Santal (people)

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Landless Santal in the city of Dinajpur , Bangladesh (2010)
Santal homestead in Dinajpur, Bangladesh (2014)
Santal with a bow and arrow in Bolpur, West Bengal (1923)

The Santal - also Santhal or Saonta, Saonthal, Saunta - are an indigenous people in India , Bangladesh and Nepal . In India, with around 6.6 million members in 2011, they form the third largest ethnic group among around 700 “recognized tribes” ( Scheduled Tribes ).

population

The main settlement areas of the Santal are in the Indian states of Jharkhand (2.8 million members), West Bengal (2.5 million), Odisha (0.9 million) and Bihar (0.4 million), as well as in northeastern Bangladesh , in Terai in Nepal and in Bhutan . Santal usually live in villages with 400 to 1000 inhabitants, in larger industrial cities they live in their own quarters. Wherever there is mixed living - especially in smaller towns - they also live in the vicinity of members of the lower castes , but never with Dalit .

In 5  states the resident Santal are recognized as Scheduled Tribe (ST: "registered tribal community"), which according to the constitution of India is entitled to state protection and support measures. The census in India 2011 determined a total of 6,570,800 Santal in the 5 ST.

The following list compares social indicators of the resident Santal tribal communities in 5 states:

  • Population of the state (see comparison list of Indian states )
  • Santal: a total of 6.57 million in India
  • Population growth from 2001: India-wide growth of 12.6% (from 5.8 million; population growth in India: +17.6%)
  • Share of the respective population - the Santal make up 0.5% of the population of India (1,210,855,000)
  • rural areas - only 5.6% of all Santals live in cities (India-wide: 31%)
  • Gender distribution : number of female to 1000 male persons (balanced would be 1000: 1000) - with 1007 there are more women among the Santals (India: 943)
  • under 7: children from 0 to 6 years and their gender distribution from girls to 1000 boys - here too the Santals are higher than India (919: 1000) with 976
  • Reading ability (from 7 years), also for men (♂) and women (♀), as well as the gap between the two - the Santal with 53% alphabets are well below the values ​​of India (74%; 82% ♂ and 65% ♀ = 17% gap)
  • ST (Scheduled Tribes): the registration as a "tribal community" is only valid for the residents of a state (see ST list ) - the 5 ST of the Santal make up 6.3% of the 705 ST in India (104 million), behind the Gond and the Bhil (compare the 33 largest indigenous peoples of India )
State Residents Santal From 2001 onwards proportion of rural Female under 7 Female read ♂ ♀ gap ST proportion of
36 IndiaIndia India 1,210.9 million 6,570,807 + 12.6  % 0.54  % 94.34  % 1007  : 1000 15.59  % 976  : 1000 52.6  % 64.3  % 41.0  % 23.3  % 5 6.30%
1 Jharkhand 33.0 million 2,754,723 + 14.3% 8.35% 94.71% 1009: 1000 16.75% 975: 1000 50.8% 62.9% 39.0% 23.9% 1 41.92%
2 West Bengal 91.3 million 2,512,331 + 10.2% 2.75% 94.02% 1012: 1000 13.55% 979: 1000 54.7% 66.1% 43.5% 22.6% 1 38.23%
3 Odisha (Orissa) 42.0 million 894.764 + 15.1% 2.13% 92.65% 1008: 1000 16.25% 972: 1000 55.6% 68.1% 43.3% 24.8% 1 13.62%
4th Bihar 104.1 million 406.076 + 10.5% 0.39% 97.55% 0966: 1000 18.89% 972: 1000 43.1% 53.1% 32.7% 20.4% 1 6.18%
5 Tripura 3.7 million 2,913 + 35.4% 0.08% 96.29% 0924: 1000 14.76% 982: 1000 71.0% 78.7% 62.6% 16.1% 1 0.04%

The Christian missionary Joshua Project lists the Santal at the beginning of 2019 with a total of 8,211,600 members, 642,000 of them in Bangladesh, 50,000 in Nepal and 5,600 in Bhutan.

In 1971 the Assam census came to 3.6 million santals (excluding migrant workers ); an estimate based on this for 1990 was more than 4 million santals.

language

A keyboard with characters in the Santali alphabet - Ol Chiki

The Santali is the most spoken language of the Munda subgroup of the Austro-Asiatic language family . In 1925, Raghunath Murmu developed the letter font Ol Chiki , which did justice to the phonetic characteristics of Santali.

For 2011, 7,368,200 speakers of Santali and its dialects are counted, in addition to the 6,973,300 speakers of the main language 358,600 Karmali and 26,400 Mahili speakers and around 9,900 others. This means that the Santali is spoken by more Indian residents than the officially counted 6,570,800 Santal members.

In 2018, the linguistic compilation Ethnologue lists 225,000 Santali speakers for Bangladesh and 50,900 for Nepal .

economy

The vast majority of the Santals are active in agriculture , with a significant proportion engaged in subsistence farming . In agriculture - as in the manufacture of items required for daily use - the tasks are gender-specifically distributed. For decades, however, part of the population has also been moving to the industrial centers of the country as migrant workers, seasonally or permanently.

Economic prosperity is demonstrated by the fact that families can afford domestic workers or field workers.

Social organization

Santal society is patrilineal and strictly endogamous . It is divided into 12 clans (" Paris "), which in turn consist of 164 sub-clans. Below this level, the social order results from the criteria older / younger and pure / impure. There are differences in prestige between the clans, but they do not play a major role in everyday life. Society is largely organized in an egalitarian manner. Although ancestry is an important social criterion, the concrete memory of the ancestors only goes back three or four generations to go back further in the mythical realm.

family

There are different models of how the spouses can live together. The standard is that the man pays a bride price to the woman's family of origin and the woman then lives with him. For destitute men it is also possible to work off the bride price at the bride's place of residence and then to live in the village of the woman's family. Unmarried mothers can marry, widows can marry again, levirate (marriage in law: marriage of a brother of the deceased), polygyny ( polygyny ) and divorce by mutual agreement are possible. It is common for the sons to live with their wife in the father's household, but small families living separately are also possible. The inheritance is subject to complicated rules that favor male heirs over female heirs.

Raising children is the responsibility of the grandparents. At the age of 8 to 10, boys go through an initiation rite in which an uncle on their mother's side marks the forearms with five scars. Girls undergo an initiation ceremony after their first menstruation . Modern schooling is a problem because of the shortage of teachers in rural areas.

Political organization

In the political sphere, the social order is overlaid by the authority of the chiefs and priests . These are part of a “council of elders” in the village, which consists of the priest's assistant, the person responsible for youth morality and the village messenger. Opposite these is the village assembly, which has no hierarchical structure. This is where disputes within the village community are settled. The most common disputes are sexual assault, land, debt, the evil eye , jealousy and witchcraft ; the latter allegation is often made. The witch is identified by magic and has traditionally been sentenced to death. The same was true for incest and breaking the law of endogamy. All other violations of the order were usually compensated with compensation payments.

In the group of about 12 villages there is a "chief chief" (Pargana) ; Its competence is the formal settlement of disputes in a court and the organization of cross-village hunts . Often such large hunting events and the court sessions take place at the same time.

religion

According to the 2011 census in India , the total of 6.57 million Santals are 63% Hindus ( India: 80% ) and 5.5% Christian ( Christians in India : 2.3%); 0.2% are Muslim (India: 14%). In contrast to the two large indigenous ethnic groups, Bhil and Gond , the Santal have a large number of followers of ethnic religions and new religious movements : 31% are not followers of the 6 major Indian religions. The old animistic religion "Sarna" has 1.5 million followers (23%), "Sari Dharma" has 478,200 followers, "Bidin" 27,600 and "Santal" 4,800 followers, a further 17 smaller religions have a total of 7,400 followers (compare the largest ethnic religions of India ).

The list calculates the shares of the Santal, which one of the six major religions in India belong to or under "Other religions and beliefs" (Other Religions and Persuasions) specified - atheist (without faith in Divinity) are only 102 Santal in Odisha (cf. Atheism in India ):

2011
Indian census 		00fSantal 6,570,80700f
 fJharkhand 2,754,723f
 West Bengal
2,512,331 		0fOdisha 894.7640f
 00Bihar 406.07600
 0fTripura 2,9130f
religion 100% 42% 38% 14% 6% 0.04%
1. Hindus 63.146%0 54.274%0 68.147%0 63.299%0 91.832%0 94.027%0
2. Muslims 0.198% 0.203% 0.211% 0.103% 0.292% 0.309%
3. Christians 5.464% 8,578% 3.625% 0.842% 5.893% 5.596%
4th Sikhs 0.015% 0.017% 0.014% 0.011% 0.012%
5. Buddhists 0.017% 0.020% 0.015% 0.007% 0.029%
6th Jainas 0.005% 0.006% 0.005% 0.003% 0.007% 0.034%
7th Other R. u. Ü. 30.896%0 36.628%0 27.748%0 35.521%0 1.526% 0%
7.1 "Sarna" 22.997%0 35.457%0 8.419% 35.433%0 1.424%
7.2 "Sari Dharma" 7.278% 19.034%0
7.3 "Bidin" 0.420% 0.992% 0.011%
7.4 " Santal " 0.073% 0.034% 0.132% 0.019% 0.085%
7.5 …Further… 0.112% 0.126% 0.136% 0.053%
7.9 unclassified 0.017% 0.018% 0.016% 0.017% 0.017%
8th. Without specification 0.258% 0.273% 0.235% 0.213% 0.408% 0.034%
Real numbers of religious followers  
2011         alle Santal:  Jharkhand  Westbeng. Odisha   Bihar   Tripura
Santal:          6570807 =  2754723 + 2512331 + 894764 + 406076 +   2913
------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Hindus        4149215 =  1495105 + 1712085 + 566377 + 372909 +   2739
2. Muslims         13014 =     5590 +    5304 +    925 +   1186 +      9
3. Christians     359002 =   236304 +   91074 +   7531 +  23930 +    163
4. Sikhs             987 =      481 +     361 +     96 +     49 +      0
5. Buddhists        1121 =      564 +     375 +     63 +    119 +      0
6. Jains             348 =      172 +     115 +     30 +     30 +      1
7. Other R & P   2030146 =  1008997 +  697120 + 317833 +   6196 +      0
8. Not Stated      16974 =     7510 +    5897 +   1909 +   1657 +      1

„7. Other Religions and Persuasions“ (2,03 Mio. von 6,57 Mio. = 30,9 %):
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sarna            1511078 =   976742 +  211516 + 317038 +   5782
Sari Dharma       478193 =        0 +  478193
Bidin              27602 =    27331 +     271
Santal              4771 =      938 +    3321 +    166 +    346
Sumra Sandhi        2059 =     2059 +       0
Sarvdharm           1495 =      113 +    1382
Addi Bassi          1100 =      478 +     561 +     61
Kharwar              385 =      385 +       0
Sant                 356 =        0 +     356
Saran                352 =        0 +     352
Achinthar            273 =      273 +       0
Tribal Religion      245 =        0 +     245
sarin                185 =        0 +     185
Marangboro           167 =       87 +      80
Sarvdharm            130 =        0 +       0 +    130
Seran                125 =        0 +     125
Atheist              102 =        0 +       0 +    102
Saranath              95 =        0 +       0 +     95
Tribal Religion       86 =        0 +       0 +     86
Adi                   84 =       84 +       0
Alchichi              78 =        0 +      78
Saranath              62 =        0 +      62
Other unclassified  1123 =      507 +     393 +    155 +     68

The Christian missionary Joshua Project lists the allegedly 642,000 Santals in Bangladesh as 54.4% Hindu, 9.5% Christian and 35.2% "unknown"; the 50,000 Santals in Nepal : 86.6% Hindus, 7% Christians and 5.6% unknown; the 5,600 Santals in Bhutan : 68.4% Hindus, 2.6% Christian and 29% unknown.

Ethnic religion

Place of worship of the Sarna religion during the Baha festival in the village of Gobindpur ( Odisha , 2018)
During the Sarhul festival, a Santal priest performs ceremonies (Gobindpur, Odisha, 2018)
"Gosanne": place of worship of the Santal (2018)

The religion of the Santal worships Thakurdji as the supreme deity ; Although it is responsible for the whole universe, it is thought very abstractly.

Bonga

Central to the belief is an assembly of supreme spirits, the bonga , of which there are 150 and each is responsible for different aspects of life and the world. At the same time, the deceased become bongas. Bongas tend to be friendly. However, this does not apply to the bongas of the forest, which also include the ghosts of those who died an unnatural death. You are hostile to people.

The Bonga be prayers and sacrifices addressed to exorcise the evil. In the case of sacrifices, animals are offered, usually birds. This happens through priests (Lodschhas, Naeke) , male persons who are also well versed in medicine, prophecy and sorcery . Together with their wife they represent the pair of mythical origins from which the Santals derive their descent. The main task of the priest is to lead the sacrificial ceremonies at the festivals held annually by the whole village in the holy grove. Some of the festivals relate to the agricultural cycle, others to other important events in life, such as birth, marriage and funeral. Spirits have different spheres of activity: the individual household, the village, the level of the sub-clan or the area of ​​the ancestors. The most important spirit is Maran Buru (Great Mountain), who is invoked with every victim. He brought the santal sex and rice beer . His wife is Jaher Era (mistress of the sacred grove ). Evil spirits can cause disease, inhabit the village boundary, appear in the mountains, in the water, in tigers and in the forest.

rites

Events in life such as birth, marriage and funeral are accompanied by religious rites. The sacred forest (Jaher) on the edge of the settlement is characteristic of a Santal village. This is where the bonga live. Religious practices of the Santal have taken elements from Hinduism over time. The most important religious festivals of the Santals include the Baha Festival and the Sohrai Festival .

healer

The Odschha is a healer whose practices range between magical acts (sacrificing one's own blood to the bonga) and profound pharmaceutical knowledge of the healing power of around 300 plants.

death

The soul is - assuming the proper rituals were carried out - after three generations to Bonga. These rituals include the following sequence:

  • The corpse is cremated.
  • The main victim (usually the eldest son of the deceased) collects the remaining bones.
  • These are kept for some time under the rafters of the house, covered with flowers, and ritually supplied with milk, rice beer and holy water by female victims for a long time.
  • The main victim is possessed by the deceased and embodies him during a conversation with the priest, which serves to familiarize him with the world beyond.
  • A year later the bones are washed and a goat is sacrificed, making the deceased an ancestor known by name.
  • A month later, a ritual is performed that will rid him of his name. He becomes a nameless ancestor and goes into the underworld. He is now also part of the ancestors who are worshiped in the back room of the house and to whom rice beer is offered there.
  • In a further step, the deceased becomes a bonga. How this happens is never discussed.

Culture

Santal dance group (2012)
Dhodro banam : violin-like string instruments from Bihar (2013)
Drummer with a tumdak (2012)

Living

The traditional Santal house is built from clay and can be decorated on the outer walls with painted decorations - often floral patterns. It has a veranda from which the outer space of a house can be accessed. A house always has at least two rooms. The rear room is used to store the grain, over which the ancestors watch and to which sacrifices are made there. On the dividing line between the two rooms stands the central post, to which sacrifices are made when the building is erected and which is also ritually important.

performing Arts

Dance plays a huge role in the culture of the Santal. Often the dance is accompanied by two drums : the tamak and the tumdak.

Chadar Badar is a publicly performed puppet theater . The 10 to 15 cm tall marionettes are moved by a puppeteer, who tells the story and is accompanied by musicians. In order to preserve this art, a national doll museum was set up in Kankurgachi . Narrators enjoy a higher social status. The oral tradition is extensive.

Visual arts

Woodwork and carving , as well as ironwork, were part of the visual arts , but are now in decline in view of inexpensive industrial mass production. This also includes the artistic exterior painting of the residential buildings.

Literati

The most famous literary voices of the Santal include Maina Tudu for their poetry and Hansda Sowvendra Shekhar for his prose. Both have been awarded the Yuva Puraskar of the Sahitya Academy for their work .

Cinematography

The Santal produce their own films, which are mainly distributed on YouTube and on CD. In Jharkhand , a focus of this film industry called Jhollywood has developed for Adivasis . The further development of this industry is slowed down by the lack of support from official bodies. Well-known Santals films that have also been shown in cinemas and shown at film festivals include Chando Likhon , Sagun Ena Sohag Dular, and Jewee Jurie. In 2008, Sitanala Re Sagun Supari was the first Santal feature film to be shown at an international film festival, the Nepal International Indigenous Film Festival.

Customs

The hunting in the forest is an important, even in religious rites embedded, collective matter of the village, in which all men participate. Successful hunting is also a victory over the evil spirits of the forest. Arrow and bow are not only important here, but playing at numerous - an important role actions - even religious.

history

immigration

The oldest settlement area of ​​the Santal that can be developed is being reconstructed in northern Cambodia based on language and cultural features . Before the Aryan immigration to India, they came to the subcontinent via Bengal and Assam . In their own mythical lore, they founded a kingdom here. The remains of fortifications on hills are assigned to this period.

Originally the Santals were a hunter-gatherer culture. This is still reflected today in the fact that extensive knowledge about medicinal plants is handed down and traditionally more than 80 different types of traps for hunting are known. After a phase in which agriculture was carried out by slash and burn , the cultivation of rice in wet culture is now the focus of their agriculture. Originally the land was owned by family associations. It was not until the British colonial regime that individual ownership of land was introduced.

Colonial times

In pre-colonial times the Santals were outside the traditional states. When the British colonial power increasingly conquered the areas settled by the Santals for their colonial empire in the middle of the 19th century and demanded rent and taxes for the products of the forest, the Santal uprising occurred from 1856 to 1858 , almost simultaneously with the Sepoy uprising 1857 . Both revolts were put down. Since the British India Constitution came into force in 1935 ( Government of India Act 1935 ), the Santal have been legally recorded as a protected minority.

Indian Union

Since the 1949 Constitution (Article 342), the Santal are considered one of the " Scheduled Tribes " classified. This is intended to enable specific funding. Due to the unsatisfactory social situation in many parts, parts of the Santal sympathize with the Naxalites and the Jharkhand Tribalist Movement , whereby there is occasional cooperation with Mundari- speaking activists.

Bangladesh

In Bangladesh there have been repeated reports of ethnic violence from Bengal against the local minority of Santal. On November 6, 2016, violence broke out against a Santal community in a village in Upazila Gobindaganj, Gaibandha District . Several members of the Santal were killed and their village was completely burned down.

literature

  • 1974: WG Archer: The Hill of Flutes: Life, Love, and Poetry in Tribal India: A Portrait of the Santals. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh 1974.
  • 1925: Paul Olaf Bodding: Santal Folk Tales. Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA 1925.
  • 1940: Paul Olaf Bodding: Santal Riddles and Witchcraft among the Santals. Oslo 1940.
  • 1925–1940: Paul Olaf Bodding: Studies in Santal Medicine and Connected Folklore 3 volumes. 1925-1940.
  • 1942: Paul Olaf Bodding: Traditions and institutions of Santals. New Delhi 1942 (reprint 2001: Gyan Publishing House, ISBN 8121206723 ).
  • 1994: Byomkes Chakrabarti: A Comparative Study of Santali and Bengali. Calcutta 1994.
  • 1973: Indu Roy Chaudhury: Folk Tales of the Santals (= Folk Tales of India. Volume 13). New Delhi 1973.
  • 1949: WJ Culshaw: Tribal Heritage: a Study of the Santals. London 1949.
  • 1992: Sarwat S. Elahi: Santal. In: Paul Hockings (Ed.): Encyclopedia of World Cultures. Volume 3: South Asia. New York 1992, ISBN 0-81611-808-6 , pp. 252-256.
  • 1988: PC Hembram: Sari-Sarna (Santhal Religion). Mittal Publications, Delhi 1988, ISBN 81-7099-044-0 .
  • 1996: Timotheas Hembrom: The Santals: Anthropological-Theological Reflections on Santali & Biblical Creation Traditions. Calcutta 1996.
  • 1909: Cecil Henry, Paul Olaf Bodding: Folklore of the Santal Parganas. London 1909 ( online at gutenberg.org).
  • 1965: Martin Orans: The Santal: a Tribe in Search of a Great Tradition. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1965.
  • 1985: Onkar Prasad: Santal Music: A Study in Pattern and Process of Cultural Persistence (= Tribal Studies of India. Volume 115). New Delhi 1985.
  • 1976: J. Troisi: A Classified and Annotated Bibliography. New Delhi 1976.
  • 2000: J. Troisi: Tribal Religion: Religious Beliefs and Practices among the Santals. New Delhi 2000.
  • 2009: Barbara A. West: Santal (Santhal, Saontas, Saonthals, Sauntas). In: Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase, New York 2009, ISBN 978-0-8160-7109-8 , pp. 706-709 (brief description; reading excerpt in the Google book search).

Web links

Commons : Santal  - Collection of images and media files

Individual evidence

  • ( e ): Sarwat S. Elahi: Santal. In: Paul Hockings (Ed.): Encyclopedia of World Cultures. Volume 3: South Asia. New York 1992, ISBN 0-81611-808-6 , pp. 252-256 (English).
  1. ↑ a b c d e p. 252.
  2. ↑ a b c d p. 253.
  3. ↑ a b c p. 253/254.
  4. ↑ a b c d e f g p. 254.
  5. ↑ a b c d e f p. 255.
  6. ↑ pp. 252/253.
  • Other documents
  1. ↑ a b Numbers of the Santal in 5 states (2011): Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Statistics Division: Statistical Profile of Scheduled Tribes in India 2013. Government of India, New Delhi 2013, p. 141 (“Santhal”) and 148– 158iv (English; PDF: 18.1 MB, 448 pages on tribal.nic.in).
  2. ↑ Numbers of the individual Santal ST per country (2011): Census of India 2011: A-11: Individual Scheduled Tribe Primary Census Abstract Data. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner India, New Delhi 2019 (English; download overview );
    → 5 national Excel tables: Jharkhand , West Bengal , Odisha , Bihar , Tripura .
  3. ↑ 5,838,016 Santal in the 2001 census: Ministry of Tribal Affairs: Report of the High Level Committee on Socio-Economic, Health and Educational Status of Tribal Communities Of India. Government of India, New Delhi May 2014, p. 47 (English; extensive evaluation; PDF: 5.0 MB, 431 pages on indiaenvironmentportal.org.in);
    Quotation: "As per the 2001 census, the tribe with the largest population is the Bhil (12689952) followed by the Gond (10859422), the Santal (5838016) and the Mina (3800002)."
    → Numbers of the individual Santal STs State (2001): Census of India 2001: ST-14: Scheduled Tribe Population by Religious Community (for each tribe separately). The Registrar General & Census Commissioner India, New Delhi 2014 (English);
    → 5 national Excel tables: Census Digital Library. Instructions: First, select the census year "2001", then on the screen where Tabulations plan of Census Year - 2011 below the point Special Tables for Scheduled Tribes (ST Series) click, from ST 9 to ST-16 Select then ST-14: Click on Scheduled tribe population by religious community and select the desired state from the long list that appears or from the pull-down menu: Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Bihar, Tripura - there the members of the individual Scheduled Tribes for each state are listed in detailed XLS - Excel tables listed alphabetically, including the Gond; However, only "ST.htm" is offered as a download name - this name must be changed to "ST state name " before saving . xls ”in order to be able to load it as an Excel table and avoid overwriting.
  4. ↑ a b Compare the Joshua Project entry for ethnic group number 14743 "Santal" on joshuaproject.net.
  5. ↑ Santali Spokesman (7.368.192): Census of India 2011: Paper 1 of 2018: Language - India, States and Union Territories (Table C-16). Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner India, New Delhi 2018, p. 7: Table Statement 1, Part-A: Languages ​​Specified in the Eighth Schedule (Scheduled Languages) (English; PDF: 945 kB, 52 pages on censusindia. gov.in).
  6. ↑ Ethnologue -Lexikon: Santhali: A language of India. 2018, accessed March 5, 2019.
  7. ↑ a b c All religious followers of the Scheduled Tribes as individual download for each state:
    Cenus of India 2011: ST-14: Scheduled Tribe Population by Religious Community. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner India, New Delhi 2019, accessed on February 5, 2019 (English; download overview );
    plus appendices to “Other Religions and Beliefs”: ST-14 A: Details Of Religions Shown Under 'Other Religions and Persuasions' in Main Table (for each tribe separately). ( Download overview );
    1. Jharkhand: ST-14: Main Religions. + ST-14 Appendix: Other Religions (State 20).
    2. West Bengal: ST-14: Main Religions. + ST-14 Appendix: Other Religions (State 19).
    3. Odisha / Orissa: ST-14: Main Religions. + ST-14 Appendix: Other Religions (State 21).
    4. Bihar: ST-14: Main Religions. + ST-14 Appendix: Other Religions (State 10).
    5. Tripura: ST-14: Main Religions. + 0 "Other religions and beliefs".
  8. ↑ James Heitzman, Robert L. Worden: Tribal Religions. In: The same (ed.): India: A Country Study. GPO for the Library of Congress , Washington 1995 (English; online at countrystudies.us).
  9. ↑ PC Hebram Sari Sarna . Mittal Publications, New Delhi 1988, ISBN 81-7099-044-0 , pp. 42-47 (English).
  10. ^ Sampa Ghosh, Utpal Kumar Banerjee: Indian Puppets. Abhinav Publications, New Delhi 2006, ISBN 9788170174356 , p. 494 (English).
  11. ↑ M. Ganguly: Tug at heartstrings of tribal heritage - Obscure Santhal puppetry Chadar Badar gets new lease of life. In: The Telegraph. Calcutta, January 7, 2011, accessed February 25, 2019.
  12. ↑ Website Administrator: An indigenous film industry for large indigenous populations: 'Jhollywood' tells the stories of modern Adivasis in Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam & Manipur. April 15, 2013, accessed May 15, 2020 (UK English).
  13. ^ Santali films not getting government help: AISFA. Retrieved May 15, 2020 .
  14. ↑ Bigger Santhali film fest. Retrieved May 15, 2020 .
  15. ↑ Soren's celluloid party. Retrieved May 15, 2020 .
  16. ↑ Orissa celluloid salute to Santhali. Retrieved May 15, 2020 .
  17. ↑ First international platform for Santhali film - Dashrath Hansdah's award-winning work to be screened at Nepal festival for indigenous movies. Retrieved May 15, 2020 .
  18. ^ Edward Duyker : Tribal Guerrillas: The Santals of West Bengal and the Naxalite Movement. New Delhi 1987, ISBN 0-19-561938-2 , pp. 201 ff. (English).
  19. ↑ Nure Alam Durjoy, Mohammed Tazul Islam: Santal people's fate remains unchanged. In: Dhaka Tribune. November 11, 2016, accessed February 26, 2019 .