family Affairs, the violent content of many games gives cause for concern and leads to more negative effects than television consumption. However, the research situation is not sufficient for unambiguous statements.

The Society for Consumer Research explains: The largest group of buyers of video games are therefore not young people, as is often assumed, but over 70% adults. On the German game market, 25-30% of the players are under 19 years old, while 20% are between 20 and 30 years old and 50% are over the age of 30.

About long-term effects and physiological effects it was stated: “We have arguments for short-term effects of violent games - about the same as a horror film has, namely increased physiological arousal. It is precisely this effect that is aimed at with film and games. A long-term effect, even an increase in the propensity for violence, has never been empirically proven "( Jörg Müller-Lietzkow, communication scientist at the University of Jena )

In the course of a study by the Freie Universität Berlin, the following statement was made: "We found that violent computer games do not make children more aggressive, but that aggressive children tend to violent computer games." ( Caroline Oppl, Freie Universität Berlin )

International

psychology

There is also disagreement on this topic in international research. For example, B. Massachusetts General Hospital (the medical part of Harvard University) - funded by the US Department of Justice - 1,254 young people aged 12-14. Two thirds of the boys and over a quarter of the girls stated that they had played at least one game approved for ages 17 and over "very often in the last six months". As a reason for this, the scientists confirmed an old argument of the eSports scene: “In contrast to the cliché of the individual gamer without social skills, we found that children who use M-rated games are more likely to play in groups - either in the same room or via the Internet ” . Cheryl Olson, head of the study, "Boys' friendships are especially often about video games," said . She also speaks out clearly against bans: "The use of violent games is so widespread and juvenile delinquency is on the decline, so that most of the young people who play these games occasionally are doing quite well."

In contrast, scientists from Purdue University West Lafayette hold their findings that scenes of violence in computer games promote antisocial behavior. In one test, after playing such a game, students tended to take advantage of others and behave in an unfriendly manner. In contrast, the researchers could not observe such a trend in their colleagues who had played the same game without scenes of violence. As a possible reason, the scientists cite patterns of aggression stored in the memory, which undermine the motivation for social behavior.

The Australian scientist Grant Devilly of the Swinburne University of Technology discovered in his studies with violent video games that the behavior of test subjects can be predicted with a 73 percent probability based on their current state of health and general temperament. The vast majority of the subjects showed no changes in their anger expression after playing, 18% had an increased anger level, 6% a decreased one.

And the English child psychologist Penny Holland from London Metropolitan University finally confirms what many parents fear: children, especially boys, will always play with weapons, no matter what schools or kindergartens try to do about it. She is convinced that boys who were not allowed to play pirate, soldier or superhero in their childhood are more likely to be aggressive in adulthood and later live out the “bad boy image”.

In their 2008 book, Grand Theft Childhood , Cheryl K. Olson and Lawrence Kutner of the Center for Mental Health and Media at Harvard Medical School criticize numerous previous studies on violence in video games. Many of the most widely propagated studies were conducted in abstract and unrealistic situations and with unrepresentative test subjects, which makes the results at least questionable.

In addition, as a result of our own study, it was stated that children from 12 to 14 years of age in particular do not perceive video games and their characters as individuals and the game as a reflection of reality. A title from the controversial Grand Theft Auto series served as a test game . As Olson and Kutner ultimately concluded, the unreality and abstractness of the game is even a factor that children and gamers in general find particularly attractive.

A team of scientists from Huddersfield University (Great Britain) carried out a study in 2009 to determine the aggressiveness of gamers when playing computer games. The test persons had to play a 3D table tennis simulation, a racing game ( Project Gotham Racing ) and a violent first person shooter, whereby the aggression was determined using various cognitive and physiological measurement methods. Surprisingly, the racing game caused the most aggression, and the table tennis game also caused more aggression than the first person shooter.

In 2010, psychologists Patrick M. Markey ( Villanova University ) and Charlotte N. Markey ( Rutgers University ) published an article in the Review of General Psychology where they came to the following conclusion: “Current research suggests that the claim that the Playing violent computer games would inevitably lead to all or even most of the people being more aggressive, not occupied. Instead, it is apparently crucial to take a closer look at several parts of the player's personality in order to be able to decide whether he will be adversely affected by the violence in the game. "

In 2014, a new joint study by the Universities of Oxford and Rochester brings new aspects to the discussion. Accordingly, not only the content, but also the game mechanics are of great importance. Regardless of whether it is a violent action game or an ordinary game of skill, the following applies: the more unfair and frustrating the game mechanics for the players, the more aggressive they become. “Video gamers have a psychological need to always be first. If players are slowed down by the controls or the game mechanics, it makes them more aggressive, ” summarizes the social scientist Andrew Przybylski.

Jurisprudence

International law also deals with this topic. Thirty-three researchers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , University of California (Los Angeles), Columbia University and the University of London expressed concern that a court was “based on common but false beliefs about a proven causal link between violence in the world Entertainment and violent behavior supports to defend a censorship law ”. The relationships between entertainment media and behavior are complex and multi-layered, so that a simple causal relationship can hardly be assumed. In general, media impact research was unable to provide any evidence that depictions of violence are only a risk factor for real violent behavior. In reality, for example, in the last decade, while computer games depicting violence have become popular, there has been a decline in youth violence.

Experts on the British Board of Film Classification found that games (even if gamers would often appear to non-gamers as if they were playing out of the real world) appear to have less emotional impact than films or TV shows. BBFC Director David Cooke said: “The interactivity element carries some weight when we examine a video game. We were particularly interested to see that this research suggests that it is far from having a potentially negative impact on the player's reaction. The very fact that they have to interact with the game seems to anchor them more firmly in reality. "

A current study (2009) by the behavioral psychologist and criminologist Christopher Ferguson (see section Meta-analyzes ) also found that the influence of peers, anti-social personality traits, depression and parents who exercise psychological violence in their relationships lead to real violence being able to lead. Violent computer games and television films as well as the type of neighborhood or origin, on the other hand, are not triggers.

Social science

Karen Sternheimer, a sociologist at the University of Southern California, began studying the effects of computer games in 1999 after the Columbine rampage. She found that in the last ten years, in which many of the so-called "killer games" came on the market, the rate of juveniles imprisoned for murder has fallen by 77 percent. In addition, the probability of being killed in school is 7 in 10 million. In her opinion, one should shed some light on the backgrounds of the young people instead of just looking at what they are playing. One must include family violence and other factors in the investigation, instead of just blaming the games. This hypothesis is increasingly being verified by current studies and always implies the demand for new political framework conditions to increase media literacy among parents, educators and young people themselves, in order to create a suitable environment for the young players on the one hand and the To provide the means to sound out the media offers and to evaluate them accordingly.

Jonathan Freedman of the Department of Psychology at Toronto University examined all studies published in English on violence and the media several years ago. His conclusion at the time: the majority of studies work with evidence that was contradicting or even contradicting the claim that real violence was caused by depictions of violence in the media.

When asked why unscientific studies as well as populist politicians assign the blame to the video games, the report comes to the conclusion that only the perpetrators as well as the social environment are excused: “When boys from good areas engage in violence, they seem to be To be a completely new generation of young people who have only been shaped by video games and not by social circumstances ... Murderers with white, middle-class origins keep their status as children who can be easily influenced by a game and are victims of an allegedly dangerous product. ”This approach has been increasingly taken up by various studies in Germany since 2005 and so both the Potsdam study and a study at the Helmut Schmidt University come to the conclusion that there is a correlation between aggressive behavior and violent computer games, but due to the bidirectional causality no statements about origin u nd consequence can be taken.

Cultural studies

In his book "MTV: Swinging On A (Postmodern) Star", Lawrence Grossberg speaks about the possibility of how scientific knowledge (often also in the area of ​​"violence in the media") can be misused and falsified:

“[...] the academic debates show how easy it is to find empirical support for many interpretations of the world; Isolating one aspect of reality, abstracting it from its concrete context and ignoring its specific essence, one can easily find 'evidence' with its absolute power to define and interpret the world. "

Dennis Bockholt with his book “Media Viruses in the Head of Our Youth”, as well as Jürgen Fritz and Wolfgang Fehr with their “Handbook Media” criticize the unrestricted transfer of behavioral theses from television research to interactive computer games. So it applies z. B., according to the authors, to re-examine the catharsist thesis clearly refuted for television research with regard to computer games.

Neuroscience

Indiana University shares the opinion of the critics. Violent games stimulate the areas of the brain for feelings and reduce the reactions in the zones where logical thinking and self-control are located. For the study, a team of researchers from the University of Indiana examined 44 adolescents between the ages of 13 and 17 years without any behavioral problems. Half of the group played the main character in an extremely brutal fight in a half-hour game, the other half played a challenging, non-violent game. In the first group, increased emotional arousal was measured; in the second group, the part of the brain that is responsible for concentration and self-control was stimulated.

In its study, the Radiological Society of North America also came to the conclusion that certain violent games temporarily get stuck in the brain in a very different way than non-violent games. These violent games briefly stimulate special areas of the brain that are responsible for emotional arousal, at the same time they reduce activities in regions of self-control. Although the study does not make a general assessment of violent games, it expressly points to the increased emotional excitement of the test subjects.

controversy

The main focus of the controversy is on two points. On the one hand, how the depictions of violence in the media affect the personal development of children and young people, on the other hand, how depictions of violence in the media are related to real violence.

Since this topic is very polarizing, there are correspondingly extreme opinions. On the one hand, there are advocates of depictions of violence who demand complete approval, since there are no negative effects, and on the other hand there are critics who demand the general ban on such works and want to punish possession as a criminal offense, as such works increasingly lead to rampage and lead to rape . Rarely are statements that defend computer games with depictions of violence as an entertainment medium for adults, but at the same time point to the risk potential for children and young people that cannot be ruled out and demand stricter controls and regulations than are currently taking place.

General

The evaluation of violence in computer games depends to a large extent on one's own values. Therefore, arguments or studies often only appear to be based on scientific observations, but are actually intended to prescribe a certain ethical value. The most common arguments and viewpoints encountered in this discussion:

  • A position that is relatively seldom encountered is the requirement to do without elements of violence in principle . The problem here is that it would have to be extended to other media as well. In this context, it remains to be clarified whether the portrayal of violence or the content of violence are problematic. Should the criticism concentrate on the content of violence , the general question arises as to how violence is dealt with in culture and the media ; if the focus is on the representation of violence , the question arises of comparing unrealistic game graphics with violence in film and television that cannot be visually differentiated from reality . In order to eliminate the resulting discrepancy, criticism is often linked to the interactivity of computer games. The underlying idea is that through active control, an identification with the violent or commanding figure takes place, which is not possible with passive consumption or which turns out to be significantly less. A possible counter-argument is that this is precisely why the use of force can be subjectively controlled by the player. At present there are no studies that compare the degree of identification with game protagonists with that of, for example, film heroes.

While critics often see violence as the end of a game, advocates see it as a means . There is a chance that the goals of attention while gaming may differ significantly from those when viewing a movie.

  • The sporting dimension of playing is often pointed out, which includes hand-eye coordination and tactical thinking and responsiveness. However, this would also be possible in games with completely abstract “violence” (e.g. shooting at three-dimensionally moving targets with variable action and reaction). Indeed, it is common in e-sports reduces the graphic on an abstracted view -Wettkämpfen to better track, computing power (eg. As in enabling and concentration on the game III Arena Quake usual). In general, however, there is also always a desire for a realistic or graphically complex game display.
  • Multiplayer games like Counter-Strike , in which the focus is on interaction within your own group and with the opposing team, have a significant social dimension . The ability to work in a team, communication and compliance with rules are decisive prerequisites for success in a game. This can also into real life ( real life are worn), for example by organizing communities meetings or by attending LAN parties . Critics counter this by stating that the social components could also develop in corresponding games without any display of violence.
  • Although computer games depicting violence are produced for an adult audience and the majority of players are of legal age, such games are also played by young people who are in a crucial development phase. Negative effects and long-term effects are controversial.
  • Some authors compare the current criticism of computer games in general, and especially so-called " killer games ", with the attacks against new forms of media in the last few decades against the background of the prevailing moral concepts. These were directed against the novel, television in general (in the 50s), cartoons (in the 70s), video films (in the 80s), jazz , beat music , rock music and comics . Similar to today's catchphrase “killer games”, polemic new creations were created back then, for example jazz was mocked as “ negro music ” in the 1930s . It was regularly assumed that the consumption of the respective medium would inevitably lead to lasting damage to the consumers concerned, and the discussion here often ran along the respective generation boundaries. Most of these media are now accepted by society as a whole and some are perceived as art forms.

In connection with rampages

Since the advent of computer games, the representation of violence in computer games has been controversial. The main issue here is whether and to what extent a player can be positively or negatively influenced by the depiction of violence in a computer game. To the public discussion passes through the so-called by their opponents "killer games" again after shootings of young people in schools such as the Columbine High School massacre , the Erfurt massacre , the killing spree of Emsdetten or the Winnenden school shooting . Similar arguments are repeatedly exchanged:

  • A causal connection between computer games as a trigger for shooters contradicts the fact that rampages have not only existed since the availability of such games. There have been rampages throughout the history of civilization, and numerous documented examples date back to before electronic media became available.
  • It should be noted that war and fighting games are not a modern invention, but conversely, a large number of traditional games have a fighting basis. Computer games such as Counter-Strike have structural similarities to previously popular trapping and fighting games such as robbers and gendarmes . The audio-visual representation of the interactive acts of killing, newly added by technology, relates directly to the representation of violence in established media such as film and competes with them. "The depiction of violence in computer games did not come out of nowhere," said media scientist Mathias Mertens.
  • Media reports often have to put up with the accusation of conveying falsified or invented representations of the game content. Among other things, an article in the FAZ on April 28, 2002 with the title “Software for the Massacre”, which contained numerous misinformation, much of which is still in circulation, was influential .
  • Shootings are very rare compared to other juvenile crimes. However, stricter laws passed as a result of these spectacular individual cases affect the freedom of choice for millions of people. In comparison, deaths due to deliberate violations of the law in road traffic (speed, alcohol, ...) are widespread, but enjoy a certain tolerance, especially in value-conservative circles.
  • The widespread use of these games diminishes their relevance to the acts of gunmen who have also played them. The American documentary film director and writer Michael Moore criticized the fact that the Columbine massacre was almost exclusively explained by the fact that the two perpetrators had heard the music of Marilyn Manson . Based on the fact that they would have been bowling before the act, he asked whether it might not make just as much sense to hold bowling responsible for the act. The title of the film Bowling for Columbine is derived from this - in reality, however, the perpetrators skipped the bowling course.
  • High levels of television and computer use can also be a sign of neglect or social isolation. In such a case, computer games would only be the visible symptom of deeper-lying social deficits. The conflicts and human situations portrayed in the violent media can, however, enter into an unholy alliance with the isolation of the viewer, as the obviously “re-enactment” character of some rampages suggests.
  • In addition to the superficial similarities between the actions during a rampage and a computer game, there are also significant differences: the perpetrator must be able to handle a real weapon, there must be a motivation to kill and the natural inhibition threshold must be exceeded. Whether computer games reduce this inhibition threshold and increase familiarity with real weapons is controversial. However, they are not a substitute for practical experience and exercise with real weapons, but rather train specific conflict situations and behavior models.
  • The connection between the phenomena is difficult to test experimentally, as conventional tests in particular do not adequately simulate the long-term influence or are limited by ethical guidelines.
  • There is disagreement as to whether an actual training effect exists for real life. While some compare the effect with that of a flight simulator, others point out the fundamental difference between a keyboard or mouse and an actual weapon. A training effect in which a correspondingly inclined observer trains to construct and interpret his environment in a certain way has also not been sufficiently investigated so far.

See also

Computer games
Movies
Print media
Legal texts
people
  • Dave Grossman - American ex-military, a non-academic discussion of the subject

literature

Web links

Wiktionary: Violence game  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Videos

Individual evidence

  1. Krahé, B. "The social psychology of aggression". Hove: Psychology Press. (2013)
  2. Coie, JD & Dodge, KA (1998)
  3. Michael Kunczik, Astrid Zipfel: violence and media. A study manual. Cologne 2006.
  4. Kunczik & Zipfel 2006, p. 75.
  5. See Kunczik et al. 2006: 61f.
  6. Valkenburg & Cantor 2000: 247, quoted in n. Kunczik & Zipfel 2006, p. 63
  7. See Kucznik et al. 2006, p. 63
  8. See Kunczik & Zipfel 2006, p. 64
  9. See Kunczik & Zipfel 2006, p. 64f.
  10. See Kunczik & Zipfel 2006, p. 65
  11. See Kunczik & Zipfel 2006, pp. 66f.
  12. Kunczik & Zipfel 2006, p. 69
  13. Schachter 1959, p. 26, cit. n. Kunczik & Zipfel 2006, p. 70
  14. See Kunczik & Zipfel 2006, pp. 74f.
  15. Art. 2 Paragraph 1 “Everyone has the right to the free development of his personality […]” , Paragraph 2 “Everyone has the right to life and physical integrity. [...] " .
  16. cf. New study refutes the link between violence in games and real aggression
  17. cf. Meta-analysis uncovers no real link between violence and gaming
  18. cf. Psychiatric Quarterly
  19. ^ Peter Mühlbauer: Politics and Ideology in Studies on Violence and the Media. In: Heise online . March 19, 2009 . Retrieved December 8, 2016.
  20. Manfred Spitzer: Beware of the screen! ( Memento of September 8, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 84 kB)
  21. Europolitan: After Emsdetten: Does a ban on killer games stop the rampage? as well as violent games increase aggression, in: SZ, December 6, 2006.
  22. Süddeutsche Zeitung: Have you rushed today?
  23. Page no longer available , search in web archives: SWR: Who makes virtual violence violent?@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.swr.de
  24. uni-tuebingen.de: Violence in the media and youth readiness to use violence. ( Memento from March 12, 2010 in the Internet Archive )
  25. pressetext.at: General demonization of killer games wrong
  26. magnus.de: Study: No scientific proof of aggressiveness through killer games. ( Memento from April 11, 2009 in the Internet Archive )
  27. Focus Online: For gamers, violence isn't always a game, June 30, 2008, 11:16 am
  28. FAZ: Peter-Philipp Schmitt: Violence in the Children's Room , June 13, 2006.
  29. Net-Tribune: USK doubts the seriousness of the killer game study , May 12, 2007 ( memento of July 7, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) and study: PISA losers due to too much media consumption, February 15, 2008 .
  30. TU Darmstadt: "Clear risk characteristics for all shooters"
  31. http://www.dradio.de/dkultur/sendung/kulturinterview/439571/
  32. Handelsblatt: Top students do not play "killer games"
  33. ^ EV "Media violence - international research and advice" .
  34. Dipl.-Soz. Ped. Elke Ostbomk-Fischer . Website of the Cologne University of Applied Sciences, Faculty for Applied Social Sciences
  35. Elke Ostbomk Fischer (2008). In: conversational psychotherapy and person-centered counseling. Issue 1/2008 ( Memento from January 4, 2014 in the Internet Archive )
  36. profil.at: Games make you smart: New studies show that computer games make you more intelligent
  37. a b Christian Stöcker: Spiegel: Rohrkrepierer against shooting games
  38. Spiegel: Scientists doubt a total ban
  39. ↑ Killer Games - what is it? Humanistic press service
  40. ZDNet: Study: "Killer Games" not responsible for rampages
  41. cf. US study: All teenagers play - and girls too, GTA
  42. More exploitation after violent games? On: Wissenschaft.de from February 26, 2005.
  43. Andreas Wilkens: Study: Computer games have hardly any influence on aggressiveness in many children. In: Heise online . April 5, 2007 . Retrieved December 8, 2016.
  44. WinFuture: Study: killer games for most children safe , Michael Thistle Mountain, 4 April 2007 ; Retrieved December 8, 2016 .
  45. cf. Toy guns for kids? ( Memento from October 6, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
  46. Grand Theft Childhood?
  47. cf. Interview: Cheryl K. Olson co-author of Grand Theft Childhood
  48. cf. Spiegel Online: "Not playing is a sign of a lack of social skills"
  49. Eurogamer: Racing games cause most aggression
  50. Vulnerability to Violent Video Games: A Review and Integration of Personality Research (PDF; 310 kB)
  51. http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/106/3/499/
  52. http://www.golem.de/news/videospiele-inkompetenz-macht-player-wuetend-1404-105807.html
  53. Florian Rötzer: Children need depictions of violence. In: Heise online . September 27, 2002 . Retrieved December 8, 2016.
  54. cf. Emotional influence with movies higher than with games
  55. cf. Archive link ( Memento of October 7, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Full text to: A Multivariate Analysis of Youth Violence and Aggression: The Influence of Family, Peers, Depression, and Media Violence. In: Journal of Pedeatrics.
  56. cf. Violent videogames don't make killers: study
  57. cf. [Bockholt, Dennis (2008): “Medial viruses” in the mind of our youth? Study on the connection between computer games and violence. S. 147 ISBN 978-3-89783-626-6 Roderer Verlag, Regensburg.]
  58. cf. Analysis: “Killer Games” not to blame for youth violence  ( page no longer available , search in web archivesInfo: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / de.theinquirer.net  
  59. cf. [Bockholt, Dennis (2008): “Medial viruses” in the mind of our youth? Study on the connection between computer games and violence. ISBN 978-3-89783-626-6 Roderer Verlag, Regensburg.]
  60. cf. Fantasy and Reality ( Memento from October 31, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
  61. cf. [Bockholt, Dennis (2008): “Medial viruses” in the mind of our youth? Study on the connection between computer games and violence. ISBN 978-3-89783-626-6 Roderer Verlag, Regensburg.]
  62. cf. [Fritz, Jürgen / Fehr, Wolfgang (1999): Handbook Media: Computer Games. Theory, research, practice. Federal Agency for Civic Education, Bonn.]
  63. cf. Brutal games make it “illogical”  ( page can no longer be accessed , search in web archivesInfo: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.networld.at  
  64. See how porn by Markus C. Schulte von Drach , article in sueddeutsche.de
  65. Roland Seim , Between Media Freedom and Censorship Intervention. A media and legal sociological investigation of the influence of censors on West German popular culture, Telos, 1997, ISBN 3-933060-00-1
  66. ^ Polylux - Killerspiele ( Memento from May 2, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) - Interview with Tilman Baumgärtner, media journalist
  67. cf. Roland Seim, Josef Spiegel, “Only for Adults”. Rock and pop music: censored, discussed, suppressed, Telos Verlag 2004, ISBN 3-933060-16-8 , as well as Reto Wehrli, Verteufelter Heavy Metal. Scandals and Censorship in Modern Music History, Telos, 2005, ISBN 3-933060-15-X
  68. cf. Roland Seim, Josef Spiegel, The annotated illustrated book on “From 18” - censored, discussed, suppressed. Censorship in German cultural history, Telos Verlag, 2nd improved new edition, 2001, ISBN 3-933060-05-2
  69. cf. Arne Hoffmann, Das Lexikon der Tabubrüche, Schwarzkopf & Schwarzkopf, 2003, ISBN 3-89602-517-1 , and Roland Seim, Josef Spiegel, 'From 18' - censored, discussed, suppressed. Examples from the cultural history of the Federal Republic of Germany, Telos Verlag, 3rd, revised. Edition, May 2002, ISBN 3-933060-01-X and Stephan Buchloh, Pervers, harmful to minors, subversive: censorship in the Adenauer era as a mirror of the social climate. Frankfurt / Main et al .: Campus-Verl., 2002. 488 pp. ISBN 3-593-37061-1 (Berlin, Freie Univ., Dissertation 1999)
  70. http://www.bpb.de/themen/72C5C9,0,Die_ewig_neuen_Neuen_Medien.html