Jewish cemeteries under National Socialism

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Fragments of broken tombstones, Remuh Cemetery Krakau-Kazimierz (2010)

Jewish cemeteries were evidence of Jewish life that the Nazi regime and the Jews themselves sought to destroy. What was largely carried out in synagogues and other institutions of Jewish communities could not be realized in this way in the funeral sector. Vandalized and with gravestones cleared and stored in the meantime , many cemeteries in 1945 on the territory of Germany were still in existence within the borders of 1937 . Therefore they form the largest group of Jewish cultural monuments in Germany today . Outside the Old Reich, the Nazi state was able to destroy Jewish cemeteries far more extensively.

The appearance of a Jewish cemetery includes: enclosure, buildings, paths, graves, gravestones and vegetation. The intact enclosure is of particular importance for Jewish cemeteries because on the one hand it ensures the intactness of the graves (Jewish graves are not laid out for a certain period of time, but for a long period of time), and on the other hand the graves are considered a place of dead impurity, clear of the world of the living is delimited. In this context, there is also a washing facility in Jewish cemeteries in order to carry out ritual cleansing ( Netilat Jadajim ) after visiting the cemetery . The ensemble of a Jewish cemetery also includes the Tahara House , in which the corpse is prepared for burial, sometimes combined with a funeral hall. A horticultural design of the complex, including with trees, has been common in many places since the 19th century.

The high surrounding wall and the location, often a little outside of localities, made Jewish cemeteries suitable locations for the Holocaust from the perpetrator's point of view . Executions (shootings) can be carried out in cemeteries, as can corpses.

Altreich

Old Jewish cemetery in Wroclaw with park-like grounds (2010)
Leipzig: Gravestones moved from the First Jewish Cemetery to the New Israelite Cemetery (2015)
Frankfurt, Battonnstraße: Group of undestroyed gravestones (2006)

The right of funeral belonged to the “normative state continuum”, which originated before 1933 and remained in force; it was state law and there was equal treatment of Jewish and other cemeteries in this field. This made it impossible for the Nazi regime to come up with a Reich-wide regulation that would have justified the removal of the Jewish cemeteries in the Old Reich. “The Jewish Germans living and remaining in the 'Altreich' were exposed to increasing pressure of discrimination, disenfranchisement and persecution and were ultimately deported to certain death. The resting places of the Jews who died and were buried in Germany, however, were treated by the authorities until the end of the war ... mostly in accordance with current administrative law . "

An example of a cemetery desecration in the first years of Nazi rule is known from Oldenburg : According to the police report, nine tombstones were "knocked over" on the night of May 28, 1935 in the Jewish cemetery in Easterburg . After investigations into the Easter castle gendarmerie location, five service men from the SA relief camp in Blankenburg were possible perpetrators . However, the perpetrators could not be identified from among the group of around 300 men.

As National Socialists, local politicians often undertook attempts to remove the cemeteries in their municipal area, as they were an "eyesore", which the population could not be expected to see. However, these were mostly unsuccessful, with exceptions: The mayor of Königswinter had been very active in closing the local Jewish cemetery since 1934, which the district president finally approved. The case of the Jewish cemetery in Ottensen is well documented : the Altona building authorities tried in various ways to bring about the closure of the cemetery, but failed. Then a new situation arose through the Greater Hamburg Law ; Altona now belonged to Hamburg, and a special regulation applicable to Berlin was transferred to the “Führerstadt” Hamburg in 1939, according to which the police chief could order the closure of cemeteries for urban planning reasons. This created a special right for the destruction of Jewish cemeteries in Berlin and Hamburg. B. for the Jewish cemetery Ottensen meant that it was de-dedicated and built over with a bunker in 1941/42 .

In the 1940s the Jewish population was so reduced by the persecution that one could justify the closure of cemeteries with the argument that they were no longer needed. However, that did not change much in that a rest period of 40 years after the closure had to be observed. Here the situation developed differently from region to region, because some cities and municipalities nevertheless enforced the deedication and closure of closed cemeteries. In Leipzig and Frankfurt am Main, rubble dumping areas were set up on the site of two historical Jewish cemeteries where no more burials took place:

  • The Jewish cemetery in Leipzig's Johannistal , occupied from 1814 to 1864, had long been a thorn in the side of Nazi residents. Mayor Rudolf Haake used a trip abroad by Lord Mayor Carl Goerdeler to create facts: he had the Mendelssohn-Bartholdy monument (1936) demolished and successfully applied for the termination of the lease on June 30, 1937. A commissioned by the Jewish community a legal opinion that declared the long-term lease non-cancellable did not change anything. The Jewish community was forced to transfer the bones to a collective grave in the New Israelite Cemetery. 17 selected, culturally and historically valuable gravestones were erected there, all of the others were smashed and used as grave foundations.
  • In Frankfurt am Main, the cemetery on Battonnstrasse , which had been used from around 1270 to 1828, was closed; the Nazi city government ordered the destruction of around 6,500 historical gravestones. 175 historically or artistically valuable gravestones were excluded and deposited in the cemetery on Rat-Beil-Straße. In the bombing war , the mechanical destruction of the gravestones had to be stopped and rubble was dumped on the cemetery grounds. 2,500 tombstones were preserved in this way.

Another historical cemetery that was destroyed in this phase was the old Jewish cemetery in Fulda (Rabanusstraße), where burials took place from 1685 to 1906. On January 17, 1939, the Fuldaer Zeitung read: “The last tombstone has now been put down. The stones were prepared on the spot so that they can be used for other purposes. ... It would be desirable that the removal of the stones could now also be accelerated so that the spacious square as a green area soon becomes an ornament of the city center. "

In February 1939, the draft of a new Reichsfriedhofsgesetz (Reichsfriedhofsgesetz) was presented, which made the cemetery system completely subordinate to the state and gave the municipalities far-reaching options for closing denominational cemeteries. That would have been the end of the Jewish cemeteries, but when the war broke out, the Nazi regime wanted to avoid unrest in the Christian communities and therefore postponed this legislative project. The Jewish cemeteries remained in existence, but were desecrated in various ways, first through direct damage, which occurred more frequently since 1938, and then from 1942 through actions as part of the “Reichsmetallspende”, which offered a pretext, grids and other metal objects from Jewish people Remove cemeteries. SA men and Hitler Youth took the opportunity to smash stone tombs.

In the course of 1942, the “ Aryanization ” gave the municipalities the opportunity to take direct action against the Jewish cemeteries. The Jewish communities were incorporated into the Reich Association of Jews in Germany , which formally became the owner of the cemeteries; In 1942 the Reich Security Main Office instructed the Reich Association to offer the cemeteries across Germany to the municipalities for sale. This happened. Since the Reich Security Main Office expected the cemeteries to be removed soon, the “ Reich Institute for the History of the New Germany ” came on the scene, which not only wanted to photograph the tombstones but also exhume the deceased in order to carry out “skull and other bone measurements” . In the cover letter to the communes, it says: “This genealogical and anthropological material should now be scientifically recorded in the interest of researching the Jewish question and thus the knowledge of the main enemy of our people, which is repeatedly identified in the Fiihrer's speeches, before the abandonment of Jewish cemeteries will be destroyed and lost. ”On August 3, 1943, the assets of the Reichsvereinigung were placed under the administration of the Reich Ministry of Finance, which now acted as the seller of the cemeteries to the municipalities willing to buy. In a decree of January 8, 1944, the Reich Finance Minister ordered the cemeteries to be offered for sale again to the municipalities, but the land and the gravestones (which the municipalities were not interested in). The explanation was as follows: “The grave monuments on the burial site are also sold, although they still belong to the Jews if their property has not been confiscated or has expired. According to previous experience, claims by the owners are not to be expected… ”This clause caused irritation among the mayors because it was clear that the Jewish owners had been murdered in most cases and the meaning of this clause was therefore incomprehensible. The solution was found in a legal detail: The tombs had to be kept, yes, but they did not have to remain in their place as “independent items”. A legal opinion by the German Municipal Association explained that it is sufficient to store the tombstones “somewhere” for a few years: “Then, if a Jew wants the tombstone, it could be handed over. However, it is not to be expected that such an application will ever be made. ”This paved the way for the municipalities at the beginning of 1945 to acquire the cemeteries, clear the tombstones and redeploy the property. But so shortly before the end of the war there was often no more time.

Funerals took place in the Old Jewish Cemetery in Breslau until 1942; after that it was closed. It is a large area: around 12,000 graves (current state) on an area of ​​4.6 hectares. During the battles for Wroclaw (February to May 1945) the cemetery became a battlefield and suffered severe damage.

To the extent that persecuted Jews were pushed out of public life, large cemeteries could gain additional importance, as contemporary witnesses described it for Wroclaw: the cemetery as a place for family reunions, walks with friends, even (in the unused part of the cemetery) as a children's playground. On the sometimes long way there, one was exposed to anti-Semitic hostility from passers-by, but accepted this because staying in the cemetery was a kind of relaxation from everyday life. A meadow in the Old Jewish Cemetery in Leipzig (Berliner Straße) served Jewish children as a playground until 1944, as they were not allowed to use public playgrounds.

Austria

Israelitischer Friedhof Deutschkreutz; in the foreground the old gravestones that are no longer assigned to any grave site (2012)
Mattersburg Jewish Cemetery. In place of the destroyed tombstones, concrete steles were placed (2012)

The Israelites Act of 1890 in conjunction with the law on the transition and incorporation of clubs, organizations and associations of May 17, 1938, resulted in the following typical sequence: In a first phase, the Nazi authorities dealt with Jewish cemeteries in Austria (from March 1938) party and national comrades as well as SA units desecrated a cemetery. The Gestapo or party officials then confiscated the property. Further acts of vandalism followed in connection with the November pogroms of 1938. The property was then transferred to non-Jewish buyers. The cemeteries should be completely "cleared", which was followed by hygienic considerations and the question of recycling the tombstones. Hans Kummerlöwe , director of the Natural History Museum Vienna , expressed interest in anthropological material from the graves. The Central Office for Monument Protection briefly dealt with the gravestones, but then found that they were not interesting from their perspective. Only the cemeteries Wien-Seegasse , Eisenstadt and Mattersburg were classified as worthy of monuments.

In Vienna, the Jewish cemetery in Währing was partially destroyed during construction work on an air raid shelter , while the Natural History Museum Vienna had exhumations carried out on another part for the purpose of “ racial science ”, thus desecrating around 200 graves; The Council of Elders of the Jews of Vienna had another 150 graves exhumed in a rescue measure and the deceased buried in the central cemetery. The Arthur-Schnitzler-Hof was built on the site in the post-war period . Up until the 1980s, stones from Vienna's oldest Jewish cemetery on Seegasse were stored in the new Jewish section of the Vienna Central Cemetery . They were buried here as part of a rescue operation in 1943, when the Vienna City Council had the Seegasse cemetery cleared in order to turn it into a playground for a public school.

In 1941, the municipality of Mattersburg wanted the site of the historic Jewish cemetery to be converted into a public park. The prehistorian Richard Pittioni planned to use this opportunity to exhume all the skeletons and have them brought to the Natural History Museum in Vienna. The ancient orientalist Viktor Christian , who visited Mattersburg, was skeptical, however, because not enough space could be given to store the skeletons, nor could experts deal with their investigation. Whether corpses were actually exhumed in Mattersburg cannot be proven; the sources only mention the processing of Jewish gravestones by local stonemasons. The cemetery was completely destroyed, the old tombstones cleared to use them to build anti- tank barriers against the advancing Red Army . Many of these tombstones are said to have been installed as flooring in private houses. Similarly, the tombstones of the Jewish cemetery in Deutschkreutz were used for anti-tank barriers, but also for the construction of the terrace of Nikitsch Castle . In Burgenland , a stonemason company operated a trade in stolen Jewish gravestones; only a small part of these stones could be identified after the end of the war.

Reichsgau Sudetenland, Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

Tombstone fragments on the cemetery wall, Úsov (2014)

In these territories around 30 cemeteries were completely destroyed under the Nazi regime, most of them in the Sudetenland . About 40 other cemeteries were deliberately devastated. The fact that Jewish cemeteries in Bohemia and Moravia are relatively well preserved compared to those in other areas occupied by Nazi Germany is probably due to the activities of the Central Jewish Museum in Prague, which was set up by the SS and promoted an interest in the “museumization of Jewish culture” . This anti-Semitically motivated collection activity reduced the acts of vandalism against cemeteries.

For example, in Prostějov (Moravia, then Czechoslovakia), a destroyed cemetery, on which there were gravestones in 1924, was discovered. It was created in 1801. The graves were desecrated by the Nazis around 1943. Many of the tombstones were smashed and used for construction work. When a team of researchers discovered that an entire back yard of a house in Prostějov was paved with around 50 large tombstone blocks. During the war the tombstones were given free of charge. After the war, the cemetery was used as a sports field. It was an amusement park for a while in the 1950s. Today it is a public park. So far, around 150 tombstones have been found.

The following cemeteries were devastated by the National Socialists:

  • Chodová Planá / Kuttenplan: New cemetery from 1890.
  • Dlouhá Ves / Altlangendorf: cemetery from the 18th century.
  • Dobříš : cemetery from the 17th century.
  • Láznĕ Kynžvart / Königswart: The medieval Königswart cemetery with graves from the 16th century was almost completely destroyed and the tombstones were used to build roads.
  • Mariánské Lázné / Marienbad: New cemetery from 1875. The perpetrators in this case were Sudeten German SA men who also set the Great Synagogue on fire during the November pogroms in 1938 .
  • Rokytnice v Orlických Horách / Rokitnitz in the Eagle Mountains: cemetery from 1718.
  • Rožmberk nad Vltavou / Rosenberg on the Vltava: Cemetery from the 18th century. Many gravestones were overturned here by young people in 1939.
  • Tachov / Tachau: Old Jewish cemetery from the early 17th century. Here was the grave of Rabbi Nachum Sofer, who died in 1815 and was visited by Orthodox Jews from all over the world. Already devastated during the November pogroms, the cemetery later became one of the largest mass graves in Bohemia: the bodies of more than 600 concentration camp inmates were burned on the cemetery grounds and their ashes were buried here.
  • Úsov / Mährisch-Aussee: cemetery from the 17th century.

The cemetery of Osoblaha / Hotzenplotz, which was laid out in the 14th century with grave monuments from the 17th century, was badly damaged by fighting in 1945, but has been preserved as a cultural monument.

Reichsgau Wartheland and Generalgouvernement Warsaw

As part of a historical project “Obecnie Nieobecni” ( currently absent in Polish ), a list of 500 areas in Poland that previously served as Jewish cemeteries was drawn up. Many of them are now schoolyards, parks, streets, buildings or parking lots. Even after the war, the Jewish tombstones were used as building material for streets and buildings. "Transparent tombstones" ( Mazewot ) with Hebrew inscriptions, which are deliberately ghostly-looking, made of Plexiglas, are temporarily set up in the places of the former cemeteries, are intended to symbolize the decline of this type of holy place in Poland. They are used for photo documentation. In Łódź and the surrounding area alone , 30 destroyed cemeteries were identified.

Destruction of cemeteries and tombstones

Found tombstone fragments from the old Jewish cemetery in Kalisz (2011)
Tombstone fragments in Lviv (2012)

The Warthegau can be described as an "experimental field of National Socialist racial policy" (Michael Alberti). The destruction affected synagogues, cemeteries and other Jewish institutions alike. Most of the cemeteries were devastated or leveled. The civil administration often used the tombstones for road construction (e.g. in Inowrocław / Hohensalza). Kalisz / Kalisch had one of the oldest Jewish cemeteries in Europe; the city council had him plowed over. Soil, tombstones and bones were then used to fill in a canal. In Lwówek / Neustadt, the city administration made the vandalized Jewish cemetery part of the city park. At the Remuh cemetery in Kraków-Kazimierz, which was laid out in the 16th century and is now a tourist destination, an installation (“Wailing Wall”) was created in the post-war period from the tombstones that were smashed into pieces for road construction.

Julian Scherner , SS and Police Leader for the Kraków District , arranged for a forced labor camp to be built south of Kraków's old town in the Płaszów district at the end of 1942 ; Two Jewish cemeteries were included in this area. Around 1500 to 2000 residents of the Podgórze ghetto were forced to work in Płaszów as "barracks building command". A particularly stressful aspect of this heavy and humiliating work was that they had to smash tombstones from the old Jewish cemetery in order to use them to build a road. Excavators leveled the old cemetery, continually exposing bones and coffins. Jewish forced laborers had to exhume the bodies. Then she built barracks on the area.

Walter Panzer was the land commissioner in Tomaszów Lubelski . After the ghetto there was liquidated, he had a street paved with Jewish gravestones.

In Lviv / Lemberg there was a historical Jewish cemetery in the area surrounded by Rappaport Street, Kleparowska Street, Browarna Street and Szpitalna Street. The tombstones, some of which date from the 14th century, were completely cleared away under the Nazi occupation, smashed into chunks and then distributed throughout the city as building material. (Some of these broken tombstones with Hebrew script are now in the garden of the hospital on Rappaport-Straße, where they were deposited, as it were, returned by strangers.)

Cemeteries in ghettos

When the Warsaw Ghetto was destroyed, the cemetery remained. Here a fountain donated in 1907 for hand washing (2012)

Michał Zylberberg noted in his diary that the Jewish cemetery in the Warsaw ghetto was frequently visited by German soldiers, especially on Sundays. Groups of soldiers viewed burials, inspected the morgue and “photographed the dead in a good mood.” Germans were later prohibited from entering the ghetto cemetery. On May 8, 1942, Emanuel Ringelblum wrote: “Allegedly it's about hygiene, but in truth it's about something else. Many Germans come to the cemetery and look at the famous shed, in which heaps of dead lie every day ... candidates for the mass graves. During these visits there were repeated discussions among the Germans themselves. […] It became clear that these excursions had a fatal effect on the visitors, and that is why they have been abolished. "

In Łódź / Litzmannstadt part of the old Jewish cemetery was included in the area of ​​the ghetto established in 1940. Paradoxically, the cemetery of the Litzmannstadt ghetto , the scene of the killing of many people, as well as the cemetery in the Warsaw ghetto, remained until the end of the war, while the communities that had maintained the cemeteries became victims of the Holocaust. At the end of the uprising in the Warsaw Ghetto (May 15, 1943), the German occupiers blew up the cemetery synagogue there .

The residents of the Zduńska Wola ghetto were rounded up on August 24, 1942 in the local Jewish cemetery, where numerous executions had previously taken place. They were detained there for two days in order to make a selection of those who were fit for work or those unable to work. SS and police forces, the local Gestapo and the protection police were involved in this major action.

Cemeteries as places of execution

Tarnów Jewish Cemetery (2011)

Executions of Jews were carried out several times in Jewish cemeteries. This series of murders began on the so-called Blood Sunday in Stanislau (October 12, 1941, the Jewish holiday Hoschana Rabba ). The scene of the crime was the new cemetery in the Zagwozdzieckie district, surrounded by a high wall, where numerous onlookers had gathered to watch the slaughter: members of the Wehrmacht, railway workers and police officers. Two deep pits had already been dug here the day before. Firing squads (security police and members of the police battalion) killed 10,000 to 12,000 people on the cemetery grounds in the course of one day. As the shootings began, panic broke out among the waiting Jews. Hundreds of people crowded to the cemetery gate, trampling many people to death. Since it was a hazy, cloudy day, darkness set in quite early. SS-Obersturmführer Hans Krüger , who personally led the operation, had trucks drive up to illuminate the cemetery with their headlights. However, this turned out to be ineffective, and so either Krüger himself or Friedrich Katzmann ended the action and declared: “Those who are still alive can go home, the Führer has given you your life.” The following day members of the police battalion searched the cemetery Injured and shot them. The cemetery was then visited by onlookers who discovered that the mass graves had only been superficially covered with earth.

The head of the border police commissioner had more than 300 Jews imprisoned as (alleged) communists shot on April 28, 1942 in the Jewish cemetery in Neu Sandez .

During the “evacuation” of the Jewish population from Tarnów on June 11, 1942, frail and sick people were brought to the Jewish cemetery in groups and shot there by members of the Waffen SS ; On the following days, too, the cemetery was one of several places of execution for around 10,000 people classified as unable to work.

On August 3, 1942, a security police detachment from Stanislau sent by Krüger, led by Rudolf Müller, drove almost 2,000 people to the Dolyna Jewish cemetery and shot them there.

The Jewish cemetery in Stanislau was again the scene of executions in September 1942. As part of Aktion 1005 , a commando under the direction of Walter Schallock arrived there in the winter of 1942/43 , which initially surrounded the cemetery with privacy screens. The corpses were exhumed and burned on large piles of wood. Schallock decided to make the cemetery the central cremation site, as there was no risk of starting a forest fire here. Trucks with corpses arrived here from all over the area.

The so-called Purim action took place in Tomaszów Mazowiecki , Szydlowiec and Kielce : In the days around the Purim festival on March 21, 1943, police officers in Kielce drove under the head of the police station, Captain Hans Gaier , with one exception, the Jewish doctors with theirs Families under the pretense that they were coming to work abroad in motor vehicles to the Jewish cemetery. The police shot the Jews there. It is assumed that there were 50 victims in total.

Reichskommissariate Ostland and Ukraine

Memorial stone in the old Jewish cemetery in Eišiškės (2011)

On June 23, 1941, German troops reached Eišiškės , a predominantly Jewish village. Eišiškės is one of the oldest Jewish settlements in Eastern Europe. On September 21, Lithuanian aid troops captured over 3,500 people here, who were executed in several places over the following days, one of which was the cemetery. The perpetrators were "white armbands", police officers and drunken young men from the area who acted under the direction of an SS special command.

On July 3, 1941, a group from the Tilsit Task Force , headed by Hans Joachim Böhme, appeared in the small town of Jurbarkas near the German-Lithuanian border. The town's Jewish cemetery was agreed with the mayor as the place of execution and pits were prepared. Local nationalists had prepared lists of names of Soviet activists and Jews with whom the arrests were made. 370 people were brought to the cemetery in a column, driven into the pits and killed with pistol shots. The firing squad then celebrated the action in a restaurant with the money that had been taken from the victims.

On July 4, 1941, members of Einsatzgruppe A , headed by Commander Walter Stahlecker, devastated the Old Jewish Cemetery in Riga. There were wooden buildings (prayer and death house) and a mourning hall built in 1903. Members of the task force locked the cemetery employees and their families as well as a few random victims, a total of around 50 people, in the cemetery buildings and set them on fire. During the existence of the Riga ghetto, the cemetery wall or the cemetery area was the usual place for shootings, which ghetto commander Kurt Krause carried out personally.

Pranas Lukys, chief of the Lithuanian security police in the small town of Kretinga, ordered the executions in the Jewish cemetery in Kretinga , during which "white armbands" murdered a total of 356 people in July and August 1941.

In August 1943, forced laborers had to remove tombstones and metal grills from a nearby Jewish cemetery to use them to build the 10 x 10 m pyre on which the bodies of the Babyn Yar massacre were cremated. Jewish cemeteries in Minsk , Novogrudok , Waloschyn , Radun , Braslau and Dolginowo used Nazi perpetrators as places of execution for the Jewish population; these mass graves are now marked by monuments.

On 26./27. November 1941, members of Einsatzkommando 8 shot about 3,000 Jewish residents of Orsha at the old Jewish cemetery there, which after this initial act was the place of execution for transferred civilians. As part of Aktion 1005 , the Sonderkommando 7b troop opened the mass grave in June 1944. Under the thunder of cannons on the approaching front, 1,700 bodies were exhumed, searched for valuables and burned before Orsha was liberated by the Red Army on June 26 ( Operation Bagration ).

Greece

Two tombstones from the Old Jewish Cemetery, exhibition in the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki (2013)

The Old Jewish Cemetery of Thessaloniki was considered the largest Jewish cemetery in Europe at the end of the 19th century. It had an area of ​​over 35 hectares and existed since the arrival of Sephardic Jews who had been expelled from Spain in 1492 . Already after the great fire of 1917 there were plans to remove all old inner-city cemeteries in order to create a modern university campus and a city park in their place. Little of that was implemented. On April 9, 1941, the Wehrmacht arrived in Thessaloniki, and after an on-site visit on December 6, 1941, the city administration had the historical gravestones removed. Among other things, they were used to line a Wehrmacht swimming pool. Many tombstones were used in church building projects. An example of this is the renovation of the Agios Dimitrios Basilica. The cemetery area remained fallow until the end of the war, on which tombstone fragments and human bones lay scattered. In Thessaloniki, the German occupation set the framework within which the Greek city administration implemented a long-planned project. Today the cemetery area belongs to the campus of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki . In 2012, 668 fragments of Jewish gravestones were found on a property in Thessaloniki after 70 years of searching for more remains of graves.

literature

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Tina Walzer: Jewish cemeteries: place of worship, place of remembrance, memorial . Böhlau, Vienna / Cologne / Weimar 2011, p. 35 f.
  2. ^ Andreas Wirsching: Jüdische Friedhöfe in Deutschland 1933–1957 , 2002, p. 2 f.
  3. ^ Andreas Wirsching: Jüdische Friedhöfe in Deutschland 1933–1957 , 2002, p. 4.
  4. ↑ The old Jewish cemetery Oldenburg - desecrations . Retrieved January 16, 2020.
  5. ^ Andreas Wirsching: Jüdische Friedhöfe in Deutschland 1933–1957 , 2002, p. 10.
  6. ^ Andreas Wirsching: Jüdische Friedhöfe in Deutschland 1933–1957 , 2002, p. 7 f.
  7. ↑ Andreas Wirsching: Jüdische Friedhöfe in Deutschland 1933–1957 , 2002, p. 12.
  8. ↑ Monika Gibas, Petra Knöller, Steffen Held: "Aryanization" in Leipzig. Repressed. Deprived. Murdered . In: Volker Rodekamp (Ed.): Traces of Jewish Life in Leipzig , Leipzig 2007, pp. 25–58, here p. 43 ( PDF ).
  9. ^ Vile network, Ulm University, database of Jewish cemeteries in Germany and neighboring countries: The cemeteries of Frankfurt .
  10. ^ Jewish Museum Frankfurt : Old Jewish Cemetery on Battonnstrasse .
  11. ^ Klaus-Dieter Alicke: Lexicon of the Jewish communities in the German-speaking area (online version): Art. Fulda (Hessen) .
  12. ^ Andreas Wirsching: Jüdische Friedhöfe in Deutschland 1933–1957 , 2002, p. 18.
  13. ^ Andreas Wirsching: Jüdische Friedhöfe in Deutschland 1933–1957 , 2002, p. 19.
  14. ↑ Based on the “Ordinance on the Use of Jewish Property” of December 3, 1938.
  15. ↑ Quoted from: Andreas Wirsching: Jüdische Friedhöfe in Deutschland 1933–1957 , 2002, p. 23.
  16. ↑ Quoted from: Andreas Wirsching: Jüdische Friedhöfe in Deutschland 1933–1957 , 2002, p. 23.
  17. ↑ Quoted from: Andreas Wirsching: Jüdische Friedhöfe in Deutschland 1933–1957 , 2002, p. 30.
  18. ^ Vile network, Ulm University, database of Jewish cemeteries in Germany and neighboring countries: The Jewish cemeteries in Breslau .
  19. ↑ Arvi Sepp, Annelies Augustyns: Breslau in German-Jewish testimonials. Shrinking spaces, self-localization and self-preservation strategies in the “Third Reich” . In: Winfried Süß, Malte Thießen (ed.): Cities in National Socialism: Urban Spaces and Social Orders (= Contributions to the History of National Socialism . Volume 33), Wallstein, Göttingen 2017, p. 89-104, here pp. 100-102.
  20. ^ Vile network, Ulm University, database of Jewish cemeteries in Germany and neighboring countries: Leipzig. The old Jewish cemetery .
  21. ↑ Gerald Lamprecht: “In this way, a beautiful house for an old Nazi would be created from a Jewish place of worship.” Organizational and exemplary information on the deprivation of property in Styria . In: Margit Franz (Hrsg.): Mapping contemporary history: Zeitgeschichten im Discurs. Böhlau, Vienna / Cologne / Weimar 2008, pp. 351–384, here p. 374 f.
  22. ↑ a b Tina Walzer: Jewish cemeteries: place of worship, place of remembrance, memorial . Böhlau, Vienna / Cologne / Weimar 2011, p. 44 f.
  23. ^ Dirk Rupnow: Breaks and Continuities - From Nazi Jewish Research to Post-War Judaism . In: Mitchell G. Ash, Wolfram Nieß, Ramon Pilshier (eds.): Humanities in National Socialism: The example of the University of Vienna . V&R unipress, Göttingen 2010, pp. 79–110, here p. 96 f.
  24. ↑ Petr Ehl, Arno Pařík, Jiří Fiedler: Old Jewish cemeteries in Bohemia and Moravia . Praseka, Prague 1991, p. 19.
  25. ↑ Tina Walzer: Jewish cemeteries: place of worship, place of remembrance, memorial . Böhlau, Vienna / Cologne / Weimar 2011, p. 59 f.
  26. ↑ Lost Jewish cemetery destroyed by Nazis being restored , CBS News, December 1, 2015. Retrieved January 15, 2020
  27. ↑ Petr Ehl, Arno Pařík, Jiří Fiedler: Old Jewish cemeteries in Bohemia and Moravia . Praseka, Prague 1991, p. 150 ff.
  28. ^ A b Klaus-Dieter Alicke: Lexicon of Jewish communities in the German-speaking area (online version): Art. Marienbad (Bohemia) .
  29. ^ Klaus-Dieter Alicke: Lexicon of the Jewish communities in the German-speaking area (online version): Art. Rosenberg / Moldau (Bohemia) .
  30. ↑ Klaus-Dieter Alicke: Lexicon of the Jewish communities in the German-speaking area (online version): Art. Tachau (Bohemia) .
  31. ↑ Transparent gravestones serve as ghostly reminders of lost world of Jewish cemeteries , The First News, January 5, 2020. Retrieved January 15, 2020. (English)
  32. ^ Michael Alberti: The persecution and extermination of the Jews in Reichsgau Wartheland 1939-1945 . Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2016, p. 121 f.
  33. ^ Vile network, Ulm University, database of Jewish cemeteries in Germany and neighboring countries: Die Friedhöfe in Krakau .
  34. ↑ Christina Heiduck: The Płaszów camp in Kraków and its dislocated memory . In: Jörg Ganzenmüller, Raphael Utz (ed.): Places of the Shoah in Poland: memorials between memorial and museum . Böhlau, Cologne / Weimar / Vienna 2016, pp. 199–218, here p. 199 f.
  35. ^ Bogdan Musial: German civil administration and the persecution of Jews in the Generalgouvernement: a case study on the Lublin district 1939-1944 . Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2000, p. 328.
  36. ^ University of Augsburg, Faculty of Philosophy and History: Remembrance and the Present - Jewish Places in Lviv .
  37. ^ Virtual shtetl: Old Jewish cemetery in Lemberg .
  38. ↑ Quoted from: Klaus-Peter Friedrich (Ed.): Poland: Generalgouvernement August 1941–1945 (= The persecution and murder of European Jews by National Socialist Germany 1933–1945 . Volume 9). Oldenbourg, Munich 2014, p. 17.
  39. ↑ Quoted from: Klaus-Peter Friedrich (Ed.): Poland: Generalgouvernement August 1941–1945 (= The persecution and murder of European Jews by National Socialist Germany 1933–1945 . Volume 9). Oldenbourg, Munich 2014, p. 273.
  40. ^ Michael Alberti: The persecution and extermination of the Jews in Reichsgau Wartheland 1939-1945 . Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2016, p. 156.
  41. ↑ Wolfgang Curilla: The murder of Jews in Poland and the German order police 1939-1945 . Schöningh, Paderborn 2011, p. 167 f.
  42. ↑ Dieter Pohl: National Socialist Persecution of Jews in East Galicia 1941–1944 (= Studies on Contemporary History . Volume 50). Oldenbourg, 2nd edition Munich 1997, pp. 145–147, quotation p. 146.
  43. ↑ Wolfgang Curilla: The murder of Jews in Poland and the German order police 1939-1945 . Schöningh, Paderborn 2011, p. 340.
  44. ↑ Wolfgang Curilla: The murder of Jews in Poland and the German order police 1939-1945 . Schöningh, Paderborn 2011, p. 369 f.
  45. ↑ The wrought iron cemetery gate was donated to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum after the cemetery was repaired. See Wrought iron gates and related parts from the Jewish cemetery in Tarnow, Poland .
  46. ↑ Dieter Pohl: National Socialist Persecution of Jews in East Galicia 1941–1944 (= Studies on Contemporary History . Volume 50). Oldenbourg, 2nd edition Munich 1997, p. 226 f.
  47. ↑ Andrej Angrick : "Aktion 1005" - Removal of traces of Nazi mass crimes 1942–1945: A "secret Reich matter" in the area of ​​conflict between the turn of the war and propaganda . Volume 1, Wallstein, 2018, p. 787.
  48. ↑ Wolfgang Curilla: The murder of Jews in Poland and the German order police 1939-1945 . Schöningh, Paderborn 2011, p. 483 f.
  49. ↑ Memorial Sites Europe 1939–1945: Eišiškės .
  50. ↑ Memorial Sites Europe 1939–1945: Jurbarkas .
  51. ↑ a b Volksbund Kriegsgräberfürsorge: Explanations at the Old Jewish Cemetery and the former “Reichsjudenghetto” .
  52. ↑ Memorials Europe 1939–1945: Kretinga .
  53. ↑ Carla Hesse, Thomas W. Laqueur: Bodies Visible and Invisible: The Erasure of the Jewish Cemetery in the Life of Modern Thessaloniki . In: Giorgos Antoniou, A. Dirk Moses (ed.): The Holocaust in Greece , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2018, pp. 327–358, here p. 347.
  54. ^ International Association of Jewish Genealogical Societies: International Jewish Cemetery Project - Belarus .
  55. ↑ Andrej Angrick : "Aktion 1005" - Removal of traces of Nazi mass crimes 1942–1945: A "secret Reich matter" in the area of ​​conflict between the turn of the war and propaganda . Volume 1, Wallstein, 2018, p. 537 f.
  56. ↑ Memorial portal to places of remembrance in Europe: Remembrance of the murdered Jews of Orsha .
  57. ↑ Carla Hesse, Thomas W. Laqueur: Bodies Visible and Invisible: The Erasure of the Jewish Cemetery in the Life of Modern Thessaloniki . In: Giorgos Antoniou, A. Dirk Moses (ed.): The Holocaust in Greece , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2018, pp. 327–358, here pp. 338–342.
  58. ↑ Carla Hesse, Thomas W. Laqueur: Bodies Visible and Invisible: The Erasure of the Jewish Cemetery in the Life of Modern Thessaloniki . In: Giorgos Antoniou, A. Dirk Moses (ed.): The Holocaust in Greece , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2018, pp. 327–358, here p. 345.
  59. ^ Lost tombstones recovered from destroyed Jewish cemetery , Fox News, December 20, 2012. Retrieved January 15, 2020.