Uprising in the Warsaw Ghetto

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The famous photo of the boy from the Warsaw Ghetto , most likely taken during the uprising (April / May 1943)

The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising was an uprising of Jews captured in the Warsaw Ghetto against their deportation to extermination camps , which took place during the German occupation of Poland in World War II .

The insurgents, who were completely inadequately armed, rose up on April 19, 1943 and fought bitter battles with the German occupying forces for several weeks. The uprising was supported by the Jewish Fighting Organization (ŻOB) under the leadership of Mordechaj Anielewicz , the Jewish Military Association (ŻZW) and other organizations. On May 16, 1943, the commander on the German side, Jürgen Stroop , announced the suppression of the uprising; on the same day Stroop had the Great Synagogue blown up.

Suspected insurgents are searched for weapons after they are captured
Members of a police battalion in front of a gate to the embattled ghetto

prehistory

On September 28, 1939, the Polish capital Warsaw capitulated in the face of the German attack . High-ranking politicians from various parties had already fled. Most of the Jewish politicians went either to the Soviet Union or to the Baltic States, which were still independent at the time, where they mainly settled in Vilnius , which was also called "Jerusalem of the North" because of its large Jewish community at the time. As a result, the members of the Jewish parties, especially those of the left and the Zionists , lost their leaders. The following parties and organizations went underground: General Jewish Workers' Union (Bund), Poalei Zion , HaSchomer HaTzair , Gordonia , Akiba and Betar . They founded small groups of five to ten members who discussed among themselves or did party work. When most of the leaders of the other parties returned to Warsaw after the German invasion, many initially managed to increase their number of supporters and members.

From October 1939 the occupiers dealt with the Jews in Poland in a similar way as in Germany. Their stores were marked and Jews were mistreated on the street. In addition, exclusionary measures such as Jewish stars were imposed. A so-called Judenrat was set up in 1939 . It was led on German instructions by Adam Czerniaków , who was already active in the Kehilla, the Jewish parliament, before the war. The newly founded council could only work to a limited extent and was hardly able to support charitable institutions. Rather, it was an instrument used by the German occupiers. As early as 1939, the occupiers planned to build a Jewish residential area, known as the ghetto, in Warsaw. The Judenrat member Szmul Zygielbojm , who was also a member of the Bund, organized a demonstration at which he gave a speech. This was one of the first public protests in occupied Poland . The ghetto was only established a year later, on October 15, 1940. About 30% of the residents should live on 2.4% of the area of ​​Warsaw. Various organizations operated in the ghetto, such as the Joint Distribution Committee (JDC), an American aid organization, the Toz for medical aid and the Centos for supporting children. The largest aid organization was the Jewish self-help ( Żytos). During this time, more and more self-protection groups were founded or expanded, such as Tsukunft-Shturm or Swit . An armed uprising was not yet on the agenda at this time; more than 550,000 people still lived in the ghetto. The parties and aid organizations tried to contain the risk of typhus and typhus . The soup kitchens were also an important aspect of the resistance work in the first few years. However, this did not change the fact that the majority of the ghetto population was starving - only around 15% of the residents were adequately fed. Many ghetto residents died as a result of starvation . By the end of 1942, 300,000 of the ghetto residents had been deported to extermination camps.

A resident of the Warsaw ghetto holds the body of a starved child in his hands (1942)

From July 22nd, 1942, the big action as part of Aktion Reinhardt started the gradual dissolution of Warsaw's Jewish residential district as part of the so-called “ final solution to the Jewish question ” . More than 6,000 people were transported to extermination camps , primarily Treblinka , every day . As forced labor and death rates increased, political leaders and their supporters slowly began to glimpse what the Nazis had in mind and began taking countermeasures. So all political directions advertised their organizations. In 1941 the Bund was a militia with 500 members, while Swit was a cadre organization. The Zionists, among them the strong socialist groups Dror and Hashomer Hazair , worked closely together. The Communist Party was in the process of rebuilding after the Communist Party of Poland had been liquidated by Stalin . In March 1942 the first non-partisan resistance unit, the Antifascist Front, was formed . It was worn by the Zionist youth groups and the Polish Workers' Party (PPR). The anti-Zionist alliance did not become a member because it distrusted the communists. The two federal leaders, Wiktor Alter and Henryk Erlich , were executed in Soviet captivity in March 1943.

The newly established block of Hechalutz and PPR had a fighting organization with around 500 members, but they had almost no weapons and were not operational. The big deportations began in July and the resistance groups lost almost their entire base. The federal government was hardest hit, losing 90% of its militia. After the end of October 1942, only 50,000 people lived in the Jewish residential area . During the same period, the Jewish fighting organization (ŻOB for Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa ) was founded. The Hashomer Hatzair is due to that they could bring to the table again anti-communist and anti-Bundist groups. The fighting organization was based on the model of the Fareinicy Partisan Organization from Vilnius . In the ŻOB the anti-fascist bloc, that is Hashomer Hazair, Dror, Gordonia, Akiba, Poale Zion and the PPR were represented. The federal government also became a member. For this purpose, two political arms were formed: the National Committee (Żydowski Komitet Narodowy, ŻKN) , which consisted of the old anti-fascist committee, and the coordination committee (Żydowski Komitet Koordynacyjny, ŻKK) , which was supposed to organize cooperation with the federal government.

Members of the coordinating committee were for:

After the loss of many members through deportations, the ŻOB had to accept new members, although unlike the ŻZW it did not accept everyone. In the months that followed, both resistance groups tried to organize weapons. The ŻZW had contacts with Henryk Iwański , a Christian Pole who fought in the Home Army and was one of the few who helped the Jews to obtain weapons. The OB received hardly any weapons from the Home Army and few weapons from the Communist People's Guard . Most of the weapons they had to buy on the black market, using money extorted from collaborators and the Judenrat. During this time collaborators, mostly ghetto police officers, were also executed. With these means the OB tried to gain further respect. They also set up factories for Molotov cocktails , which were used as the main weapon in the ensuing uprising. 1964 were z. B. found 100,000 fuses for Molotov cocktails in the ghetto area.

January 18, 1943

Poster of the ŻOB

The highest German authorities wanted the Warsaw Jewish residential district to be completely dissolved by the end of 1942; this was then postponed until 1943. On January 18, the commander SS-Oberführer Ferdinand von Sammern-Frankenegg marched into the ghetto with at least 1,000 men. However, the ŻOB and the hattenZW had improved their structures and training in the last few months and had refilled their arsenals. The ŻOB had 1,250, mostly young and untrained fighters, and the ŻZW had 150. Since no one reported for deportation, the troops had to continue into the ghetto area. For example, fighters were waiting for them on Gęsia Street and Zamenhof Street, including the leader Mordechaj Anielewicz . The Germans were attacked with partisan tactics until January 22nd. The resistanceists, in whose 50 groups only one in ten had a pistol, were able to drive the soldiers out of the ghetto after four days, but they had lost 80% of their fighters in the process.

Anielewicz stayed alive. Four days later the deportations came to a standstill. As it was clear to the staff of the ŻOB that they could only temporarily prevent the deportations, they prepared intensively for the next clash with the Germans. Many residents also bought weapons and founded so-called “wild groups”. The Home Army now sent a larger shipment of 50 pistols, the ŻOB had almost no rifles. The ŻZW was better looked after by Henryk Iwański, they even had some submachine guns and rifles.

Resistance groups

Mordechaj Anielewicz , leader of Hashomer Hatzair's Warsaw group and significantly involved in the organization and implementation of the ghetto uprising
Mira Fuchrer, Mordechaj Anielewicz's girlfriend

The reduced ghetto area was divided into four combat zones:

  • Central ghetto, directed by: Mordechaj Anielewicz , Michał Rozenfeld, Jochanan Morgenstern, Israel Canal. The combat group leaders were Zacharia Artsein, Ber Braudo, Aron Bryskin, Józef Farber, Mordechai Growas, Leib Gruzalc , Simon Kaufman, Leib Rotblat, Benjamin Wald, Fondamiński, Dawid Hochberg and Henryk Zylberberg.
  • Brush factory area headed by Marek Edelman and Hersz Berliński . The combat group leaders were Jurek Błones and Jakub Praszke.
  • Factory site (productive ghetto), led by Isaac Blaustein, Hersz Kawe, Meir Majerowicz, David Nowodworski, Wolf Rozowski , Joshua Winogron, Adam Szwarcfus and Eliazer Geller.
  • Muranowski Square, which was defended by the ŻZW. They were led by the former officers Abraham Rodła, Arie Rodal, Dawid Apfelbaum and Paweł Frenkiel, and they had a combat group in the other areas.

Motivations

Most of the members of the resistance organizations involved in the uprising had lost their families and many friends. As mostly young people, they lost everything that was personally important to them over the course of a year or two. The experience of the misery and the deadly vegetation of the people in the ghetto caused both a resignation with regard to their own chances of survival and an increase in anger towards the Germans who had forced them into this situation. The way into battle may have sprung from a courage of desperation to show the world that the Jews could fight and did not want to be led like “lambs to the slaughter” without resistance.

weapons

In contrast to the ŻZW, the ŻOB was only poorly equipped. In the uprising, each fighter had only one revolver with 10–15 rounds and a few grenades or Molotov cocktails. They had to buy the weapons for up to five times the price on the black market. The People's Army either wanted or could only deliver a few weapons. Around 2–3 rifles per area were added to the weapons; in the central ghetto there were a machine gun and a submachine gun. The ŻZW owned 21 submachine guns, 8 machine guns and at least 30 rifles from its contacts with the Polish resistance.

The weapons that could be captured by German units were added to these numbers. The estimates for this amount to up to 30 other submachine guns and at least as many rifles.

The riot

Map of the Warsaw Ghetto

Day 1 - Monday April 19, 1943

The ŻZW hoisted a flag (April 19, 1943)

On April 19, 1943, around 3:00 a.m., the Germans began to surround the ghetto. It was the Jewish festival week of Passover , dedicated to the liberation of the Israelites from slavery in Egypt according to the Book of Moses .

At 6:00 a.m., 850 SS men marched into the ghetto, where they were immediately shot at and had to withdraw again. In this first battle they had 12 wounded in their own ranks. The tank that was being carried was set on fire by Molotov cocktails .

From the second advance at 8:00 a.m. Jürgen Stroop was in command on the German side.

The Germans' plan was to split the ghetto into two parts: one column should advance to Muranowski Square, and a second column should reach the intersection of Zamenhof and Gęsia Street. But the ŻOB fighters opposed the Germans on the corner of Gęsia- and Nalewki-Straße. Three groups (Artenstein, Rotblat and Zylberberg) were concentrated there alone. The fighters could move from house to house quickly. They had connected all the houses together, so they were not an easy target. A second battle broke out on Miła Street and Zamenhof Street. There, too, the Germans could not take any further action against the Jews and were thrown back by the combat groups under Gruzalc, Braudo, Bryskin and Growas. From the ŻZW, the groups of Chaim Federbusz, Binsztok and Janek Pika fought in these streets. In the afternoon, the German troops fought against the ŻZW on Muranowski Square. The ŻZW also hoisted a Polish flag and a flag with the Star of David .

At 8:30 p.m. the Germans withdrew from the ghetto.

Day 2 - Tuesday April 20, 1943

The fight continued on the second day, mainly on Muranowski Square, because the Germans really wanted to lower the flags. But the ŻZW fighters were able to defend themselves well because they were taken care of from the other side. They used a tunnel that they had made in the headquarters. The fighting broke out again in the central ghetto, and the productive ghetto under the command of Eliazer Geller was also attacked.

For the first time the Germans tried to penetrate the brush-making area. When 300 Germans were on their way there, a bomb exploded three meters from the gate to the district. Around 80 to 100 soldiers died or were injured. In the following hours, too, the Germans did not succeed in gaining a foothold in the brush-making district; The resistance of the ŻOB was so strong at times that the Germans even asked unsuccessfully with white cloths for a 15-minute armistice. In one of the very few successful actions that supported the fighting ghetto from outside, a unit of the Gwardia Ludowa ( People's Guard ) commanded by the Jewish communist Niuta "Wanda" Tejtelbojm captured a German machine gun nest that the rebels had shot at from the ghetto wall . Eventually the Germans set fire to the brush maker area with flamethrowers, and Stroop ordered the air force attack , which destroyed almost all of the houses.

When it got dark, the Germans withdrew again from the ghetto.

Days 3 and 4

Wednesday 21 and Thursday 22 April 1943

The fighting continued over the next few days. In the productive ghetto, the resistance fighters were able to flee the German soldiers with their weapons and protect many civilians from deportation. The Germans began to systematically use flamethrowers against pockets of resistance. The brush making district was evacuated by the OB after it had been almost completely destroyed the previous day, and five combat groups went to the central ghetto on the night of April 22nd. There the units fought in good shape. Zamenhof Street and Franciszkańska Street were still the hardest contested.

The next 24 days

April 23 to May 16
Disarmed insurgents

After the battle for Muranowski Square had lasted four days, most of the fighters were injured or dead; 20 of them fled the ghetto through the tunnel. The headquarters with the flags were taken and 80 fighters were executed . Many parts of the ghetto have now been set on fire. Anielewicz and his fighters had to find a new headquarters because the old one on Miła Street was destroyed. This technique was also used by the Germans in the productive ghetto.

On April 23, 18 Miła Street became the new headquarters of ŻOB. This meant a change in their tactics: previously the resistance fighters mostly fought in houses and attacked the Germans from an ambush, now they went into about 600 underground bunkers and only started targeted actions because they ran out of ammunition. They also had to change tactics because Jürgen Stroop no longer let his soldiers march in columns. The Germans formed small groups to track down the bunkers. Initially, the fighting continued on April 24th in the Productive Ghetto, where ŻZW and ŻOB fighters were still able to hold out in houses at 21 and 41 Nowolipki Street and 74, 76 and 78 Leszno Street. But many houses were destroyed there too, and the fighters withdrew.

On April 27, there was one of the last major skirmishes: fighters in the productive ghetto attacked SS men who wanted to bring Jews to the Umschlagplatz . Many Germans withdrew and the fighters under Geller liberated hundreds of Jews. Old ŻZW units from the central ghetto and the brush maker district also fought on Muranowski Square. Now a group from the Home Army under Commander Iwański came to help the fighters. At the end of April, the ŻOB decided to flee the ghetto. They could still destroy a few tanks, but they had no lines of retreat. The first 40 resistance members left the ghetto on the same day. On Labor Day , the ŻOB issued an order that as many Germans as possible should be killed that day. A few Germans died that day, and the Internationale was sung in the evening . Since all other larger bunkers were discovered, almost all of the units went to the bunker at 18 Miła Street ; in the end around 500 people lived there. They hoped for help from the other side, because they had sent Simche Rathauser and Zalman Friedrich as messengers to Jitzhak Zukerman, who was to coordinate the work with other organizations. But they couldn't win any other group for it. At the beginning of May the wild groups had become more and more active. They consisted of people who did not want or could not join any organization. As Germans in disguise, they killed several attackers on Leszno Street.

Maximilian von Herff questions two Jewish fighters. Stroop stands in the middle of the back row. The photo was probably taken on May 14 or 15, 1943.

On May 7th, the command bunker at 18 Miła Street was discovered by the Germans and attacked on May 8th. Many people died by suicide , many by gas that the Germans fed into the bunker. The night before, Marek Edelman had fled the bunker with a small group. When help arrived from the other side, all but five or six people were dead. The OOB lost around 80% of its remaining fighters; 120 of them died in the bunker, including Anielewicz with his girlfriend Mira Fuchrer .

On May 10th, in the morning outside the ghetto, Marek Edelman and a group of insurgents who had escaped the German encirclement with their weapons through the sewer system drove away in a truck.

Jitzhak Zuckerman survived on the “Aryan” side of the ghetto wall . Insurgents were hidden in conspiratorial apartments or went into the woods. One of the groups was discovered by the Germans and shot. 140 ŻZWers also fled the ghetto in these days.

On May 16, 1943, Stroop ended the u. By blowing up the Great Synagogue at 8:15 p.m. a. what he called “Ghetto-Großaktion” or “Ghettoaktion” or “Großaktion” military fight against the uprising against the deportations.

More fights, whereabouts of the fighting

A unit under Zacharia Artstein from the ŻOB and Józef Łopata continued to fight and stayed in contact with those who had escaped until June 1943. Other fighters also held out for months, although the fight was officially ended on May 16 by the German side. These fighters often hid for days in order to then target small German patrols. Germans died from ambushes a year after the end of the uprising in the ghetto . Some Jews survived in the ruins of the ghetto until the Warsaw Uprising in August 1944.

After the fighting in the ghetto ended, many fighters went into the woods. Some became partisans , others went to Warsaw and others were killed or betrayed at an early age. Therefore, the circle of ghetto fighters thinned in the months after the end of the fight.

The resisters in the city lived in constant fear of being betrayed. Blackmailers, so-called Szmalcowniki , ran around in the streets . They extorted all of their money from Jews and often denounced them to the Gestapo . The few survivors fought with the Christian Poles in the Warsaw Uprising. A ŻOB unit was founded in the “ People's Guard ”. These fighters were still not allowed to identify themselves as Jews, because there were fascist groups of Poles in the uprising who killed both Jews and Germans. After the uprising ended, the few fighters hid in the ruins of Warsaw. If they were recognized as Jews, the Germans executed them.

After the end of the war in Poland and the death of six million Jews, many survivors prepared to emigrate , almost all of them ghetto fighters. Members of the federal government also emigrated to the USA, the Zionists to Israel . There the kibbutz Lochamej HaGeta'ot was founded by them (see below).

About 750 people fought on the Jewish side during the uprising; the Germans deployed around 2,000 soldiers and police officers. The losses on both sides are difficult to estimate; 75% of the ghetto fighters are believed to have died or were murdered. The losses suffered by the Germans are also difficult to calculate, since allies, such as the Polish police officers, are hardly included in any statistics. But on the German side, depending on the source, around 300–400 people are likely to have been killed and 1,000 injured. In the official reports of Stroop, however, only 16 dead and 85 wounded are mentioned.

The fighting claimed a total of 12,000 victims. Another 30,000 people were shot after the fighting and 7,000 were transported to extermination camps .

Survivors

Memorial to the survivors of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (ul.Prostej 51)

Yitzhak Zuckerman supported the uprising from outside and helped a group of resistance fighters to escape through the sewers from the ghetto after the uprising was put down.

Commemoration

Warsaw Ghetto Memorial

Remember the Jewish resistance in the Warsaw Ghetto:

In 2018 it became known that the Polish government under Mateusz Morawiecki was planning a museum about the ghetto uprising. The opening was scheduled for 2023. Albert Stankowski was commissioned with the conception .

media

Artistic processing

The uprising was also edited artistically on various occasions. A well-known example of this is Arnold Schönberg's musical examination of the extermination of the Jews in the ghetto and their resistance to it, the work A Survivor from Warsaw , written in twelve-tone technique , with its composition, which is described as shockingly realistic, with underlying texts.

In 1946, Simon Hochberger published the English-language poem Warsaw Ghetto - Tale of Valor in a small Yiddish publisher . In Australia, as in New Zealand, it received particular attention from Jewish communities for some time.

Movies

  • The film Korczak , a German-Polish fictional film by Andrzej Wajda from 1990, shows the initial situation that led to the uprising - the repeatedly failed struggle for survival; also the German-Israeli production. You are free, Dr. Korczak from 1973.
  • In the 1978 television series Holocaust - The History of the Weiss Family , Part 4, the uprising occupies a larger place, with fictional characters such as Moses Weiss, the brother of Josef Weiss, the father of the family treated in the series.
  • In the film Bloody Snow , an extremely short scene from the fighting in the ghetto is built into the plot.
  • Tv movie: Uprising , USA, 2001.
  • Film: Uprising in the Warsaw Ghetto . In the n-tv report series Das 20. Jahrhundert . Documentation. n-tv, 2007. 45 min. (Several interviews with survivors of the ghetto fight)
  • In The Pianist by Roman Polanski in 2002, the topic is the survival of Jews in the turmoil of the Warsaw Ghetto treated (by Wladyslaw Szpilman : .. The pianist My wonderful survival ).

Other media

  • CD: The Warsaw Getto Performers: Feliks Tych (Erz.); Eva Lacek; Ross Emans; David Smith (voices); Director: Tomasz Pijanowski; Krzysztof Wesolowski. 2005. Polish, English, German, Hebrew Duration: 45 '. tps film studio. Distribution Log-in-Productions New York (contains: 37 ': Warsaw Ghetto; 4': Children in the Ghetto; 4 ': Ghetto Uprising 1943) Archive material, Jüd. Histor. City Institute. ( Excerpts )
  • Book: The novel Mila 18 by Leon Uris is about the uprising in the Warsaw ghetto. According to the author, the characters are fictitious, but some of them bear the names of real resistance fighters such as Geller , Rodler or Silberberg .
  • Book: novel for 28 days by David Safier

See also

literature

German

English

  • Daniel Blatman: For our freedom and yours. The Jewish Labor Bund in Poland 1939-1949. London 2003, ISBN 0-85303-458-3 .
  • James E. Young: The Biography of a Memorial Icon: Nathan Rapoport 's Warsaw Ghetto Monument. In: Representations. (Trade journal), No. 26, Special Issue: Memory and Counter-Memory. California UP, Spring 1989, pp. 69-106.
  • Yitzhak Zuckerman: A surplus of memory. Chronicle of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford 1993, ISBN 0-520-07841-1 .

Yiddish

  • J. Sh. Herts: Di geshikhte vun a jugent , Ferlag Unser Tsait, New York 1946.
  • Zivia Lubetkin: In umkum and oyfstand , Tel Aviv 1980.
  • Bernard Mark: The oyfstand in Varshever geto , Warsaw, 1958 (abridged German version) In: Ilja Ehrenburg , Wassili Grossman , Arno Lustiger (all ed., Lustiger of the translation into German), The Black Book. The genocide of the Soviet Jews. Rowohlt, Reinbek 1994, ISBN 3-498-01655-5 .

Web links

Commons : Warsaw Ghetto Uprising  - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Krzysztof Komorowski: Buje polskie 1939-1945: przewodnik encyklopedyczny . Bellona: Oficyna Wydawnicza RYTM, Warsaw 2009, ISBN 83-7399-353-3 , p. 315 .
  2. ↑ Yiddish for "freedom"
  3. ↑ in the spelling Ziviah L. she published the essay The Last Days of the Warsaw Ghetto (sic). First, in new read-out ( from the literature the presence ) No. 1/1948, Allied o information service. O .; again as a single publication by VVN-Verlag, Berlin 1949, Illustr. Georg McKing, afterword Friedrich Wolf
  4. ↑ Krzysztof Komorowski: Buje polskie 1939-1945: przewodnik encyklopedyczny . Bellona: Oficyna Wydawnicza RYTM, Warsaw 2009, ISBN 83-7399-353-3 , p. 315 .
  5. ↑ From the farewell lecture by Arno Lustiger , visiting professor at the Fritz Bauer Institute from May 2004 to July 2006: “ Because the Jews of Europe did not allow themselves to be led“ like lambs to the slaughter ”- on the contrary, wherever they found the opportunity Jewish men and women defended themselves against the murderers. " ; on www.fritz-bauer-institut.de , see also the communiqué of the ŻOB of March 3, 1943, see: Reuben Ainsztein: Revolte gegen die Vernichtung. The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising . Berlin 1993, p. 95.
  6. ↑ a b c d The Stroop Report - April 20, 43 . Retrieved November 8, 2009.
  7. ^ Seymour Rossel, David A. Altshuler: The Holocaust: The World and the Jews, 1933-1945 . Behrman House, West Orange, NJ 1992, ISBN 0-87441-526-8 , pp. 123 .
  8. ↑ The Stroop Report - 05/10/1943 . Retrieved November 10, 2009.
  9. ^ The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, by Marek Edelman . University of Pennsylvania . Retrieved November 10, 2009.
  10. ↑ sic
  11. ^ Uprising in the Warsaw Ghetto. Wiener Zeitung , September 9, 2002, archived from the original on November 8, 2005 ; Retrieved November 8, 2009 .
  12. ↑ Commemoration - 60 Years Ago : The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising . Süddeutsche Zeitung . April 30, 2003. Retrieved November 8, 2009.
  13. ^ Warsaw Ghetto Uprising . Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved October 11, 2012.
  14. ↑ a b c d Krzysztof Komorowski: Boje polskie 1939–1945: przewodnik encyklopedyczny . Bellona: Oficyna Wydawnicza RYTM, Warsaw 2009, ISBN 83-7399-353-3 , p. 318 .
  15. ^ The Warsaw Ghetto . Polishjews.org. Retrieved October 23, 2012.
  16. ^ Warsaw Ghetto Uprising . Deathcamps.org. Retrieved October 23, 2012.
  17. ↑ The figurehead of historical misrepresentation , in: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , January 2, 2019, p. 11.
  18. ^ Simon Hochberger: Warsaw Ghetto - Tale of Valor . 'Oyfboy' Publishing: Melbourne 1946, 36 p. As digitized version: digital.slv.vic.gov.au/dtl_publish
  19. ↑ the associated exhibition can be borrowed on work and life. The archive goes back to 1944 and also documents the 1943 uprising.