La Campana National Park

La Campana National Park
La Campana National Park - entrance
Coordinates: 32 ° 57 ′ 57.6 ″  S , 71 ° 5 ′ 2.4 ″  W.
Location:	Chile
Specialty:	IUCN category II
Next city:	Olmué and Hijuelas
Surface:	8000 ha
Founding:	17th October 1967
Address:	www.conaf.cl

The La Campana National Park is a nature reserve operated by the Chilean state in the Valparaíso region . It is one of the most representative nature parks for flora and fauna in the Chilean central zone. In addition, this park was along with the area around the Peñuelas Lake by the Unesco for biosphere reserve explained. Its importance is mainly due to the "palm grove of Ocoa", one of the last natural forests with Chilean palm ( Jubaea chilensis ), a species endemic to Chile.

location

The La Campana National Park is located in central Chile in the Chilean coastal mountains . It covers an area between 32 ° 55 'and 33 ° 01' south latitude and between 71 ° 09 'and 71 ° 01' west longitude. From the point of view of the administrative regions, it belongs to the Valparaíso region, namely the provinces of Quillota and Marga Marga , more precisely parts of the municipalities of Hijuelas and Olmué . The access via Granizo (Olmué) is 60 km from Valparaíso , 160 km from Santiago and 29 km from the city of Quillota, while the access via Ocoa is a little further from Valparaíso and Quillota (90 km and 37 km respectively), but with 112 km away is a little closer to the capital.

Accesses

Park entrance via Ocoa

The park has three main entrances:

The areas “Granizo” and “Cajón Grande” can be reached via the Ruta CH-62 motorway, which connects Valparaíso with La Calera, with the exit in Limache and from there on towards Olmué. This road is paved and can be used all year round. From other parts of the country, these areas can also be reached via the Ruta CH-5 or Autopista del Aconcagua, with subsequent crossing of the Cuesta La Dormida and then further on the road to Olmué and Granizo.

The journey by public transport from Valparaíso is similar, with the final bus stop 1 km before the park entrance in the “Granizo” area, while from bus stop no. 40 on Av. Granizo to the park entrance in the area "Cajón Grande" are another 3 km. There is public transport from Limache to 1 km before the Cajón Grande entrance.

The Hijuelas (Ocoa) area can be reached via the Ruta CH-5 motorway or Autopista del Aconcagua. At km 98 you take an exit to the town of “Estación Ocoa” (Ocoa train station) and then go through the towns of Maitenes, Rabuco and Hualcapo; 14 km from the motorway to the park entrance.

Paths, paths and sights

Information board with paths and trails at the Granizo entrance

Both at the Granizo entrance, as well as at the entrances to the Ocoa and Cajón Grande areas, there are information boards with sufficiently precise maps of the paths and paths on which the visitor can reach the top of Mount La Campana or the other attractions of the park. At the Granizo entrance, for example, 11 possible visiting routes are described, with the respective duration in hours (between one and five), the level of difficulty, the total distance in kilometers and information on possible use of the paths on horseback or by bike. It should be noted that, unless a tour is specifically mentioned, the distances are in only one direction, so that the visitor has to charge twice the distance and double the time to ensure a return in daylight.

Apart from the most popular paths (the “Andinist Path”, the “El Guanaco Loop” or the “La Cascada” path), there are other lesser-known paths that lead to interesting and almost unexplored places. This is the case of the “Las Palmas” path that runs through the Quebrada de Los Ángeles (“ Angel's Gorge ”), a beautiful and humid landscape of dense hygrophilic forest. At the end of this path there is the possibility of climbing to places such as “El Agua del Manzano” or “Los Penitentes”, or to the high valleys in the “Cajón Grande”. From here the trails are less obvious (but there is the option of using a drover as a guide).

An old specimen of the Quillay ( Quillaja saponaria ) on the roadside of the tour "La Canasta"

When planning a visit, it should be assumed what you want to see, how much time is available and how fit the participants are.

Visitors with a sporty mountaineering motivation or who, for other reasons, want to reach the summit directly in a few hours on a safe, well-signposted path, usually choose the "Andinist Path" ( Sendero del Andinista ). This is a relatively easy route and the summit can be reached in five to six hours (about three to the mine and another two to three from there to the summit, depending on your level of fitness). From the summit, on a clear day, you can see the entire Aconcagua basin, from the Andes Cordillera to the Pacific.

If you are interested in observing, photographing or studying the Chilean palm in all its glory, you will usually follow the "Amasijo path" ( Sendero El Amasijo ) in the Ocoa area, which leads through the densely vegetated palm grove (113 specimens per hectare ) leads up to the Ocoa Pass. It is also possible to traverse much of the park, practically from one end to the other, on this route, but it takes about twelve hours. For this hike it is necessary to leave the entrance in Ocoa at sunrise. After about seven kilometers (on easily manageable paths) you will reach the pass, from where you will find another similar route to one of the entrances on the other side (Granizo or Cajón Grande).

The circular route “La Canasta” in the Granizo area meets the expectations for a visual inspection of the flora in the park. It is a short tour that can be done in less than an hour (i.e. also as an initial detour, before taking the “Andinist Path”, for example). Here one can observe a great variety of species, which are signposted with their scientific and local names, and furthermore additional information about the flora in the park can be found on boards at the “stations” of the tour.

Place names and morphology

View of Mount La Campana

The name of the park refers to the mountain La Campana (1828 m above sea level), the name of which comes from the fact that it appears to have the shape of a bell when viewed from the Aconcagua valley. In the vicinity of the national park there are also other peaks that stand out in the landscape, such as the mountain "El Roble" (2222 m above sea level), which owes its name to the beech forests on its slopes, the "El Liter" -Kuppe (1621 m above sea level) and the "El Imán" peak (2035 m above sea level).

The 8,000 hectares of the park are clearly divided into three areas: “Granizo”, “Palmas de Ocoa” and “Cajón Grande”, which occupy the three main basins of the zone. The smaller of these basins is that of Granizo, the highest point of which is occupied by the mountain La Campana and the lowest of which is the valley floor called “La Troya” (at 600 m above sea level). The watershed between this basin and the larger one of Ocoa runs over a mountain range that includes the summit of “El Liter” and extends from Mount La Campana to Mount “Los Roblecitos” (1280 m above sea level). The Cajón Grande Basin is east of Granizo and south of the Ocoa Basin. It is separated from the latter by the watershed that connects the mountains of El Roble and Los Roblecitos and continues over the peaks of the mountains "El Imán", "Cerro Pedregoso", "Cerro Sin Nombre" and "Cerro Los Penitentes". The park entrance in this area is at the lowest point of the pool (300 m above sea level). The Ocoa Pass (also known as "Puerta Ocoa", the "Ocoa Gate") connects the valley of Cajón Grande with one of the source valleys of the Ocoa Basin.

From a geological point of view, the oldest part of La Campana is in the mountain range that stretches from “Las Campanitas” to “Santa Teresa” and consists of the crystalline rocks of the batholith that intruded the Lo Prado formation (the latter made of volcanic sedimentary rock the lower Cretaceous ).

Mining, deposits and mineralization

The ore deposits in the La Campana National Park are mainly connected to the volcanic sedimentary rock series of the Lo Prado Formation, which determines their location along a line running south and south-west of Cerro La Campana:

• Mine "Hierro": with mineralization of magnetite , hematite , pyrite and chalcopyrite .
• Mine “Guanaco”: Chalcopyrite, magnetite and pyrite.
• “Pronosticada” mine: zinc blende , chalcopyrite, galena , arsenopyrite , dyscrasite (a rare silver ore) and enargite .
• Mine "Felicidad": Chalcopyrite, pyrite, molybdenite , zinc blende, magnetite and gold .
• Mine “Veta Grande”: Chalcopyrite, pyrite, arsenopyrite and pyrrhotite .
• Mine “Opositora”: Chalcopyrite, bornite , chalcosine , magnetite, molybdenite, gold and silver .

In addition to these in-line mines, there are also some irregularly arranged deposits in the vicinity of Cerro El Roble.

La Campana: As you climb the hiking trail, you can see the flat appearance of the summit, which inspired the legend.

The mining industry in the area of ​​the park is very old, to the point of a certain legendary character. The natives (Picunche) were rather dissatisfied with the work of the conquists in search of gold on their holy mountain, La Campana. The machi (shamans) developed strategies to counter the troublemakers in “Gulmué” (Olmué). Legend has it that the sorcerers tried to use a magical incantation to make the precious metal disappear from the top of the mountain cone that crowned the summit of La Campana. To do this, they dropped lightning bolts on the mountain in order to destroy the area of ​​gold (the nonexistent mountain cone on the summit of La Campana) and since then this summit has had the flat-looking shape as we know it today. This magical intervention by the Picunche had dissuaded the conquists from their search. Given the impossibility of finding gold after the Indian summons, they would have left the area.

As discussed further in the following section on the park's history, this version of the legend is just an expression of the desire of the local people, who have little to do with actual events. Instead, the fact is that mining has always been practiced here. After Pedro de Valdivia subjugated the natives, mining increased a lot and the colonial times lasted. After Chile became independent, it was continued and industrialized from the middle of the 19th century. Fluctuating in activity with the ups and downs of metal prices, it persisted until the end of the 20th century.

history

First settlement

Various archaeological finds - remains of ceramic utensils, perforated stones, mortars and pestles - are evidence of the existence of early human settlements on the plains between springs and ravines in the area of ​​today's park. Initially, the area was inhabited by two cultures from the early peasant-and-potter period (periodo agroalfarero temprano): the Llolleo culture (between 300 and 900 C.E.) and that of the Bato , although the finds of the latter tradition are more sparse the evidence is weaker (ceramic fragments only). Later, from 900 a. For now, and until the arrival of the Spaniards, there is ample evidence of the occupation of parts of the La Campana area by the Aconcagua culture (late middle peasant and pottery period).

Among all the pre-Hispanic remains, the "cup stones" in the area of ​​La Campana deserve special attention; these are curious concave depressions that were made in large rocks and which are similar to those found much further north in the Valle del Encanto (Magic Valley) can be found. The archaeologists have not yet agreed on the function of these excavations and both ritual purposes have been given, as well as a more practical and domestic use, be it for storing water and food, or as milling stones.

What can be said with some certainty is that the discovery of a large number of mortars, pestles and other artefacts for the importance of the fruit of the Chilean palm, as well as the fruit of the "hazelnut" ( Beilschmiedia miersii ) and the peumo ( Cryptocarya alba ) as food for these indigenous people. As far as meat is concerned, the current fauna still offers species that were valued as a source of food at the time ( e.g. degu and vizcacha ), but the guanaco, which is now extinct here, was undoubtedly the most important game in the park area.

After the arrival of the Spaniards

The Spaniards' initial interest in this zone was far removed from botany, anthropology or the beauty of the country: to Pedro de Valdivia's disappointment, the Spaniards had not been able to find gold in the empire. After the founding of Santiago and the overthrow of the indigenous people in the central zone of Chile, the Picunche war chief Michimalonco was forced to lead Valdivia's troops to the gold panning facilities at Estero Marga Marga (which are close to the area of ​​the current park), which until then had remained unknown to the conquistadors . The journey probably followed a branch of the Inca Trail that crossed the La Dormida pass to the Marga Marga valley. Valdivia had subjugated the Indian population of the central zone, which enabled him to organize the exploitation of the gold resources with a lot more labor, whereby the gold sources in the valley soon began to be depleted, which is why the gold prospecting was extended to adjacent areas, including Quillota and other nearby areas Zones (like Til Til , Colina and Lampa). Around 1560 the eagerly pursued gold prospect brought the Spaniards to the slopes of the coastal cordillera. In Olmué and Limache , too , ore exploration and mining were pursued, which in the following century was no longer just gold. The mining of copper ores became increasingly important, as did the other metals and raw materials found in the area.

The growth of mining in the XVIII. Century and its focus on copper can be proven by the applications received by the Cabildo of Santiago . The ore deposits discovered in the La Campana area were registered there and the relevant prospecting permits issued. For example, in a petition by Don Alonso Guerrero, it says:

"... en el Cerro La campana, en un paraje nombrado" Las Catas de Ulloa ", he descubierto una mina trabajada desde inmemorial tiempo de metales de cobre."

"... on the mountain La Campana, at a place called" Las Catas de Ulloa ", I discovered a mine with copper metals that had been in operation for an undecided time."

- Alonso Guerrero (1760)

Since the independence of Chile

Charles Darwin, portrait from 1830

Memorial plaque for the expedition of Charles Darwin in the XIX century century

Palmas de Ocoa area

On August 17, 1834, Charles Darwin (undoubtedly the most famous visitor to the landscape of today's national park) reached the summit of Mount La Campana, after a two-day ride and walk on paths that were far more difficult then than today. Near the summit, a little above the mine, at the beginning of the crevice known as “La Gotera”, a plaque commemorates Darwin's expedition. The famous naturalist described several species for the first time in the area. His expedition is a milestone in the history of this nature park and an important factor in its recognition as a nature reserve.

At the same time as the scientific interest was awakening, mining in the vicinity of La Campana began in the XIX. Century, after a politically and economically more stable situation had returned to Chile with the end of the wars of independence. This upswing was caused by the remarkable increase in the price of copper, which was recorded steadily from 1830 onwards. The now definitely industrial exploitation of the deposits began in the middle of the 19th century. Century, but reached its peak only in the following century with the establishment of the "Compañía Minera e Industrial La Campana" in 1920, a company under private law that owned 26 mines on the mountain. Although this company ran into financial difficulties as a result of World War II, mining continued in the area of ​​what is now the park. For example, there is evidence that the Pronosticada Mine (located on the Andinista Trail and known today as "The Mine") was still producing large quantities of ore with good metal content in 1948: 3.5% copper and 10% zinc. In addition, there were yields of 60 grams of silver and 2 grams of gold per ton in the past century. According to other authors, mining did not resume until the early 1970s.

On the other hand, the importance of today's park area for the conservation of biological diversity had been described by several scientists, biologists and botanists since the 1930s, several decades before it was declared a national park as a nature reserve. Among other initiatives, the botanist Gualterio Looser Schallemberg made a proposal at a scientific congress in 1936 to protect the palm grove of Ocoa and the southern beech forests on La Campana mountain. The campaign for the preservation of the area, which was launched in 1964 by Agustín Garaventa, a well-known botanist from Limache, and Álvaro Valenzuela, then chairman of the Scientific Society of Valparaíso, was crowned with success. A bill introduced by the MP Eduardo Ballesteros was adopted in 1967 and on October 17th of that year Law No. 16699 came into force, which established the National Park. This law, which bore the signatures of the then President of the Republic of Chile, Eduardo Frei Montalva and of Bernardo Leighton, the then interior minister, was limited to declaring the mountain called “La Campana” a national park, but did not set the boundaries of the nature reserve clearly fixed.

In 1971, during the government of Salvador Allende , the president signed a bill setting the boundaries of the park. According to this, it comprised the lands of the estates "Hacienda de Las Palmas de Ocoa", "Fundo El Bosco", "Las Palmas de Llay Llay" y "Vichiculén", the southern beech forests of Caleu , the palm groves of Quebrada de Alvarado , the estate " Fundo Ojos Buenos ”and the town of Granizo. The law, which was never enacted (by Parliament), would have meant a total area of ​​16,000 hectares for the park, i.e. exactly twice the area that was finally determined for the park in 1985 by Decree 228, in which its boundaries, including the state-owned lands around the village of Granizo, were determined, making its total area 8000 hectares.

Because of its importance for the environment, science, education, culture and leisure, the La Campana National Park was declared a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO on February 15, 1985 , one of nine areas that fall under this nature protection category in Chile.

The last mines were not finally closed until 1994, that is, 27 years after the establishment of the national park and 10 years after it was designated a biosphere reserve by Unesco. Shortly before this declaration, the owner company of the mines on Mount La Campana was sold and although the new owners restricted operations and concentrated only on the Balmaceda mine, the end of mining in the area of ​​the park only came to an end with the “Law on the foundations of environmental protection ”(1992–1994), the coming into force of which is seen as a triumph of the environmental movement.

climate

The climate in Park La Campana can be described as Mediterranean . The mean annual precipitation (approx. 480 mm) falls mainly between May and August (the winter months). The dry season (with only 120 mm of rain), on the other hand, extends from September to April. In the vicinity of the summit of La Campana, precipitation of up to 1000 mm can occur in rainy years (especially when the climatic phenomenon El Niño prevails).

The mean temperature is 18 degrees, but the temperature varies considerably not only with the seasons, but also during the day.

The relief is important for the climate in the park and the cause of local differences. It's not just about the differences in height, but also about the orientation of the slopes. The heights of the mountain range of the coastal cordillera act like an umbrella that stops the influx of moist air masses from the Pacific and causes significantly more precipitation (over 400 mm per year) on the slopes facing the coast (over 400 mm per year) than on the lee side Back of the Cordillera, where rainfall only reaches 300 mm per year.

Four local climate zones have been defined in the park:

• Windward side: In this zone, a gradual decrease in temperatures and precipitation can be observed in a south-easterly direction. This is the characteristic climate in the valley of the Cajón de San Pedro, in Granizo and in Quebrada de Alvarado.
• Leeseite: This is a drier climate than that of the windward side, with less rainfall and lower humidity. Due to its orientation to the south, however, the conditions in the Caleu basin allow the presence of both hardwood forest and laurel-leaved damp forest. This local climatic zone includes Caleu and the eastern part of Vichiculén
• Downside: This is the area with the greatest moisture and most precipitation in the park. The temperatures are a bit lower here. It can be found on the south-facing slopes of the entire mountain range from La Campanita, via La Campana, Los Penitentes and El Roble. It is the greenest part of the park.
• Sunny side: The highest temperatures in the park are measured here. These are the north-facing areas.

flora

Fruit formation of a Chilean palm on La Campana mountain.

The topographical and climatic peculiarities of the park area have enabled the development of a large number of indigenous plant species that are normally found in different places in Chile and generally would not be expected in the same place in Chile's central zone, but mostly far away in a north or south direction. On the other hand, there are of course various endemic species from central Chile in the park .

The so-called palm grove of Ocoa is without a doubt the biggest attraction in the park. It is also the most important botanical heritage because it is where the largest number of specimens of the Jubaea chilensis (honey palm) can be found, the world's southernmost palm if only continental species are considered. Although often used, the term “palm grove” is not particularly valuable for a more precise botanical classification. Since J. chilensis can be found in combination with other species in very different plant communities, some authors prefer not to define the palm grove as a separate unit, but rather to identify variants with J. chilensis within these plant communities . Thus, the famous palm grove of Ocoa is botanically classified as a “hard leaf forest variant with Jubaea chilensis (forest with quillay and liter, as well as Chilean palm)”

There are around 62,000 specimens of J. chilensis in the Ocoa park area . Their maximum height is almost 30 meters. Since this species does not have a cambium and therefore does not develop annual rings, it is very difficult to determine the exact age of the palm trees. Based on projections of the growth of palm trees, the exact planting date of which is known, some specimens in the park are estimated to be up to 400 years old.

“During the ascent I noticed that only bushes grew on the north slope, while on the south there was some sort of bamboo, about fifteen feet high. There were palm trees in a few places and I was surprised to see one at at least 4,500 feet. This palm is an ugly tree for her family : its trunk is very large and of a curious shape, being thicker in the middle than at the base or top. They are inordinately numerous in some parts of Chile and valuable because of a type of honey made from the juice. " - Charles Darwin : Ascent to Mount Campana (August 16, 1834)

Although most of the palm trees are certainly in Ocoa, there are also fewer populations in the Cajón Grande area, as well as in the entire buffer zone of the park: Olmué, Quebrada de Alvarado, Las Palmas, Caleu. The regeneration rate is only 1.23 individuals per parent tree, a surprisingly low figure when you consider that the germination rate of the nuts that fall to the ground from January to March is relatively high, but that of the rodents that live in the park, above all, is high are eaten by the numerous octodon degus (degu) that are present before they can continue to grow, but also by some species of birds and cattle, which, despite all bans, repeatedly invade this part of the park. We have succeeded in proving that the degu synchronized its spatial expansion and reproductive cycle with this food supply, above all by establishing a temporal correspondence between the development of its young and the fall of the fruit of the Jubaea chilensis .

J.chilensis was also a surprise for Darwin on his expedition , so that he recorded it in his diary about the ascent to the summit of La Campana. These notes are included with others from his journey in the book Beagle Diary.

Origin and development of the vegetation in the park

The current composition of the flora in the Park La Campana, apart from the palm trees, is extremely diverse, with around 545 species of vascular plants , that is to say, with more than 20% of all plant species in the country.

Luebert et al. highlight six floral elements as particularly relevant and characteristic: the central Chilean, the sub-Antarctic , the Andean , the neotropical , the Gondwanian , the pantropical , and name three others as represented: the holarctic , the anitropical disjoint, and the cosmopolitan . According to these authors, each of these elements has a specific story on which they base their study of the settlement and evolution of flora in what is now the national park area.

The same authors suggest that the floral composition, although essentially mixed, is dominated by Neotropical and Gondwan elements. Based on the study by Troncoso and Romero, the authors argue that some of these elements were already present in the Cenomanium before plate tectonics separated what is now South America from Antarctica and Australia 60 million years ago. They also suspect that the Gondwanian and pantropical elements (as well as some neotropical ones) could even come from geological ages before the Cretaceous (more than 140 million years ago). Strictly, both the laurel-leaved wet forest and the hard-leaved forest, both of which exist today in the area of ​​La Campana, can at least in part be regarded as botanical relics of the original tropical forests that covered the area and consisted of species that are now in Central Chile are almost impossible to find, but they have survived on the area of ​​this national park and some other relic-like enclaves.

The species of the genus Nothofagus appear for the first time towards the end of the Cretaceous Period and join the tropical flora. This flora persisted into the early Paleocene (that is, until 60 million years ago) and then covered an area that stretched far more southerly than the current extent of tropical flora, including the area of ​​what is now central Chile. These were the predecessors of today's deciduous forest in Park La Campana. For the palm J.chilensis, instead, it is more likely that its origin dates back to the Paleocene (there are known palms from the Paleocene in southern Argentina).

One of the determining factors of the mixed character of the forests of La Campana is precisely the successive development of tropical vegetation in alternation with mixed tropical flora (i.e. with that into which Nothofagus had already been integrated). This process took place between the Upper Cretaceous and the Eocene . Later, many tropical species and subspecies disappeared (the disappearance of which is evidenced by the lack of fossil stocks). Much of today's endemic flora may have developed at this point. In the course of the Miocene , the floral elements, which today represent both the hardwood forest and the thorn bushes, were probably created, assuming their present-day form based on the remains of the old tropical forests.

Two major events (on a geological time scale) determine this change: On the one hand, the formation of the Andes, which shadows the area in the morning hours, and, on the other hand, the simultaneous formation of the cold Humboldt Current. The climatic changes caused by these simultaneous events meant that northern and central Chile became arid and semi-arid zones. In fact, the whole of northern and central Chile with taxons better adapted to today's climatic conditions could be covered by neotropical vegetation (hardwood forest and thorn bush), but some species of the ancient forest survived, either because they were more adaptable and more resilient taxons, or because they populated areas with a microclimate. In this way, elements of the laurel-leaved wet forest have been preserved in the La Campana Park (for example in the Quebrada de los Ángeles gorge).

Classification of flora

Using Gajardo's classification scheme, the flora in the park can be grouped into the following plant communities:

Hartlaubwald

Peumo ( Cryptocarya alba ) in the La Campana Park, Granizo area, "La Canasta" circular trail

A semi-arid ombroclimate prevails in central Chile (a type of climate with rainfall of 200 to 350 millimeters per year), which enabled the development of this typical Mediterranean forest. Although this type of vegetation originally covered large areas, its distribution has been drastically reduced, both as a result of deforestation caused by human settlements and forest fires, so that the hardwood forest is one of the most endangered primeval forest types in Chile today.

• Forest with Peumo ( Cryptocarya alba ) and Boldo ( Peumus boldus ).

It can be found mainly on the southwest and western slopes of Mount La Campana and in the valley of Cajón Grande, at different degrees of steepness and at heights between 350 and 1000 m above sea level. d. These are areas with a lot of light but little direct sunlight, while the moisture required for this type of vegetation is favored by coastal fog. The forest consists mainly of evergreen trees. Shrub species, on the other hand, are relatively few and in the herbaceous layer there are numerous ferns and climbing plants, among which “parrilla blanca” (Proustia pyrifolia) stands out. Two variants have been classified within the same plant community: one with shrub growth of Retanilla trinervia and Gochnatia foliolosa with Solenomelus pedunculatus, as well as a variant that includes Jubaea chilensis under conditions of greater moisture in the area and thus the so-called “hard deciduous forest from Peumo and Boldo with Chilean Palm tree ”.

• Forest with quillay ( Quillaja saponaria ) and liter ( Lithraea caustica )

Colliguaja odorifera

It is a community of plants that is adapted to a slightly drier environment than the previous one and is between 500 and 1050 m above sea level. d. M. can be found on south-east, south-west, west, north-west and north-east oriented slopes, as well as in flat areas. Together with Peumo ( Cryptocarya alba ), which also occurs here, Litre ( Lithraea caustica ) and Quillay ( Quillaja saponaria ) dominate a floristic landscape that often takes the form of bushes. The shrub layer is diverse: Colliguay ( Colliguaja odorifera ), ( Escallonia pulverulenta ), ( Kageneckia oblonga ), ( Ageratina glechonophyla ), Trevo ( Retanilla trinervis ) and Mitríu ( Podanthus mitigui ). The herb layer consists of Adiantum chilense (known locally as “palito negro”, “culantrillo” or “doradilla”), Vulpia myuros and Solenomelus pedunculatus (“maicillo”).

Here, too, the corresponding variant is classified as Jubea chilensis , with which a “hardwood forest of Quillay and Liter with Chilean palm” (palm grove) takes shape. In this variant, some specimens of "Espino" ( Acacia caven ) can also be found in the same plant community.

Bay-leaved damp forest

Chusquea cumingii

This plant community takes advantage of the wetter conditions that prevail deep in the canyons. It is characterized by the frequent occurrence of Peumo ( Cryptocarya alba ) together with Maqui ( Aristotelia chilensis ), "parrilla blanca" ( Proustia pyrifolia ), "arrayán macho" ( Raphithamnus spinosus ), Patagua ( Crinodendron patagua ) and Chequén ( Luma checken ) . Floristically, depending on the height, two different characteristics can be classified:

• Laurel forest ( Beilschmiedia miersii ) (up to 500 m above sea level)

The laurel species ( Beilschmiedia miersii ) and Peumo ( Cryptocarya alba ) predominate in the tree layer . The shrub layer is characterized by Chusquea cumingii , Azara celastrina and Azara serrata , while various ferns and climbing plants can be found in the herb layer : Bomarea salsilla , Lardizabala funaria , Proustia pyrifolia , among others.

• Forest with Canelo (Drimys winteri) (between 500 and 1300 m above sea level)

The tree layer of this forest is characterized by Canelo ( Drimys winteri ). The shrub layer is more developed, however, with frequent Escallonia myrtoidea , Maitenus boaria , Otholobium glandulosum , and (although less frequently) Salix humboldtiana . The herb layer is characterized by the presence of Equisetum bogotense .

Thorn bushes

Four plant communities have been described for the park, which can be described as "thorn bushes", each of them with a variant that contains Jubaea chilensis.

• Bush with Trevo ( Retanilla trinervia )

This is a community of bushes dominated by Trevo specimens on north and north-west slopes between 400 and 1000 m above sea level. d. M. The main species that also belong to this community are liter ( Lithraea caustica ), quillay ( Quillaja saponaria ) and in some places the massive presence of Cuscuta sp .

In Ocoa there is an almost unchanged variant of this community , except for the presence of Jubaea chilensis .

• Bushes with Chagual and Quisco (Puya berteroniana and Echinopsis chiloensis) ( Puya berteroniana y Echinopsis chiloensis )

Puya berteroniana , one of the three Chagual species found in La Campana National Park

This bush can be found from 450 and up to 1100 m above sea level. d. M. watch. The vegetation consists basically of succulents and different species are represented in the shrub layer: Puya berteroniana , Echinopsis chiloensis , Podanthus mitiqui , Adesmia arborea and Aristeguitia salvia . There is also Retanilla trinervia , albeit much less than in the community described above, as well as Puya chilensis , albeit in fewer numbers.

The variant with Jubaea chilensis also exists, without any major floristic differences, except for the fact that Baccharis paniculata y Tristerix corymbosus (Quintral) are present.

• Bush with Chagualillo ( Puya coerulea )

This type of bush can be found at over 1100 m above sea level. d. M. on slopes facing north or north-east. It has two well-differentiated layers, the lower of which (less than a meter in height) due to the presence of Neoporteria aff. curvispina , Gamochaeta americana , Chorizante virgata , Senecio tarinifer and Tweedia birostrata . In the upper layer one finds succulents and shrubs from one to three meters high, including mainly: Puya cerulea , Eryngium paniculatum , Colliguaja odorifera , Retanilla ephedra and Calceolaria polifolia .

• Bushes with mira and maicillo ( Gochnatia foliolosa and Solenomelus pedunculatus ).

It is a scrubland adapted to a granite substrate, on slopes with up to 90% incline and different exposure to the sun. It is more common between 1000 and 1300 m above sea level. d. M. to be found. Despite its sparse development, the existing diversity of the shrub layer is characteristic of this scrub, with Gochnatia foliolosa , Baccharis linearis , Baccharis rhomboidalis , Satureja gilliesii , Escallonia pulverulenta , Haplopappus velutinus and Ageratina glechonophylla . In the herbaceous layer such species predominate as Alstroemeria angustifolia , Solenomelus pedunculatum , Triptilion spinosum , Acaena pinnatifida and Azorella spinosa .

Deciduous forest

Nothofagus macrocarpa ("roble")

The deciduous forest is represented by two plant communities in which the southern beech (Nothofagus macrocarpa) predominates as a relic .

• Dense forest with Nothofagus macrocarpa and Ribes punctatum , on slopes facing south, southeast and west, at altitudes between 1100 and 1500 m above sea level. d. M. In the shrub layer the following can also be observed: Azara petiolaris , Calceolaria meyeniana , Schinus montanus , Aristotelia chilensis and Berberis actinacantha . The herb layer is rather poor; there are, however, some Alstroemeria (especially Alstroemeria zoellneri ), as well as Adiantum sulphureum , Oxalis laxa and Loasa acerifolia . This forest is found on slopes with a 20 to 50% gradient. As with the forests with Peumo and Boldo, it is only thanks to the special phenomena of climatic compensation that this type of Chilean relic forests can exist on the width of La Campana.

• Open forest with Nothofagus macrocarpa and Schizanthus hookeri , on slopes facing south and south-east, above 1500 m above sea level. d. M. It is about a southern beech grove of low density, which allows a greater spread of the shrub and herb layer in the clearings. The shrub layer consists mainly of Ribes punctatum y Calceolaria meyeriana , while the rich herbal community is characterized by the presence of Schizanthus hookeri , Valeriana lepidota, and Senecio anthemidiphyllus . The greatest extent of this type of forest is found on the rocky substrate of the high slopes. There the solar radiation is greater and the dampening influence of the coastal fog is rather limited. In the recent past, global climate change could also be responsible for the regression of this type of forest, the spread of which is decreasing at higher elevations.

Low-growing high bushes

It is a kind of bush that grows at over 1750 m above sea level. d. M., can only be found near the peaks of La Campana and El Roble mountains. It essentially consists of "hierba negra" ("black herb"), a small shrub, also known under the name "neneo" ( Mulinum spinosum ) , of small size and poor density, together with other dwarf shrubs such as: Chuquiraga oppositifolia , Haplopappus ochagavianus , Ephedra chilensis and Viviania marifolia , as well as Phacelia secunda and Calceolaria campanae in the herb layer. These bushes develop on rocky substrates of varying exposure to the sun and slope.

Herbaceous plants

In Park La Campana, which offers a wide range of conditions in terms of substrate, as well as the availability of light and water in its different areas, a great variety of herbaceous genera has developed, including above all:

Inca lilies

Alstroemeria ligtu var Simsii  in the La Campana National Park, taken in the area of ​​the "Primera aguada" (first water point), Andinist path ("The elevator")

Of the 45 taxons that exist in Chile (84% endemic), at least these six species, all endemic to Chile, are widespread in the park:

• Alstroemeria angustifolia Present in various high places in the park, especially in the Ocoa and Cajón Grande areas. Its flowers vary in color from white to intense pink.
• Alstroemeria pulchra can be found in the lower areas, at the entrances to the park in Granizo and Ocoa. The flowers are also white and pink, but with dark spots.
• Alstroemeria revoluta It blooms in the area slightly below the “La Pronosticada” mine, on the Andinist Trail. The flowers are dark pink to purple.
• Alstroemeria ligtu subsp. simsii You can see them on the lower sections of the Andinist Trail, as well as in the vicinity of the park entrance in Ocoa. The color is orange, with variants that tend to be more red or yellow.
• Alstroemeria zoellneri grows under the southern beeches on the Andinist Trail. The flowers are purple.
• Alstroemeria garaventae It grows on El Roble Mountain, on the eastern border of the park area. The flowers are white or pink, with a little orange and small dark lines.

Slipper flowers

Calceolaria corymbosa : The slipper flowers are called "capachitos" in Chile

The genus Calceolaria, whose name means “booty” in its Latin root and alludes to the shape of its flowers, comprises around 300 species that are widespread in America, especially in South and Central America. There are around 69 species and subspecies in Chile. A considerable part (74%) is endemic to Chile, distributed between Coquimbo and Araucania .

The presence of eleven taxons of this genus has been described in the park:

• Calceolaria ascendens ssp. glandulifera : Endemic to Chile and found on El Roble Mountain (that is, on the eastern border of the national park).
• Calceolaria campanae : This perennial species is endemic here and has a very limited local distribution. More precisely, it has only been spotted on the top of Mount La Campana. Its simple, hairy leaves are greyish in color; it grows on rocky substrate and from December to January you can see its intensely yellow flowers, about 1500 m above sea level. d. M. and up to the summit.
• Calceolaria corymbosa : As a species endemic to Chile, it is found on the La Campana mountain between 600 and 1700 m above sea level. d. M. present. Its most outstanding characteristic is its yellow spherical flower with small red dots.
• Calceolaria glandulosa : It finds its habitat in the Ocoa area of ​​the park (on the way to the mine) and is also endemic in Chile, with distribution between Huasco and Linares. It grows at different altitudes, from the coast to the precordillera. Its flowers are also yellow and their shape is similar to that of other species in the genus. It differs from other species and subspecies because of the intense green color of its leaves and sticky stems.
• Calceolaria meyeniana : It blooms in the park from November to January at altitudes between 1200 and 1800 m above sea level. d. M. You can often see them under the southern beeches on the Andinist Trail. It is endemic to Chile (between Valparaíso and Malleco).
• Calceolaria morisii : Endemic to the coastal cordillera between Limarí and Santiago. In the La Campana Park they are available at the Ocoa Pass in the direction of Granizo. It is a perennial species with yellow flowers and lanceolate leaves.
• Calceolaria petioalaris : Endemic to Chile, it occurs only in places with watercourses or springs. In the park, they can be found near the Pronosticada mine, below the water source. Its yellow flowers are more elongated than those of other species.
• Calceolaria polifolia : Endemic species in Chile that occurs in the central zone between Coquimbo and Santiago. It is a perennial plant with smaller leaves and flowers and a weaker color (the leaves are grayish and the flowers pale yellow). In the park it grows to 1200 m above sea level. d. M., on the Andinist trail near the Pronosticada mine.
• Calceolaria purpurea : Also endemic to Chile and one of the few species in the country with purple flowers. It grows on the eastern edge of the park in higher elevations of the El Roble mountain range, as well as on the slopes facing the Dormida Pass. This species is perennial and has sticky, light green leaves.
• Calceolaria thyrsiflora : Endemic to Chile, it occurs between Valparaíso and Maule, between 50 and 2000 m above sea level. d. M. It blooms in different areas of the park from November to January. It is a perennial plant with elongated leaves.
• Calceolaria verbascifolia : Endemic to the coastal cordillera, rare, you can find them nowadays in very few places at 500 to 1200 m above sea level. d. On the mountain La Campana it blooms from September to November around the Sendero Guanaco in the Ocoa area. This species has large, intense green leaves and small yellow flowers.

Mutisia

Mutisia acerosa : Its pale pink and white flowers can be seen from December to March on Mount La Campana

Native to Chile and Argentina, its name is said to honor the Spanish botanist C. Mutis who lived in the 17th century. Century lived. There are four species in the park:

• Mutisia rosea : Endemic to Chile, it occurs between Coquimbo and Concepción . Its local name is "clavel del aire" (aerial carnation). It is a subshrub and a creeper. From October to January you can see its flowers, which are yellow on the front and a reddish tint on the back.
• Mutisia acerosa : It is found in Argentina and in Chile between Coquimbo and Maule . Its local name is: «romerillo de cordillera» (Cordillera rosemary). It is a shrub that relies on others to grow. Its flowers are white and pink towards the center. The name “acerosa” (steel) refers to the pointed shape of the leaves, which are elongated and spiky.
• Mutisia subulata : A subshrub native to Argentina and Chile that occurs in the latter country between Coquimbo and Biobío. The local name is: "flor de Granada" (garnet flower) or "hierba del jote" (vulture herb).
• Mutisia latifolia : Endemic to Chile, it occurs in the metropolitan region, as well as in the Valparaíso region. The local name is: "clavel del campo" (carnation). It is a subshrub as a climbing plant with pink flowers, elliptical leaves and achenes as fruit.

Orchids

Chloraea bletioides , also present in La Campana National Park. However, this picture was taken at Cerro Santa Inés (on the border between the Valparaíso and Coquimbo regions), which is precisely the northern limit of this orchid's range.

Orchids are rather rare in Chile. The vast majority of the 17,000 species that exist worldwide, which are grouped into 800 different genera, grow in tropical climates. In Chile, on the other hand, there are only 47 species (belonging to seven different genera), of which more than half are endemic.

The genera Bipinnula, Gavilea and Chloraea are primitive, they are Austro-American and are similar to the genera Lyperanthus and Caladenia found in Australia, New Guinea and New Zealand.

The majority of Chilean species belong to the genera Gavilea and Chloraea. Eight taxons have been registered in the La Campana Park. Five of them are strictly endemic orchids in Chile:

• Bipinnula plumosa : Known in Chile as "la flor del bigote" (the flower with the mustache). Perennial plant about 50 cm high. In the La Campana Park it grows between 700 and 1100 m above sea level. d. M., in the vicinity of the road to the Pronosticada mine.
• Gavilea venosa : herb that grows at 1200 to 2200 m above sea level. d. M. between Valparaíso and Biobío can be found. It is known by the local names “orquídea del campo” (field orchid) or “pico de loro” (parrot's beak).
• Chloraea bletioides : Also endemic to Chile, with occurrences from the relic forest from Cerro Santa Inés to Curicó. It blooms in the park at 750 m above sea level. d. M. near the “second water point” (Andinist path). It is an orchid with white flowers that have green lines, sometimes tinged orange towards the center.
• Chloraea galeata : orchid with white flowers classified as endemic to Chile and occurring between Valparaíso and Concepción. It blooms at 1100 m above sea level. d. M. in the Ocoa area, in the vicinity of the path that leads to the pass.
• Chloraea chrysantha : It blooms in the park at about 1000 m above sea level. d. M., both in the area of ​​the Andinist trail and in the Ocoa area. The flowers are yellow with tints of orange and can be seen from October to December.

Another three species are endemic to Chile and Argentina:

• Brachystele unilateralis
• Chloraea picta
• Chloraea cylindrostachya

Sourgrass family

Apart from the beautiful flowers described above, in the herbaceous layer of the plant communities present in the more humid areas of the park (especially in the watercourses) there is also Cyperus eragrostis, a species distantly related to the papyrus. A perennial sourgrass that is widespread in South America, with stems about 40 to 60 cm high, rhizomatous roots and reed aspect.

Succulents

Succulents of the families Cactaceae and Bromeliaceae are common on the north-facing slopes . The Quisco and Chagual cactus species dominate the vegetal landscape, with several taxons described:

• Trichocereus chiloensis (called “quisco”, the common cactus, endemic in Chile between Atacama and Maule)
• Neoporteria curvispina (the genus Neoporteria is also known by the synonymous name Eriosyce)
• Puya berteroniana Mez. is the largest of the Chilean puya and is locally called «chagual azul». It is a plant with blue-green flowers, for which the phenomenon of self-ignition has been described here on Mount La Campana. The other Puya species are said to have this property, which has not yet been studied in detail.
• Puya chilensis Molina (Chagual, cardón) with green-yellow flowers
• Puya coerulea Lindl. (Chagual chico) somewhat smaller with purple to dark purple flowers, similar to Puya venusta , but with flowering branches.

Climbing plants

In La Campana Park, especially in the shadier areas with denser vegetation, there are a variety of plants climbing trees and shrubs, an adaptation that allows them to gain better access to light. The following taxons are registered among the climbing plants of the genus Tropaeolum (family Tropaeolaceae):

• Tropaeolum tricolor
• Tropaeolum cilliatum ssp. septentrionale
• Tropaeolum azureum

Tree species

Trunk of an old Molle ( Schinus latifolius ) on the “La Canasta” tour, on which the tree species are indicated on signs

Flowers and leaves of one of the species known as "molle": Schinus latifolius

The Belloto Beilschmiedia miersii , tour "La Canasta"

The trees in the park are almost all evergreen, with a few exceptions, such as the southern beech (Nothofagus macrocarpa), which is a deciduous monocular tree, or the espino (Acacia caven), which also loses its leaves in autumn. The following are the 22 main tree species represented in La Campana Park:

Acacia caven (espino) Azara celastrina (corcolén) Azara petiolaris (maquicillo, lilén) Beilschmiedia miersii (belloto) Citronella mucronata (naranjillo, huillipatagua) Crinodendron patagua (patagua) Cryptocarya alba (peumo) Dasyphyllum excelsum (palo santo, tayú) Drimys winteri (canelo) Escallonia pulverulenta (corontillo) Lomatia hirsuta (radal)

Kageneckia oblonga (bollén) Lithraea caustica (liter) Luma chequen (chequén) Sophora macrocarpa (mayu) Myrceugenia obtusa (arrayán) Nothofagus macrocarpa (roble) Persea meyeniana (lingue) Peumus boldus (boldo) Quillaja saponaria (quillay) Rhaphithamnus spinosus (arrayán macho, huayún) Schinus latifolius (molle)

Shrub species

Aristotelia chilensis (maqui)

A variety of shrubs grow in the park, many of them with showy flowers (such as Fuchsia magellanica ) and exotic edible fruits such as "Maqui" ( Aristotelia chilensis ). Several of these species are said to have healing properties and these are used profusely in folk medicine treatments (for example, Aristeguietia salvia is used in infusions and baths against rheumatism, Colliguay against toothache or Pingo-Pingo to relieve urinary tract complaints). The leaves of some shrubs, such as "oregano" ( Satureja gilleisii ), are used for culinary purposes and are used to flavor various dishes. Some of these shrubs provide wood with special properties: the wood of the Aristotelia chilensis is used to make instruments and the bark of the crucero ( Colletia hystrix ) is useful for washing clothes or hair. The devil tobacco , "tabaco del diablo", ( Lobelia excelsa ) is the only shrub that contains a poisonous, highly toxic latex in its stems, which is used as a dangerous drug by some drug users.

Because of their endemic nature, the following 20 taxons are particularly important in La Campana Park:

Shrub species endemic to Chile

Acrisione denticulata (palo de yegua) Adenopeltis serrata (colliguay macho, lechón) Aristeguietia salvia (salvia macho, pegajosa) Colliguaja odorifera (colliguay, lechón) Chusquea cumingii (quila, quila chica) Gochnatia foliolosa (mira) Lobelia polyphylla (tupa)

Lobelia excelsa (tabaco del diablo, tupa) Porlieria chilensis (guayacán) Retanilla ephedra (retamilla, frutilla del campo) Retanilla trinervia (trevo, trevu) Satureja gilleisii (oreganillo) Sphacele salviae (salvia)

Endemic shrub species in Chile and Argentina

• Aristotelia chilensis (maqui)
• Colletia hystrix (crucero, yaqui, junco minero)
• Ephedra chilensis (pingo-pingo, solupe)
• Fuchsia magellanica (chilco)
• Ribes punctatum (zarzaparrilla, parrilla, uvilla)

Endemic shrub species also in other South American landscapes

• Otholobun grandulosum (culén). A species endemic to Chile and Peru.
• Schinus polygama (hingán). A species native to Argentina, Bolivia, Uruguay, and Chile.

fauna

In its complex biological structures, the ecosystem in La Campana is home to a special biodiversity and animal species. Even though the same pyramidal structure of all ecosystems is repeated here, the relief and the relic character of certain areas of the forest also exert their influence, so that animal communities have developed in areas within the park, with endemic species of extremely local distribution or even those that are only can be found in the La Campara area. In any case, among the mammals the herbivorous species are much more numerous than the carnivorous ones. And among the birds, songbirds are more numerous than species of birds of prey.

Mammals

Carnivores

Various carnivore species have been seen in the park, but since these are animals that travel long distances and are low in frequency, it is not often that an occasional visitor will encounter one. However, the following carnivores have been recorded:

Foxes ( Canidae )

Zorro culpeo

• Zorro culpeo ( Lycalopex culpaeus ) : Its size, from head to tail, is up to one meter. Its fur is brown with yellowish overtones. He is a hunter and omnivore. It can be found across the country and has been spotted around the park at sunrise and dusk. In recent years, changes in the hydrological basins and water consumption have been accompanied by a pronounced drought, which affected the region in 2007–2008 and 2014–1025. This forces the foxes to leave their natural habitat in the higher areas and look for springs further down in the park. In doing so, they lose their usual environment for hunting, sometimes with serious consequences for their health, so that recently some malnourished specimens of Felten have had to be rescued.
• Zorro chilla ( Lycalopex griseus ) : A slightly smaller fox than the previous one, it hunts the rodents that are common in the park during rainy years. Although it can survive in times of drought by feeding on insects and the fruits of peumo and liter, the lack of water also affects the diet of this species to a considerable extent.

Cat animals

Trail of a puma

Without a doubt, these are the rarest and most threatened species in the park and in the region in general:

• Puma ( Puma concolor or Felis concolor ), the "American lion", is the largest cat animal on the continent. It has been spotted in the park in the Ocoa area. There was probably more food here before the guanacos died out in the area. Today it descends from higher areas to feed on rabbits or sheep from agricultural areas.
• Colocolo ( Leopardus colocolo ) . A cat with brown fur, with greyish and reddish overtones. Another characteristic is a dark stripe on its back and down to the base of the tail. It is nocturnal and inhabits the bushes in the park. Its size is up to about one and a half meters.
• Güiña ( Leopardus guigna ) . Small cat with yellowish fur, a little smaller than domestic cats. It lives in the treetops in the denser places. It feeds on birds and rodents. Although it is less rare than other cats, it is mostly nocturnal, which is why its sighting by an occasional park visitor is also unlikely.

marten

• Quique ( Galictis cuja ) : A very fast and agile animal, a skilled hunter of rabbits and rodents. In the park it inhabits the bushes of the lower areas, both in the Cajón Grande and in the Ocoa.

Skunks

The chingue ( Conepatus chinga ) has been sighted in both Ocoa and Granizo.

• Chingue ( Conepatus chinga ): This skunk measures about 70 cm and feeds mainly on worms (it has an excellent sense of smell and long claws on its front legs so it has no problems digging them up), other molluscs, as well as frogs Lizards. When threatened, a very smelly liquid splashes back up to three meters. It has been spotted in the Ocoa and Granizo park areas.

Rodents

Degu ( Octodon degus )

In the area of ​​La Campana, 13 species of the order Rodentia have been observed, 11 of which are indigenous here, while two more belong to the urban habitat, but have increasingly moved to populate these wild areas as well: the black rat and the mouse ( Rattus rattus and mus musculus ).

Among the native species, the two diurnal species stand out:

• Degu ( Octodon degus ), a climbing and digging species, is very characteristic of the area of ​​the park, especially areas with xerophilic hardwood thickets. Degus are herbivores and in the ocoa area they mainly feed on the fruits of the Chilean palm, and to a lesser extent also on those of the liter, Trevo and Colliguay.
• Vizcacha ( Lagidium viscacia ), is the largest rodent in the park and can measure up to 60 cm from mouth to tail. It is a herbivore and very agile. It prefers the higher areas and lives in family communities.

The other nine species are nocturnal or prefer twilight:

• Cururo ( Spalacopus cyanus ), a herbivorous species with an underground habitat.
• "Ratón topo" the " molehole " ( Chelemys megalonix ), an omnivore that can be found in ravines with lush vegetation.
• "Ratón colilarga" the "long-tailed mouse", ( Oligoryzomys longicaudatus ), (Oligoryzomys longicaudatus), a small rodent with a particularly long tail (twice as long as its body), is also known because part of the population transmits the hantavirus.
• "Ratón orejudo", the "ear mouse", ( Phyllotis darwini ), also has a long tail and large ears. She lives in the bushes.
• "Ratón pelo largo", the "long-haired mouse ", ( Abrothrix longipilis ), is a small mouse with lush and long-haired fur that can be found in Chile, Argentina and other South American countries. In the park, she lives in the areas characterized by bushes.
• "Ratón oliváceo", the "olive-green mouse" ( Abrothrix olivaceus ), a mouse that lives in the open scrubland, as well as in the southern beech forest (Nothofagus) in Chile and Argentina, especially in northern Patagonia.
• "Ratón chinchilla", the "chinchilla mouse", ( Abrocoma bennetti ), a nocturnal species that partly uses the construction of the (diurnal) degu.
• "Degú del matorral", the "bush degu" ( Octodon lunatus ), can be found in the park in places with greater moisture and higher vegetation density.
• Coipo ( Myocastor coypus ), although its presence has been registered, is a very rare species in the park, as it would need places with still water and fewer predators to develop.

Lagomorphs

Both species of the order Lagomorpha , which can be found in different parts of Chile (neither is endemic, but both were imported from Europe), can also be found in parts of the park, especially in the Cajón Grande and Ocoa areas. While rabbits live in large family communities that share a burrow with several entrances, from where they go out in groups into their surroundings, rabbits are relatively immobile loners who are often overlooked because of their inconspicuous fur. Whenever a movement is interpreted as a threat from a predator, they tend to flee at high speed. Therefore, a park visitor is more likely to encounter rabbits and less likely to see a hare.

• Cape phase ( Lepus capensis )
• Wild rabbit ( Lepus capensis )

Marsupials

The yaca ( Thylamys elegans ) lives in the park in the bushes

• The Yaca ( Thylamys elegans ) is a nocturnal small opossum (it is about 25 cm tall and weighs no more than 20 g), which lives in the park mainly in the bushes, as well as in the rocky areas halfway up, whereby it is often abandoned Bird nests used. Although it does not have a marsupium, it shares the characteristics of other marsupials: its young have poor intrauterine development and, after birth, grow up clinging to the mother's teats until they are able to survive on their own.

Birds

Without a doubt, the La Campana park has a very special abundance of birds and is therefore one of the most suitable places in central Chile to observe the great diversity of birds in a single park.

Most common songbirds

Sturnella loyca : a male, with his peculiar red breast dress

The following bird species are strongly represented in the park and can easily be spotted by visitors. They are widespread in the most diverse areas of the park:

Tórtola ( Zenaida auriculata ) Diuca ( Diuca diuca ) Diucón ( Xolmis pyrope ) Cometocino patagonico ( Phrygilus patagonicus ) Rara ( Phytotoma rara ) Chincol ( Zonotrichia capensis ) Fiofío ( Elaenia albiceps ) Jilguero ( Carduelis barbata )

Zorzal ( Turdus falcklandii ) Tenca ( Mimus thenca ) Torcaza ( Columba araucana ) Tordo ( Curaeus curaeus ) Loica ( Sturnella loyca ) Mirlo ( Molothrus bonariensis ) Chirigüe ( Sicalis luteola )

Ground birds

Scelorchilus albicollis , a species of bird endemic to Chile, whose local name ("tapaculo", "buttocks") refers to the downward-pointing tail feathers

• "Perdiz", the partridge, ( Nothoprocta perdicaria ), a species endemic to Chile.
• "Codorniz", the quail, ( Callipepla californica ), native to Canada, Mexico and the USA. [60]
• "Tapaculo", the "buttock cover", ( Scelorchilus albicollis ), a species endemic to Chile.
• "Churrín" ( Scytalopus fuscus ), a species endemic to Chile.
• "Turca" ( Pteroptochos megapodius ), a species endemic to Chile.
• "Chiricoca", ( Ochetorhynchus melanurus ), a species endemic to Chile.
• "Canastero", the "basket weaver", ( Asthenes humicola o Pseudasthenes humicola ), native to Chile and Argentina.

Climbing birds

• Pitío ( Colaptes pitius )
• Comesebo, the "valley eater" ( Pygarrhichas albogularis )
• Carpinterito, the "little carpenter" ( Picoides lignarius )

Waterfowl

There are virtually no swamps, ponds, or lakes in the park area, and yet some waterfowl have adapted to life in the small streams, canals, and other wetlands.

• Garza grande, the "great heron" ( Casmerodius albus )
• Garza chica, the "little heron" ( Egretta thula )
• Huairavo ( Nycticorax nycticorax )
• Churrete acanelado ( Cinciodes fuscus )
• Pidén ( Pardirallus sanguinolentus )

Small birds from dense vegetation

A number of small birds, mostly insectivores (although some also feed on seeds) live and nest in the wetter areas with denser vegetation. The types are:

• Tijeral, the "roof structure" ( Leptasthenura aegithaloides )
• Colilarga, the "long-tailed" ( Sylviorthorhynchus desmursii )
• Rayadito, the "little striped one" ( Aphrastura spinicauda )
• Cachudito ( Anairetes parulus )
• Chercán ( Anairetes parulus )

Diurnal birds of prey

Thanks to the special properties of their retina, these birds have very well developed eyesight, so that they can see their prey from a great height when hunting, even if they are relatively small animals. They are aggressive towards other birds of prey, marking their area and defending it. They also do not allow intruders of the same kind to access the space that they (or their couple or family, as in the case of the Cernícalo) have made their own.

• Cóndor ( Vultur gryphus ). This is the bird with the world's largest wingspan (3.5 m) and although it lives mainly in the habita principalmente en la Andes (where it nests), it often moves to the coastal cordillera in winter, where it is at higher altitudes from La Campana and El Roble gives an opportunity to watch in.
• Jote ( Coragyps atratus )
• Gallinazo ( Cathartes aura )
• Tiuque ( Milvago chimango )
• Aguilucho (grande) ( Buteo polyosoma ), the large Aguilucho species
• Aguilucho (chico) ( Buteo albigula ), the small Aguilucho species
• Cernícalo ( Falco sparverius )
• Peuco ( Parabuteo unicinctus )
• Peuquito ( Accipiter bicolor )

Nocturnal birds of prey

The Concón lives in the denser areas of the park with old and tall trees.

For birds of prey that hunt at night, hearing is the key sense. Their enormous eyes, the immobility of which is compensated for by the agile, quick and wide-angled movement of their head, are less important for hunting than it seems (in fact they can continue to track their prey with obscured eyes while hunting for them with blocked Hearing becomes impossible). With their sharp claws they catch and kill their prey, which they then devour whole. Your digestive system has a glandular stomach that enables whole prey to be digested very efficiently, after which a bulge consisting of bones, hair and other indigestible parts of prey is gagged out. In La Campana National Park, their main diet is rodents and rabbits, although some of these birds, such as the owl, also hunt small birds, bats and various insects.

• Pequén ( Athene cunicularia )
• Chuncho ( Glaucidium nanum )
• Tucúquere ( Bubo virginianus magellanicus )
• Lechuza ( Tyto alba )
• Concón ( Strix rufipes )

Reptiles

Liolaemus tenuis . Photo taken near the “first water point” (on the course of the “La Campana” gorge) on the “Andinist path”, 630 m above sea level. d. M.

A specimen of Liolaemus nitidus sunbathing on a rock in La Campana Park

There are many species of lizards, lizards and snakes in the La Campana Park. It is easier to observe them in the morning, because because they are cold-blooded animals, you will find them in a less active state in the morning when they are in the sun to regulate their temperature. The following species are listed as represented in the park, with their distribution mainly depending on the altitude:

The genus Liolaemus

• Liolaemus fucus , a lizard that lives between 300 and 1500 m above sea level. d. M. lives. It measures about 9 cm at most and is the smallest species of its genus in Chile.
• Liolaemus nitidus , this lizard is much larger than the previous one and can reach up to 25 cm in length. In the La Campana Park she lives between 900 and 1200 m above sea level. d. M.

Liolaemus schoederi , a medium-sized (14 cm) lizard that lives in the park over 1000 m above sea level. d. M. can be found. It is an ovoviviparous species, which means that the female holds the egg back in the ovary and ultimately gives birth to a live young, which, however, comes from an egg. This form of reproduction represents an adaptation to the mountains. Liolaemus tenuis is an oviparous, variegated lizard (the male is yellow and blue, the female is gray and yellow). It feeds on insects and lives in groups of one male and several females, mostly under the trees. In contrast to the majority of lizards and lizards, when in danger it does not flee on the ground or hide in the rocks, but by climbing a tree. Their presence is at different altitudes, up to an upper limit of 1450 m above sea level. d. M. has been registered. Liolaemus monticola , a lizard about 15 cm long that lives in the park between 800 m above sea level. d. M. and the summit can be found. Although it is not ovoviviparous, it lays its eggs in a very advanced state to adapt to the cold prevailing at these altitudes, in order to make the most of the warmer season. Liolaemus chilensis , an insect-eating lizard about 20 cm in length that occupies the park between 750 and 1100 m above sea level. d. M. inhabited. Liolaemus nigrovirides , an insect-eating, ovoviviparous lizard that lives between 1100 and 1900 m above sea level. d. M. in the Park La Campana, as well as at similar altitudes in the Andes. Its main predators in the park are the iguana and the turn falcon (“cernícalo”). A special, geographically restricted variant has been described in the La Campana Park: Lilolaemus nigrovirides campanae. Liolaemus lemniscatus . A small lizard about 10 cm long. It pulls grassy areas between 200 and 1000 m above sea level. d. M. before.

Iguanas and other lizards

• Callopistes maculatus (or Callopistes palluma , as it was previously called) is the only species belonging to the Teiidae family (to which many species belong in South America) in Chile. With its 50 cm length it is the largest lizard in the park. It hunts other smaller lizards, the eggs and chicks of smaller birds, the young of rodents and also insects.
• Pristidactylus alvaroi is a lizard with a large head, relatively corpulent and about 20 cm long. It is an oviparous insect eater. Their skin is greyish with brown streaks. This lizard has only been seen in the southern beech groves of Mount El Roble (it is endemic to this zone but related to other species of the same family in Chile and Argentina).

snakes

Tachymenis chilensis , the larger of the two Chilean snake species, is also represented in La Campana Park

There are only two species of snakes in Chile and both are found in the park. They are non-toxic, or more precisely their venom is weak and only present in the teeth that are located far back, so that a small bite is generally harmless to humans. Both species live in similar environments and their predators are also the same: birds of prey, martens and foxes.

• Tachymenis chilensis known locally as "culebra de cola corta" (short-tailed snake) grows up to 60 cm long. It feeds mainly on small amphibians and insects.
• Philodryas chamissonis known as “culebra de cola larga” (long-tailed snake) becomes up to 180 cm long. In addition to insects and amphibians, some birds and small rodents also serve as food.

Culture references

A landscape of the park adorns the 5000 Chilean peso banknote from the new series of Chilean banknotes.

literature

• Javier Amigo, Lorena Flores Toro: Revisión sintaxonómica de los bosques esclerofilos de Chile Central: la alianza Cryptocaryon albae . (Syntaxonomous revision of the hardwood forests in central Chile: the Cryptocaryon albae alliance). In: Universidad Complutense de Madrid (ed.): LAZAROA . tape 33 , 2012, ISSN  0210-9778 , p. 171–196 , doi : 10.5209 / rev_LAZA.2012.v33.40283 (Spanish, ucm.es [PDF; accessed on 23 September 2015]).
• Charles Darwin : Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary . Ed .: RD Keynes. Cambridge University Press, 1834, ISBN 0-521-23503-0 (English, darwin-online.org.uk [accessed September 23, 2015], written 1834, first published in 1988, published with permission from Darwin Online).
• Christine Ehrhart: The genus Calceolaria (Scrophulariaceae) in Chile . In: Bibliotheca botanica . No. 153 . Schweizerbart'sche Verlagbuchhandlung, 2000, ISBN 3-510-48024-4 , ISSN  0067-7892 .
• Sergio Elórtegui, Patricio Novoa: Orquídeas de la región de Valparaíso . (Orchids from the Valparaíso region). Taller La Era, Viña del Mar 2009, ISBN 956-8201-07-6 (Spanish).
• Sergio Elórtegui, Juan Carlos Torres-Mura: Biodiversidad: El sentido del camino . (Biodiversity: The Meaning of the Way). In: Sergio Elórtegui, Andrés Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. Origen de una reserva de la biosfera en Chile central (La Campana National Park) . 2nd Edition. Taller La Era, Viña del Mar 2009, ISBN 978-956-8201-00-5 (Spanish, first edition: 2002).
• Rodolfo Gajardo: La vegetación natural de Chile.Clasificación y distribución geográfica . (The natural vegetation of Chile. Classification and geographical distribution). Universitaria, Santiago de Chile 1994 (Spanish, books.google.es [accessed September 23, 2015]).
• Gobierno de Chile, Ministerio del interior: Ley Nº 16 699 . Ed .: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile. Biblioteca del Congreso, Santiago de Chile November 3, 1967 (Spanish, bcn.cl [accessed September 23, 2015]).
• Gobierno de Chile, Ministerio de Bienes Nacionales: Decreto 228. Amplía el Parque Nacional de La Campana en la V Región de Valparaíso y fija sus límites . Biblioteca del Congreso, Santiago de Chile August 13, 1985 (Spanish, bcn.cl [accessed September 23, 2015]).
• Andrés J. González Valencia: El cerro La campana y sus yacimientos de cobre: ​​Ecos de la excavación minera en la antigua comuna de Olmué . In: Sociedad de Historia y Geografía de la Provincia de Marga-Marga (ed.): Boletín histórico de la provincia de Marga-Marga . No. 9 . Ediciones Cadquitipay, 2014, ISSN  0719-2754 (Spanish, books.google.de [accessed September 23, 2015]).
• Enrique Hauenstein: The Biosphere . Ed .: Natarajan Ishwaran. InTech, 2012, ISBN 978-953-510-292-2 , Wealth of Flora and Vegetation in the La Campana-Peñuelas Biosphere Reserve, Valparaiso Region, Chile (English, cdn.intechopen.com [PDF; accessed September 23, 2015 ]).
• G. Lobos, H. Hernández, MA Méndez, C. Gallardo, L. Campos, C. Correa: Pristidactylus alvaroi. Mapa de potencial distribución en la Región Metropolitana . In: Atlas de biodiversidad de anfibios y reptiles de la Región Metropolitana de Chile. Una herramienta para la gestión de los recursos naturales. Fundación Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias. Universidad de Chile, Chile 2010 (Spanish, atlasherpetozoos.cl [accessed September 23, 2015]).
• Federico Luebert, Mélica Muñoz Schick, Andrés Moreira Muñoz: Vegetación y Flora . In: Sergio Elórtegui, Andrés Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. Origen de una reserva de la biosfera en Chile central (La Campana National Park) . 2nd Edition. Taller La Era, Viña del Mar 2009, ISBN 978-956-8201-00-5 (Spanish).
• Hernán Manríquez T .: Geomorfología . In: Sergio Elórtegui, Andrés Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. Origen de una reserva de la biosfera en Chile central (La Campana National Park) . 2nd Edition. Taller La Era, Viña del Mar 2009, ISBN 978-956-8201-00-5 , pp. 27 (Spanish, first edition: 2002).
• Mélica Muñoz-Schick, Andrés Moreira-Muñoz, Sergio Moreira-Espinoza: Origen del nombre de los géneros de plantas vasculares nativas de Chile y su representatividad en Chile y el mundo . In: Gayana Botánica . tape 69 , no. 2 . Universidad de Concepción, July 19, 2012, ISSN  0016-5301 , p. 309–359 (Spanish, scielo.cl [PDF; accessed September 23, 2015]).
• Patricio Novoa, M. Rubio, E. Domínguez: Guía de campo de las orquídeas chilenas . Corporacion Chilena de la Madera (CORMA), Concepción (Chile) 2006 (Spanish, chilebosque.cl [PDF; accessed on 23 September 2015]).
• Patricio Pliscoff V .: Climatología (Clasificación de climas locales modificada de Mercado y Henríquez 1987) . In: Sergio Elórtegui, Andrés Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. Origen de una reserva de la biosfera en Chile central (La Campana National Park) . 2nd Edition. Taller La Era, Viña del Mar 2009, ISBN 978-956-8201-00-5 (Spanish, first edition: 2002).
• Víctor Quintanilla, José Antonio Cadiñanos, Itxaro Latasa, Pedro José: Aproximación biogeográfica a los bosques de la zona mediterránea de Chile: caracterización e inventario . In: Boletín de la Asociación de Geógrafos Españoles . No. 60 , 2012, ISSN  0212-9426 , p. 91–114 (Spanish, boletin.age-geografia.es [PDF; accessed on 23 September 2015]).
• Edgardo J. Romero: Palmoxylon patagonicum n. Sp. del Terciario inferior de la Provincia de Chubut, Argentina . In: Ameghiniana . tape 5 , no. 10 . Asociación Paleontologica Argentina, 1968, ISSN  1851-8044 , p. 417-431 (Spanish, ameghiniana.org.ar [accessed September 23, 2015]).
• Claudia Solervicens Cruzat, Gloria Cabello Baettig: Los primeros habitantes . In: Sergio Elórtegui, Andrés Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. Origen de una reserva de la biosfera en Chile central (La Campana National Park) . 2nd Edition. Taller La Era, Viña del Mar 2009, ISBN 978-956-8201-00-5 (Spanish, first edition: 2002).
• Hernán Torres Santibáñez, Marcela Torres Cerda: Los parques nacionales de Chile: a guide for the visit . Universitaria, Santiago de Chile 2004, ISBN 978-956-11-1701-3 (Spanish).
• Alejandro Troncoso, EJ Romero: Evolución de las comunidades florísticas en el extremo sur de Sudamérica durante el Cenofítico . In: Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden . tape 68 . Missouri Botanical Garden, 1998, ISSN  0161-1542 , p. 149-172 (Spanish).
• Sergio Elórtegui, Andrés Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. Origen de una reserva de la biosfera in Chile central . 2nd Edition. Taller La Era, Viña del Mar 2009, ISBN 978-956-8201-00-5 (Spanish, first edition: 2002).
• Fernando Venegas: Los ecos históricos de La Campana . In: Sergio Elórtegui, Andrés Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. Origen de una reserva de la biosfera en Chile central (La Campana National Park) . 2nd Edition. Taller La Era, Viña del Mar 2009, ISBN 978-956-8201-00-5 (Spanish, first edition: 2002).
• Otto Zöellner, Magaly Nilo: El género Puya en la V Región . In: Revista geográfica de Valparaíso . No. 19 . Ediciones Universitarias de Valparaíso. Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, 1988, ISSN  0716-1905 , p. 29–38 (Spanish, rgv.ucv.cl [PDF; accessed on September 27, 2015]).
• Sergio Zunino, Francisco Saiz, Leslie R. Yates: Uso del espacio, densidad de Octodon degus y oferta de recursos en Ocoa, Parque Nacional La Campana, Chile . In: Revista Chilena de Historia Natural . tape 65 , no. 3 . Santiago de Chile 1992, p. 343–355 (Spanish, rchn.biologiachile.cl [PDF; accessed on September 27, 2015]).

Web links

Commons : Parque Nacional La Campana  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

• CONAF

Remarks

1. ↑ The other important palm grove with a considerable number of individuals is located in the municipality of Las Cabras , Región del Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins and is also a nature reserve: the Las palmas de Cocolán National Park
2. ↑ Other figures have also been published, according to which it is 100,000 individuals, but since this is a work that is not specifically about this park, it is possible that the confusion arises from the total number of specimens by J. . Chilensis in the three Chilean palm groves: 62,000 in Ocoa, 30,000 in Cocalán and 6,500 in El Salto.
3. ↑ There is an alternative translation into Spanish in the book by Elórtegui and Moreira (eds.), But here access to the English original has been preferred.
4. ^ Name published in: Phil., Anales Universidad Chile, 91: 152 (1895)
5. ↑ In the areas of the biosphere reserve that have more water (especially in the area of ​​Lago Peñuelas), this herb appears as a perennial marsh herb community, especially when accompanied by Carex excelsa , Juncus pallescens and Juncus acutus .
6. ↑ The word is derived from the Greek tropeion, which means "trophy".
7. ↑ Of course, it is absolutely forbidden to remove plants, branches, leaves or fruits for any of these purposes in the national park area.

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Elórtegui and Moreira (eds.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 10.
2. ↑ Elórtegui and Moreira (eds.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 15.
3. ↑ Elórtegui and Moreira (eds.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 17.
4. ↑ T. Manríquez: Geomorfología. 2009, p. 27.
5. ↑ T. Manríquez: Geomorfología. 2009, p. 29.
6. ↑ Carlos Ortega Barrales: Reseña Histórica de Olmué. Desde la época precolombina al siglo XX. Retrieved September 21, 2015 (Spanish). 
7. ↑ Solervicens and Cabello: Los primeros habitantes. 2009, p. 134.
8. ↑ ^{a b} Solervicens and Cabello: Los primeros habitantes . 2009, p. 136.
9. ↑ ^{a b c} Venegas: Los ecos históricos de La Campana . 2009, pp. 139-141.
10. ↑ González Valencia: El cerro La Campana y sus yacimientos de cobre: ​​Ecos de la excavación minera en la antigua comuna de Olmué. 2014, p. 29.
11. ↑ ^{a b} González Valencia: El cerro La Campana y sus yacimientos de cobre: ​​Ecos de la excavación minera en la antigua comuna de Olmué. 2014, p. 32.
12. ↑ ^{a b} Elórtegui and Moreira (eds.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 6.
13. ↑ Gobierno de Chile: Ley Nº 16 699. 1967, Declárase 'Parque Nacional'….
14. ↑ Gobierno de Chile: Decreto 228. 1985, Fíjase los límites del Parque Nacional….
15. ↑ Reservas de la Biósfera en Chile. (No longer available online.) In: Unesco.org. Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación, la ciencia y la cultura, archived from the original on March 4, 2016 ; Retrieved September 26, 2015 (Spanish). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  
16. ↑ Quintanilla et al .: Aproximación biogeográfica a los bosques de la zona mediterránea de Chile: caracterización e inventario. 2012, p. 98.
17. ↑ ^{a b} Pliscoff: Climatología. In: Sergio Elórtegui, Andrés Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, pp. 22-24.
18. ↑ Photographed in early summer. The still unripe coconuts have already reached their final size: about 3 centimeters in diameter.
19. ↑ Luebert, Muñoz Schick, Moreira Muñoz: Vegetación y flora. In: Sergio Elórtegui, Andrés Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 41.
20. ↑ ^{a b} Elórtegui and Moreira (eds.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 110.
21. ↑ Torres Santibáñez, Torres Cerda: Los parques nacionales de Chile: una guía para el visitante. 2004, p. 65.
22. ^ ^{A b} Charles Darwin: Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. 1834, p. 252
23. ↑ Elórtegui and Moreira (eds.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, pp. 150-151.
24. ^ Zunino et al .: Uso del espacio, densidad de Octodon degus y oferta de recursos en Ocoa. 1992, p. 343.
25. ↑ ^{a b} Luebert, Muñoz Schick, Moreira Muñoz: Vegetación y Flora In: Sergio Elórtegui, Andrés Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 37.
26. ^ Troncoso and Romero: Evolución de las comunidades florísticas en el extremo sur de Sudamérica durante el Cenofítico. 1998, pp. 149-172.
27. ↑ ^{a b} Luebert, Muñoz Schick, Moreira Muñoz: Vegetación y flora. In: Sergio Elórtegui, Andrés Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 38.
28. ↑ Romero: Palmoxylon patagonicum n. Sp. del Terciario inferior de la Provincia de Chubut, Argentina. 1968, pp. 417-431.
29. ↑ Gajardo: La vegetación natural de Chile. Clasificación y distribución geográfica. 2009, p. 19.
30. ↑ Amigo and Flores-Toro: Revisión sintaxonómica de los bosques esclerofilos de Chile Central: la alianza Cryptocaryon albae. 2012, p. 173.
31. ↑ ^{a b c d} Luebert, Muñoz Schick, Moreira Muñoz: Vegetación y Flora. In: Sergio Elórtegui, Andrés Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 40.
32. ↑ Luebert, Muñoz Schick, Moreira Muñoz: Vegetación y flora. In: Sergio Elórtegui, Andrés Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 42.
33. ↑ ^{a b c d} Luebert, Muñoz Schick, Moreira Muñoz: Vegetación y Flora. In: Sergio Elórtegui, Andrés Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 44.
34. ↑ ^{a b} Luebert, Muñoz Schick, Moreira Muñoz: Vegetación y flora. In: Sergio Elórtegui, Andrés Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 46.
35. ↑ Luebert, Muñoz Schick, Moreira Muñoz: Vegetación y flora. In: Sergio Elórtegui, Andrés Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 48.
36. ↑ ^{a b} Luebert, Muñoz Schick, Moreira Muñoz: Vegetación y flora. In: Sergio Elórtegui, Andrés Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 64.
37. ↑ Ehrhart: The genus Calceolaria (Scrophulariaceae) in Chile. 2009, p. 56.
38. ↑ Luebert, Muñoz Schick, Moreira Muñoz: Vegetación y flora. In: Sergio Elórtegui, Andrés Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 68.
39. ↑ ^{a b c d} Elórtegui and Novoa: Orquídeas de la Región de Valparaíso. 2009, p. 68
40. ↑ Description and images of Bipinnula plumosa (Flor del bigote). Retrieved September 29, 2015 . 
41. ↑ Ficha de la especie Gavilea venosa. In: Enciclopedia de la Flora Chilena. Retrieved September 29, 2015 (Spanish). 
42. ↑ Novoa, Rubio and Domínguez: Guía de campo de las orquídeas chilenas . 2006, pp. 26, 48, 80.
43. ↑ cyperus eragrostis. In: botany.cz. Retrieved September 29, 2015 . 
44. ^ Hauenstein: Wealth of Flora and Vegetation in the La Campana-Peñuelas Biosphere Reserve, Valparaiso Region, Chil . 2012, pp. 224–225.
45. ↑ ^{a b c} Hauenstein: Wealth of Flora and Vegetation in the La Campana-Peñuelas Biosphere Reserve, Valparaiso Region, Chil. 2012, p. 239.
46. ↑ ^{a b} Zöellner and Nilo: El género en la Puya V Región. 1988, pp. 29-30.
47. ↑ Muñoz-Schick, Moreira-Muñoz, Moreira-Espinoza: Origen del nombre de los géneros de plantas vasculares nativas de Chile y su representatividad en Chile y el mundo. 2012, p. 355.
48. ↑ Elórtegui, Moreira (ed.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, pp. 50-54.
49. ↑ Elórtegui and Moreira (eds.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, pp. 56-58.
50. ↑ ^{a b c} Elórtegui and Moreira (eds.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 90.
51. ↑ ^{a b} Elórtegui and Moreira (eds.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 91.
52. ↑ Abrothrix olivaceus. In: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources., Accessed September 30, 2015 . 
53. ↑ Elórtegui and Moreira (eds.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 104.
54. ↑ Pseudasthenes humicola. In: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources., Accessed September 30, 2015 . 
55. ↑ Elórtegui and Moreira (eds.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 117.
56. ↑ Elórtegui and Moreira (eds.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, p. 120.
57. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g h i} Elórtegui and Torres-Mura: Biodiversidad: El sentido del camino In: Sergio Elórtegui and Andrés Moreira (eds.): Parque Nacional La Campana. 2009, pp. 83-85.
58. ^ Lobos et al .: Pristidactylus alvaroi. Mapa de potencial distribución en la Región Metropolitana. 2010