Paul Scherrer Institute
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The Paul Scherrer Institute ( PSI ) is a multidisciplinary research institute for natural and engineering sciences in Switzerland . It lies in the area of the municipalities of Villigen and Würenlingen in the Swiss canton of Aargau on both sides of the Aare and belongs to the ETH domain of the Swiss Confederation. The institute employs around 2100 people and conducts basic and applied research in the areas of matter and material, people and health as well as energy and the environment on an area of over 35 hectares . The research activities are divided into the following focal points: materials science 37%, life science 24%, general energy 19%, nuclear energy and safety 11%, particle physics 9%.
PSI develops, builds and operates large and complex research facilities and makes them available to the national and international scientific community. In 2017, for example, more than 2500 researchers from 60 different nations came to PSI to use the globally unique combination of large research facilities at the same location. Around 1900 experiments are carried out every year at around 40 measuring stations in the facility.
The institute has been one of the largest recipients of money from the lottery fund in recent years .
history
The institute, named after the Swiss physicist Paul Scherrer , was created in 1988 from the merger of the EIR (Federal Institute for Reactor Research) founded in 1960 and the SIN (Swiss Institute for Nuclear Research) founded in 1968. The two institutes were located opposite each other on the Aare and served as national centers for research into nuclear energy on the one hand and nuclear and particle physics on the other. Over the years, research has been expanded to other areas, so that nuclear and reactor physics, for example, still make up 11 percent of research at PSI today. As a result of the Swiss decision to phase out nuclear power in 2011, this area is primarily concerned with questions of safety, for example when dealing with the storage of radioactive waste in a deep repository.
Since 1984 the PSI (initially still as SIN) has been operating the center for proton therapy for the treatment of patients with ocular melanoma and other tumors deep in the body . Since then, over 9,000 patients have been treated (as of 2020).
The institute is also active in space research. For example, in 1990 PSI engineers built the detector of the EUVITA telescope for the Russian Spectrum XG satellite and later also detectors for NASA and ESA , which analyze radiation in space . On tandem accelerator at Hönggerberg in Zurich, which was at that time operated jointly by the ETH Zurich and the PSI, certain physicists in 1992 by accelerator mass spectrometry and carbon dating of bone, tissue and grass samples of a few milligrams of the age of the glacier's Ötzi , the one a Found the year before in the Ötztal Alps.
In 2009, the British structural biologist Venkatraman Ramakrishnan from India received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his studies at the Swiss Light Source Synchrotron (SLS). The SLS is one of the four large research facilities at PSI. Thanks to the studies, Ramakrishnan was able to clarify what ribosomes look like and how they function at the level of individual molecules. Using the information encoded in the genes, ribosomes produce proteins that control many chemical processes in living things.
In 2010 an international research team at PSI carried out a new measurement of the proton with negative muons and found that its radius is significantly smaller than previously assumed: 0.84184 femtometers instead of 0.8768. According to press reports, this result was not only surprising, it could also call previous models of physics into question. The measurements were only possible with the 590 MeV proton accelerator HIPA from PSI, because worldwide only its secondarily generated muon beam is intense enough to carry out the experiment.
In 2011, researchers from PSI, among others, were able to use the SLS to decipher the structure of the protein rhodopsin. As a kind of light sensor, this visual pigment plays a key role in the process of seeing.
A so-called barrel pixel detector built at PSI, as a core element of the CMS detector at the Geneva nuclear research center, CERN , was involved in detecting the Higgs boson. For this discovery, announced on July 4, 2012, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded one year later.
In January 2016, 20 kilograms of plutonium were brought from PSI to the USA. According to a newspaper report, material has been held since the 1960s in a secret federal plutonium store for the then planned construction of an atomic bomb. The Federal Council contradicted this statement: The plutonium-239 content of the material was below 92 percent, so it was not weapons-grade. Rather, the material, after it had been obtained from reprocessed fuel rods from the Diorit research reactor, which was operated from 1960 to 1977 , was to be used to develop a new generation of fuel element types for nuclear power plants. But that never happened. After the nuclear phase-out decision in 2011 at the latest, it was clear that the material would no longer be used in Switzerland. In 2014, at the nuclear safety summit , the Federal Council decided to dissolve the Swiss plutonium deposit and transferred it to the USA for further storage on the basis of an existing bilateral agreement.
| Term of office | director |
| 1988-1990 | Jean-Pierre Blaser |
| 1990-1991 | Anton Menth |
| 1991-1992 | Wilfred Hirt (Interim) |
| 1992-2002 | Meinrad Eberle |
| 2002-2007 | Ralph Eichler |
| 2007-2008 | Martin Jermann (Interim) |
| 2008-2018 | Joël Mesot |
| 2019-2020 | Thierry Strässle (Interim) |
| Since April 1, 2020 | Christian Rüegg |
In July 2017, the SLS succeeded in examining and visualizing the three-dimensional orientation of the magnetization inside a material without affecting the material. The technology is intended to help develop better magnets, for example for motors or data storage.
The long-time director of PSI Joël François Mesot (2008 to 2018) was elected President of ETH Zurich at the end of 2018. From January 2019, his post was temporarily taken over by the physicist and Chief of Staff at PSI Thierry Strässle. Since April 1, 2020, the physicist and former head of the PSI Neutrons and Muons Research Department Christian Rüegg has been Director of PSI.
Numerous companies have been spun off from PSI over the years in order to make the research findings usable for society. The largest spin-off with 120 employees is DECTRIS AG, founded in 2006 in nearby Baden, which has specialized in the development and marketing of X-ray detectors. SwissNeutronics AG was founded in Klingnau in 1999 and sells optical components for neutron research facilities. Several new PSI offshoots such as the manufacturer of metal-organic frameworks novoMOF or the drug developer leadXpro have settled in the Innovaare park, which was founded in 2015 together with the canton of Aargau and several companies, in the vicinity of the PSI.
Research and specialist areas
PSI develops, builds and operates several accelerator facilities , e.g. B. a 590 MeV high-current cyclotron , which delivers a beam current of about 2.2 mA in routine operation. PSI also operates four large-scale research facilities: a synchrotron light source (SLS) of particular brilliance and stability, a spallation neutron source (SINQ), a muon source (SμS) and a free-electron X-ray laser ( SwissFEL ). This means that PSI is currently (2020) the only institute worldwide that offers the four most important probes for researching the structure and dynamics of condensed matter (neutrons, muons and synchrotron radiation) on a campus to the international user community. In addition, the HIPA target systems also produce pions, which feed the muon source, and the ultra-cold neutron source UCN produces very slow, ultra-cold neutrons . All types of particles are used for research in particle physics.
Not least with the help of these systems, research is carried out at PSI in the following areas:
Matter and material
All materials that humans work with are made up of atoms . The interaction between the atoms and their arrangement determine which properties a material has. Most of the researchers in the field of matter and material at PSI want to elucidate this connection between internal structure and observable properties for different substances. Basic research within this area contributes to the development of new materials for a wide variety of applications, for example for electrical engineering , medicine , telecommunications , all areas of mobility , new energy storage devices , quantum computers and applications in spintronics . Phenomena such as superconductivity , ferro- and antiferromagnetism , spin fluids and topological insulators are examined .
Neutrons are used intensively for materials research at PSI because they offer unique and non-destructive access to the interior of materials on a length scale ranging from atoms to centimeter-sized objects. They are therefore an ideal probe for studying fundamental and applied research topics. For example: quantum spin systems and their possibilities for use in future computer technologies; the functionalities of complex lipid membranes and their use for the transport and targeted release of active pharmaceutical ingredients; the structure of novel materials for energy storage as key components in intelligent energy networks.
In particle physics , the researchers at PSI investigate the structure and properties of the innermost part of matter and what holds it together. The standard model of elementary particles is checked using muons, pions and ultra-cold neutrons, fundamental natural constants are determined and theories that go beyond the standard model are tested. Particle physics at PSI holds many records, including the most precise determination of the coupling constants of the weak interaction and the most precise measurement of the charge radius of the proton. Some experiments are looking for effects that are not provided for in the Standard Model, but which could resolve inconsistencies in the theory or solve unexplained phenomena from astrophysics and cosmology. So far, their results are in line with the Standard Model. For example, the upper limit measured by the MEG experiment for the hypothetical decay of positive muons into positron and photon and the upper limit of the permanent electrical dipole moment in the neutron.
In addition to particle physics, muons are also used in solid state physics and in materials science. The muon spin spectroscopy method (µSR) is used to examine basic properties and technologically relevant aspects in magnetic and superconducting materials as well as in semiconductors , insulators and semiconductor structures (e.g. solar cell materials).
energy and Environment
In this area, the researchers deal with all aspects of human energy use - with the aim of making the energy supply more sustainable. Among other things: new technologies for the use of renewable energies , low-loss energy storage, energy efficiency , low-pollutant combustion, fuel cells , experimental and model-based evaluation of energy and material cycles , environmental influences of energy production and consumption, nuclear energy research (in particular reactor safety and disposal ).
In order to specifically answer questions about seasonal energy storage and sector coupling, PSI operates the ESI (Energy System Integration) test platform, on which research and industry can test promising approaches to integrating renewable energies into the energy system - for example the storage of excess electricity from solar or wind power in the form of hydrogen or methane .
A technology developed with the help of the ESI platform at PSI and successfully tested together with the Zurich energy supplier Energie 360 ° that extracts significantly more methane gas from bio-waste was awarded the Watt d'Or 2018 by the Swiss Federal Office of Energy .
PSI maintains a platform for catalysis research. Catalysis is a central component of various energy conversion processes, for example in fuel cells, water electrolysis or methanation of carbon dioxide.
PSI also operates a smog chamber, which can be used to test the pollutant emissions of various energy generation processes and the behavior of the corresponding substances in the atmosphere.
PSI researchers are also investigating the effects of energy generation on the atmosphere on site, for example in the Alps, in the polar regions of the world or in China.
The area of nuclear energy and safety is dedicated to the preservation of nuclear expertise and the training of scientists and engineers in nuclear energy. For example, PSI maintains one of the few laboratories in Europe for examining fuel rods in commercial reactors. The department works closely with ETH Zurich , EPFL and the University of Bern - for example when it comes to using high-performance computers or the EPFL's CROCUS research reactor .
Man and health
PSI is one of the leading institutions worldwide in the research and application of proton therapy for the treatment of cancer. Cancer patients have been successfully treated with a special form of radiation therapy at the Center for Proton Therapy since 1984. To date, more than 7,500 patients with eye tumors have been irradiated (as of 2020). The success rate with eye therapy (OPTIS) is over 98 percent.
In 1996 an irradiation device (gantry 1) was equipped for the first time for the so-called spot-scanning proton technology developed at PSI. With this technique, tumors deep inside the body are scanned three-dimensionally with a proton beam approximately 5 to 7 mm wide. By superimposing many individual proton spots - for a volume of 1 liter there are approx. 10,000 - the tumor is evenly covered with the necessary radiation dose, which is monitored individually for each individual spot. This allows extremely precise, homogeneous irradiation that is optimally adapted to the mostly irregular shape of the tumor. The surrounding healthy tissue is spared as much as possible. The first gantry was in patient operation from 1996 to the end of 2018. In 2013 the second Gantry 2, developed by PSI itself, went into operation, and in mid-2018 another treatment center, Gantry 3, was opened.
In the field of radiopharmaceuticals , PSI's infrastructure covers the entire spectrum. In particular, the researchers are working there with very small tumors distributed throughout the body. These cannot be treated with conventional radiation therapy. With the help of the proton accelerator and the SINQ neutron source at PSI, however, new, medically usable radionuclides can be produced that are combined with special biomolecules - so-called antibodies - to form therapy molecules . These can find tumor cells selectively and in a targeted manner and mark them with the radioactive isotope. Its radiation can be localized on the one hand with imaging methods such as SPECT or PET and thus enables the diagnosis of tumors and their metastases. On the other hand, it can be dosed in such a way that it also destroys the tumor cells. Several such radioactive substances developed at PSI are in clinical trials, with PSI working closely with universities, clinics and the pharmaceutical industry. If required, PSI also delivers radiopharmaceuticals to local hospitals.
Since the Synchrotron Light Source Switzerland (SLS) was opened, structural biology has been another focus of research in the field of people and health. There one investigates the structure and functionality of biomolecules - preferably in atomic resolution. The PSI researchers are primarily concerned with proteins. Every living cell needs a myriad of these molecules, for example in order to be able to operate metabolism, receive and transmit signals or to divide. The aim is to better understand these life processes and thus to better combat or avoid diseases.
For example, the structure of thread-like structures is being investigated at PSI, which, among other things, pull the chromosomes apart during cell division, the so-called microtubules . These consist of long protein chains, the build-up or breakdown of which is disturbed by chemotherapy in the event of cancer, so that the cancer cells can no longer divide. By closely observing the structure of these proteins and their changes, the researchers can find out exactly where anticancer drugs have to target the microtubules. In addition, thanks to the free-electron X-ray laser SwissFEL, which was opened in 2016, dynamic processes of biomolecules can be analyzed with extremely high temporal resolution at PSI . For example, how certain proteins in the photoreceptors in the retina of our eyes are activated by light. The SwissFEL allows a resolution of less than a trillionth of a second.
Accelerator and large-scale research facilities at PSI
Proton accelerator facility
While the proton accelerator at PSI, which went into operation in 1974, was primarily used for elementary particle physics in its beginnings , today applications for solid-state physics , radiopharmacy and cancer therapy are in the foreground. From the beginning of 100 µA, the performance has been increased by a factor of 24 through constant further development to meanwhile up to 2.4 mA. This is why the system is now called a high-performance proton accelerator, or HIPA (High Intensity Proton Accelerator) for short. In principle, the protons are accelerated to around 80 percent of the speed of light by three successive devices : Cockcroft-Walton, Injektor-2 cyclotron, and ring cyclotron.
Proton Source and Cockcroft-Walton
In a proton source based on cyclotron resonance , the electrons of hydrogen atoms are peeled off using microwaves . What remains are the hydrogen atomic nuclei, each of which consists of only one proton. These protons leave the source at a potential of 60 kilovolts and are then subjected to a further voltage of 810 kilovolts in an accelerator tube. A Cockcroft-Walton accelerator supplies both voltages . With this total of 870 kilovolts, the protons are accelerated to 46 million km / h or 4 percent of the speed of light. The protons are then transported to injector-2.
Injector-1
Injector-1 reached operating currents around 170 µA and peak currents around 200 µA. It was also used for low energy experiments, for OPTIS eye therapy and for the LiSoR experiment as part of the MEGAPIE project. This ring accelerator has been out of service since December 1, 2010.
Injector-2
| Type: | Isochronous spiral back cyclotron |
| Magnets: | 4 pieces |
| Total weight magnets: | 760 t |
| Acceleration elements: | 4 resonators (50 MHz) |
| Extraction energy: | 72 MeV |
The Injector-2, which was put into operation in 1984, an in-house development of the then SIN, replaced the Injector-1 as a single shot machine for the 590 MeV ring cyclotron . In the beginning, alternating operation between injector-1 and injector-2 was possible, but now only injector-2 is used to inject the proton beam into the ring. The new cyclotron made it possible to increase the beam current to 1 to 2 mA, an absolute peak value for the 1980s. Today the Injector-2 delivers a beam current of ≈ 2.2 mA in routine operation and 2.4 mA in high-current operation for 72 MeV, which corresponds to about 38 percent of the speed of light.
Originally two resonators were operated with 150 MHz in flat-top mode in order to obtain a clean separation of the proton orbits, but these are now also used for acceleration. A part of the extracted 72 MeV proton beam can be cut off for isotope production, the main part is injected into the ring cyclotron for further acceleration.
Ring cyclotron
| Type: | Isochronous spiral back cyclotron |
| Magnets: | 8 pieces |
| Total weight magnets: | 2000 t |
| Acceleration elements: | 4 (5) cavities (50 MHz) |
| Extraction energy: | 590 MeV |
The ring cyclotron, which went into operation in 1974, is like the Injektor-2 an in-house development of the SIN and is the heart of the PSI proton accelerator systems. It has a circumference of around 48 m. The protons are accelerated to 80 percent of the speed of light on the approx. 4 km long route that the protons cover over 186 laps in the ring. This corresponds to a kinetic energy of 590 MeV. There are only three of these worldwide, namely: TRIUMF in Vancouver , Canada ; LAMPF in Los Alamos , USA ; and the PSI. The first two only achieved beam currents of 500 µA and 1 mA.
The smaller, fifth cavity , which was also installed in 1979, is operated as a flat-top cavity at 150 megahertz, which significantly increases the number of extracted particles. Since 2008, all of the old aluminum cavities in the ring cyclotron have been replaced by new copper cavities. These allow higher voltage amplitudes and thus a greater acceleration of the protons per revolution. The number of revolutions of the protons in the cyclotron could be reduced from approx. 200 to 186, and the path covered by the protons in the cyclotron decreased from 6 km to 4 km. With a beam current of 2.2 mA, this PSI proton facility is currently the most powerful continuous particle accelerator in the world. The 1.3 MW proton beam is directed to the muon source (SμS) and the spallation neutron source (SINQ).
Muon source
In the middle of the large experimental hall, the proton beam from the ring cyclotron hits two targets - rings made of carbon . When the protons collide with the atomic nuclei of carbon, pions are formed , which decay into muons after about 26 billionths of a second . These muons are then directed by magnets to instruments used in materials science and particle physics. Thanks to the extremely high proton current of the ring cyclotron, the muon source generates the world's most intense muon beams. This allows experiments in particle physics and materials science that cannot be carried out anywhere else.
The muon source (SμS) consists of seven beam lines that scientists use to study various aspects of modern physics. Some materials scientists use them for muon spin spectroscopy experiments. Due to the high muon intensity, PSI is the only place in the world where, thanks to a special process, a muon beam with sufficient intensity and at the same time very low energy of just a few kiloelectron volts is available. These muons are slow enough to use them to examine thin layers of material and surfaces. Six measuring stations (FLAME (from 2021), DOLLY, GPD, GPS, HAL-9500, and LEM) with instruments for a wide variety of applications are available for such examinations.
Particle physicists use some of the beamlines to make high-precision measurements and thus test the limits of the Standard Model.
Spallation neutron source
The SINQ neutron source , which has been in operation since 1996, is the first and at the same time the most powerful of its kind. It delivers a continuous neutron flux of 10 14 n cm −2 s −1 . The protons from the large particle accelerator hit a lead target and knock the neutrons out of the lead nuclei, which are then available for experiments. In addition to thermal neutrons , a moderator made from liquid deuterium also delivers slow neutrons, which have a lower energy spectrum .
The commissioning of the MEGAPIE targets ( mega watt Pi lot- E xperiment) in summer 2006, in which the solid target by one of a lead-bismuth eutectic was replaced, the neutron yield could be increased by about another 80%.
Due to the costly disposal of the MEGAPIE target, the PSI decided in 2009 not to use any other target of this type and instead to further develop the tried and tested solid target. Based on the findings of the MEGAPIE project, a large part of the increase in neutron yield could also be achieved for operation with a solid target.
The SINQ was one of the first systems for which optical guide systems were developed to transport the slow neutrons: The metal-coated glass channels can guide neutrons over long distances (a few tens of meters) by means of total reflection, analogous to light transmission in glass fibers, with little loss of intensity. In the meantime, the efficiency of such neutron guides has steadily increased due to advances in manufacturing technology. Therefore, the PSI decided to do a comprehensive upgrade in 2019. When the SINQ goes back into operation in summer 2020, it will be able to provide an average of five times the number of neutrons for experiments, in a special case even 30 times as much.
In addition to being used for your own research projects, the 15 SINQ instruments are also available to national and international users.
UCN source
Since 2011, PSI has also been operating a second spallation neutron source for generating ultra-cold neutrons (UCN). In contrast to the SINQ, it is operated in a pulsed manner and uses the full beam of HIPA, but usually only every 5 minutes for 8 seconds. The structure is similar to that of the SINQ. In order to cool down the neutrons accordingly, frozen deuterium is used here as a cold moderator at a temperature of 5 Kelvin (corresponds to −268 degrees Celsius). The generated UCN can be stored and observed in the system and in experiments for a few minutes.
COMET cyclotron
This superconducting 250 MeV cyclotron has been in operation for proton therapy since 2007 and supplies the beam for combating tumors in cancer patients. It is the world's first superconducting cyclotron for proton therapy. In the past, part of the proton beam from the ring cyclotron was used for this purpose, but since 2007 the medical facility has been producing its own proton beam independently, which supplies several radiation devices. Other components of the system, the peripheral devices and the control systems have also been improved in the meantime, so that today in more than 7000 operating hours per year an availability of over 98 percent is achieved.
Synchrotron light source
The Swiss Light Source (SLS), an electron synchrotron , has been in operation since August 1, 2001. It works like a kind of combination of an X-ray machine and a microscope to examine a wide variety of substances. In the round structure, the electrons move on a circular path with a circumference of 288 m, emitting synchrotron radiation in a tangential direction. A total of 350 magnets keep the electron beam on its path and focus it; Acceleration cavities ensure a constant speed.
Since 2008, the SLS has been the accelerator with the thinnest electron beam in the world - the researchers and technicians at PSI have worked for this for eight years and adjusted every single one of the many magnets over and over again. The SLS offers a very broad spectrum of synchrotron radiation from infrared light to hard X-rays. This enables researchers to take microscopic images of the interior of objects, materials and tissue, for example to improve materials or develop drugs.
In 2017, a new instrument at the SLS made it possible for the first time to look into a part of a computer chip without destroying it. Structures such as 45 nanometer narrow power lines and 34 nanometer high transistors became visible. With this technology, chip manufacturers, for example, can better check whether their products exactly meet the specifications.
Plans are currently underway under the working title “SLS 2.0” to upgrade the SLS and thereby create a fourth-generation synchrotron light source.
SwissFEL
The SwissFEL free-electron laser was symbolically opened on December 5, 2016 by Federal Councilor Johann Schneider-Ammann. The first ARAMIS beamline was put into operation in 2018 . The second ATHOS beam line is to follow by autumn 2020. There are only four comparable systems in operation worldwide.
Education Centre
The PSI training center has over 30 years of experience in training and further education in the technical and interdisciplinary area and trains over 3000 participants annually.
It offers both specialists and other people who work with ionizing radiation or radioactive material a wide range of basic and advanced training courses. The courses to acquire the relevant expertise are recognized by the Federal Office of Public Health (FOPH) and the Federal Nuclear Safety Inspectorate (ENSI).
It also offers training and further education courses for the employees of the institute as well as interested persons from the ETH domain. Courses on personnel development (such as conflict management , leadership workshops, communication, transferable skills etc.) have been held since 2015 .
The quality of the PSI training center is ISO 29990: 2001 certified.
Cooperation with industry
PSI holds around 100 active patent families. For example in medicine with examination techniques for proton therapy against cancer or for the detection of prions, the causers of mad cow disease . There are others in the field of photoscience with special lithography processes for structuring surfaces, in the environmental field for recycling rare earths , for catalysts or for the gasification of biomass, in materials science and in other areas. PSI maintains its own technology transfer office for patents.
For example, detectors for high-performance X-ray cameras, which were developed for the Synchrotron Light Source Switzerland SLS and with which materials can be represented at the atomic level, have been patented. On this basis, the company DECTRIS was founded, the largest spin-off to date to have emerged from PSI. In 2017, the Lausanne company Debiopharm licensed the active ingredient 177Lu-PSIG-2, which was developed at the Center for Radiopharmaceutical Sciences at PSI. The active ingredient against a type of thyroid cancer is to be further developed under the name DEBIO 1124 and brought to approval and market readiness. Another PSI spin-off, GratXray, works with a phase contrast-based method based on grating interferometry. This was originally developed to characterize synchrotron radiation and will one day become the gold standard for breast examinations in cancer screening. The new technology has already been used in a prototype, for which PSI worked together with Philips.
Web links
Individual evidence
- ↑ Financial report of the EHT Council on the ETH Domain 2019 , on ethrat.ch
- ↑ a b The PSI in brief. Retrieved February 28, 2019 .
- ↑ PSI-Magazin 5232 , edition 3/2018, p. 39
- ↑ Numbers and facts. Retrieved February 28, 2019 .
- ↑ Walter Hagenbüchle: The Paul Scherrer Institute conducts the kind of research that needs staying power, interview with PSI director Joël Mesot. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, October 14, 2018, accessed on February 28, 2019 .
- ↑ Florian Imbach: Lottery Fund Evaluation - Large Institutions in particular benefit. In: srf.ch . January 8, 2020, accessed January 8, 2020 .
- ^ Robin Schwarzenbach: Paul Scherrer - the man at ETH for future issues. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, October 15, 2018, accessed on February 28, 2019 .
- ↑ a b c The history of PSI. Retrieved February 28, 2019 .
- ↑ Leonid Leiva: How rock pores grow over in a deep repository. PSI, January 15, 2014, accessed February 28, 2019 .
- ↑ Proton Therapy at PSI. Accessed June 1, 2020 .
- ↑ Bonani, G. et al .: Age determination of milligram samples of the Ötztal glacier corpse using the accelerator mass spectrometry method (AMS). Report of the 1992 International Symposium in Innsbruck. In: Universität Innsbruck (ed.): Publications of the University of Innsbruck. The man in the ice. 187. Innsbruck 1992, pp. 108-116
- ↑ Proton is smaller than expected. Spiegel Online, July 12, 2010, accessed March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ Proton smaller than expected. PSI, July 8, 2010, accessed March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ Paul Piwnicki decrypted basic structures of vision. PSI, March 9, 2011, accessed March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ Observation of a new particle with a mass of 125 GeV. PSI, July 4, 2012, accessed March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ Switzerland stored plutonium for four atomic bombs , on tagesanzeiger.ch
- ↑ Transfer of plutonium to the USA. Was it weapons grade plutonium? The Swiss Federal Assembly, March 9, 2016, accessed on March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ Swiss plutonium was not weapons-grade. Tagesanzeiger.ch, March 14, 2016, accessed on March 1, 2019 .
- ^ Transport of dissolved plutonium stores of the federal government to the USA has taken place. Federal Department of Economic Affairs, Education and Research, February 26, 2016, accessed on March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ Laura Hennemann: Dive into a magnet. PSI, July 20, 2017, accessed March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ Federal Council elects Gian-Luca Bona to the ETH Board and Thierry Strässle as former director. i. of the PSI. December 14, 2018, accessed March 1, 2019 .
- ^ Spin-off companies. Accessed June 1, 2020 .
- ↑ PSI-Magazin 5232 , Edition 3/2018, pp. 8–20
- ↑ Matter and Material. Accessed June 1, 2020 .
- ↑ Research with neutrons. Accessed June 1, 2020 .
- ↑ Overview: Matter and Material. Retrieved March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ The weak side of the proton. Accessed June 1, 2020 .
- ↑ A decisive decay. Accessed June 1, 2020 .
- ↑ On the trail of the mystery of matter. Accessed June 1, 2020 .
- ^ Research with muons. Accessed June 1, 2020 .
- ↑ ESI experimental platform - new ways to the energy system of the future. Retrieved March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ Urs Baltensperger: Secondary organic aerosol formation in a smog chamber and its link to source apportionment in the real atmosphere. PSI, August 12, 2008, accessed March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ Arctic Ocean 2018. Accessed March 1, 2019 .
- ^ Clean Energy for China. In: Energy mirror. PSI, November 2016, accessed March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ 25 years of successful treatment of eye tumors at PSI. October 15, 2010, accessed March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ Spot scanning. Retrieved March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ Treatment rooms . Accessed June 1, 2020 .
- ↑ Sabine Goldhahn: Meeting the cancer inside. PSI, April 21, 2016, accessed March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ Debiopharm International SA and the Paul Scherrer Institute announce a licensing agreement for the development of a novel targeted Radiotherapeutic product in Oncology. Accessed June 1, 2020 .
- ↑ This radioactive drug can only be used for 90 minutes - and is still in great demand. Accessed June 1, 2020 .
- ↑ Overview: People and Health. Retrieved March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ Molecular scissors stabilize the cell cytoskeleton. Accessed June 1, 2020 .
- ^ Molecular Mechanism of Action of Microtubule-Stabilizing Anticancer Agents. Accessed June 1, 2020 .
- ↑ Biological light sensor filmed in action. Accessed June 1, 2020 .
- ↑ a b Paul Piwnicki: The proton accelerator at PSI: 40 years cutting-edge research. PSI, February 24, 2014, accessed March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ The proton accelerator facility at PSI. Retrieved March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ Laura Hennemann: A reliable guy from the 80s. PSI, September 23, 2014, accessed March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ Injector 2: A pre-accelerator for protons. Retrieved June 2, 2020 .
- ↑ The proton accelerator facility at PSI. Accessed June 1, 2020 .
- ↑ The muon source SμS. Retrieved March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ PSI-Magazin 5232 , Edition 3/2018, p. 6
- ↑ Research with muons. Retrieved March 2, 2019 .
- ^ SINQ: The Swiss Spallation Neutron Source. Retrieved June 2, 2020 .
- ↑ Post Irradiation Examination of MEGAPIE - How radiochemical analytics helps looking inside a high-power liquid metal spallation target. Retrieved June 2, 2020 .
- ^ Bernhard Lauss: Startup of the high-intensity ultracold neutron sourceat the Paul Scherrer Institute. In: CORE. Springer Science, March 2, 2012, accessed June 2, 2020 .
- ↑ COMET cyclotron. Retrieved March 1, 2019 .
- ^ Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI): Swiss Lightsource SLS (home)
- ↑ The Synchrotron Light Source Switzerland SLS. Retrieved March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ Paul Piwnicki: 3-D X-ray image makes the finest details of a computer chip visible. PSI, March 16, 2017, accessed March 1, 2019 .
- ^ SLS-2 - the upgrade of the Swiss Light Source. Retrieved March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ PSI Annual Report , 2017 edition, p. 11
- ↑ Laura Hennemann: First experiment successfully carried out at SwissFEL. PSI, December 7, 2017, accessed March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ Training and further education in the PSI training center. Retrieved March 1, 2019 .
- ↑ Intellectual property at PSI. Retrieved June 2, 2020 .
- ↑ Technology transfer at the Paul Scherrer Institute. Retrieved June 2, 2020 .
- ↑ PSI magazine 5232 , issue 2/2020
- ↑ Sabine Goldhahn: From researcher to entrepreneur. In: PSI-Magazin 5232. PSI, March 1, 2018, accessed on June 2, 2020 .
Coordinates: 47 ° 32 '10 " N , 8 ° 13' 22" E ; CH1903: six hundred fifty-nine thousand and forty-three / 265337