Hindi

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Hindī
हिन्दी, हिंदी
Native toIndia, Pakistan, Nepal, Fiji
Devanagari script
Official status
Official language in
 India
 Fiji (as Hindustani)
Regulated byCentral Hindi Directorate (only in India)[1]
Language codes
ISO 639-1hi
ISO 639-2hin
ISO 639-3hin – inclusive code
Individual codes:
hin – Khariboli
anp – Angika
awa – Awadhi
bho – Bhojpuri
gbm – Garhwali
hne – Chhattisgarhi
kfy – Kumaoni
mag – Magadhi
mai – Maithili
raj – Rajasthani

Hindi (pronunciationⓘ, Devanagari: हिन्दी or हिंदी, IAST: [hi] Error: {{Transliteration}}: unrecognized language / script code: Hindī (help), IPA: [hɪnd̪iː]), an Indo-European language spoken mainly in northern and central India, is the official language of India along with English.[2][3] It is part of a language continuum of the Indic family, bounded on the northwest and west by Punjabi, Sindhi, and Gujarati; on the south by Marathi and Konkani; on the southeast by Oriya; on the east by Bengali; and on the north by Nepali.

More narrowly, Hindi also refers to a standardized register of Hindustani termed khariboli, that emerged as the standard dialect.

Etymology

Origin of word Hindi can be traced back to Sanskrit word Sindhu (Sanskrit: सिन्धु). Zoroastrians who were India's immediate neighbors pronounced "Sindhu" as "Hindu" in their Avestan language. Using the word "Hindu" for "Sindhu", they referred to the people who lived near or across the Sindhu River as "Hindu" and their home as "Hindustan". The Sanskrit word Sindhu in its Avestan form Hindu (for Indian people), Hind (for Indian country) and Hindi (for Indian language) passed on to later Iranian languages like Pahlavi and Persian.[citation needed]

In modern contexts, the word Hindī comprises Hind "India", and the adjectival suffix ī. Hence Hindī translates to "Indian". In modern times, Hindī as taken to mean "Indian" is chiefly obsolete; it now specifically refers to the language bearing that name.[4]

Demographics

Area

Stotra text in Devanagari script

Hindi is the predominant language in the Indian states and union territories of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Linguistic scholars refer to this area as the Hindi belt. [citation needed] Outside these areas, Hindi is widely spoken and understood in cities like Mumbai, Kolkata, Bangalore, Chandigarh, Ahmedabad, and Hyderabad, all of which have their own native languages but harbour large communities of people from various parts of India. In fact, it is possible to live and transact business in almost all major cities of India with the knowledge of Hindi.

Local variations of Hindi are counted as minority languages in several countries, including Australia, Canada, Fiji, Guyana, Mauritius, Nepal, New Zealand, South Africa, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, UK and USA among various other countries around the world.

Number of speakers

Hindi is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. According to the 1991 census of India[5] (which encompasses all the dialects of Hindi, including those that might be considered separate languages by some linguists—e.g., Bhojpuri), Hindi is the mother tongue of about 337 million Indians, or about 40% of India's population that year. According to SIL International's Ethnologue,[6] about 180 million people in India regard standard (Khari Boli) Hindi as their mother tongue, and another 300 million use it as a second language. Outside India, Hindi speakers number around 8 million in Nepal, 890,000 in South Africa, 685,000 in Mauritius, 317,000 in the U.S.,[7] 233,000 in Yemen, 147,000 in Uganda, 30,000 in Germany, 20,000 in New Zealand and 5,000 in Singapore, while the UK and UAE also have notable populations of Hindi speakers. Hence, according to the SIL ethnologue (1999 data), Hindi/Urdu is the fifth most spoken language in the world. According to Comrie (1998 data),[8] Hindi is the second most spoken language in the world, with 333 million native speakers.

The 337 million number of the 1991 census includes the following:

From 1991 to 2006, the population of India has grown by about 30% (from 838 to 1,095 million), so that the number of current speakers may be expected to be roughly a third higher than those given above.

Because of extreme similarity between Hindi and Urdu, speakers of the two languages can usually understand one another, if both sides refrain from using specialized vocabulary. Indeed, linguists sometimes count them as being part of the same language diasystem. However, Hindi and Urdu are socio-politically different, and people who self-describe as being speakers of Urdu would not question their being counted as native speakers of Hindi, and vice-versa.

Official status

The Constitution of India, adopted in 1950, declares Hindi in the Devanagari script as the official language(rājabhāṣā) of the Union (Article 343(1)).[9] Hindi is also enumerated as one of the twenty-two languages of the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which entitles it to representation on the Official Language Commission.[10] The Constitution of India has stipulated the usage of Hindi and English to be the two languages of communication for the Central Government.

It was envisioned that Hindi would become the sole working language of the central government by 1965, with state governments being free to function in languages of their own choice. This has not, however, happened and English is also used along with Hindi for official purposes. There was widespread resistance to the imposition of Hindi on non-native speakers, in some states, especially the Anti-Hindi agitations in the state of Tamil Nadu, which resulted in the passage of the Official Languages Act (1963). This act provided for the continued use of English, indefinitely, for all official purposes, by the Union government. However, the constitutional directive to the central government to champion the spread of Hindi was retained and has strongly influenced the policies of the Union government.

At the state level, Hindi is the official language of the following states: Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, and Delhi. Each of these states may also designate a "co-official language"; in Uttar Pradesh for instance, depending on the political formation in power, sometimes this language is Urdu. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of co-official language in several states.

History

Main article: History of the Hindi language

Like many other modern Indian languages, it is believed that Hindi had been evolved from Sanskrit, by way of the Middle Indo-Aryan Prakrit languages and Apabhramsha of the Middle Ages. Though there is no consensus for a specific time, Hindi originated as local dilects such as Braj, Awadhi and finally Khari Boli after the turn of tenth century.[11] In the span of nearly a thousand years of Muslim influence, such as when Muslim rulers controlled much of northern India during the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, many Persian and Arabic words were absorbed into khari boli and was called Urdu or Hindustani. Since almost all Arabic words came via Persian, they do not preserve the original phonology of Arabic.

Hindi is only contrasted with Urdu in the way both were written. Urdu is the official language of Pakistan and also an official language in some parts of India. The primary differences between the two are the way Standard Hindi is written in Devanagari and draws its "vocabulary" with words from (Indo-Aryan) Sanskrit, while Urdu is written in Nastaliq script, a variant of the (Semitic) Perso-Arabic script, and draws heavily on Persian and Arabic "vocabulary." Vocabulary is in quotes here since it is mostly the literary vocabulary that shows this visible distinction with the everyday vocabulary being essentially common between the two. To a common unbiased person, both Hindi and Urdu are same (Hindustani) though politics of religion and ethnicity portrays them as two separate languages since they are written in two entirely different scripts Hindi-Urdu controversy. Interestingly, if Urdu is written in Devanagiri script, it will be assumed as Hindi and vice versa. The popular examples are Bolywood songs and gazals.

Standard Hindi

Main article: Standard Hindi

After independence, the Government of India worked on standardizing Hindi, instituting the following changes:

  • standardization of Hindi grammar: In 1954, the Government of India set up a committee to prepare a grammar of Hindi; The committee's report was released in 1958 as "A Basic Grammar of Modern Hindi"
  • standardization of Hindi spelling
  • standardization of the Devanagari script by the Central Hindi Directorate of the Ministry of Education and Culture to bring about uniformity in writing and to improve the shape of some Devanagari characters.
  • scientific mode of transcribing the Devanagari alphabet
  • incorporation of diacritics to express sounds from other languages.

Vocabulary

Further information: [[:Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu) word etymology]]

Standard Hindi derives much of its formal and technical vocabulary from Sanskrit. Standard or shuddh ("pure") Hindi is used only in public addresses and radio or TV news, while the everyday spoken language in most areas is one of several varieties of Hindustani, whose vocabulary contains words drawn from Persian and Arabic. In addition, spoken Hindi includes words from English and other languages as well.

Vernacular Urdu and Hindi share the same grammar and core vocabulary and so are practically indistinguishable. However, the literary registers differ substantially in borrowed vocabulary; in highly formal situations, the languages are barely intelligible to speakers of the other. Hindi has looked to Sanskrit for borrowings from at least the 19th century, and Urdu has looked to Persian and Arabic for borrowings from the eighteenth century. On another dimension, Hindi has been associated with the Hindu community and Urdu with the Muslim community.

There are five principal categories of words in Standard Hindi:

  • Tatsam (तत्सम्) words: These are the words which have been directly borrowed from Sanskrit to enrich the formal and technical vocabulary of Hindi. Such words (mostly nouns and adjectives) have been borrowed without any orthographic adaptation. Pronunciation, however, conforms to Hindi norms. Among nouns, the tatsam word could be the Sanskrit uninflected word-stem, or it could be the nominative singular form in the Sanskrit nominal declension.
  • Ardhatatsam words: These are words that were borrowed from Sanskrit in the middle Indo-Aryan or early New Indo-Aryan stages. Such words typically have undergone sound changes subsequent to being borrowed.
  • Tadbhav (तद्भव) words: These are inherited words from Sanskrit. They have undergone all of the sound changes affecting the stages of Indo-Aryan between Sanskrit and Hindi.
  • Deshaj (देशज) words: These are words that were not borrowings but do not derive from attested Indo-Aryan words either. Belonging to this category are onamatopoetic words.
  • videshi words: these include all words borrowed from sources other than Indo-Aryan. The most frequent sources of borrowing in this category have been Persian, Arabic, and English.

Similarly, Urdu treats its own vocabulary, borrowed directly from Persian and Arabic, as a separate category for morphological purposes.

Hindi from which most of the Persian, Arabic and English words have been ousted and replaced by tatsam words is called Shuddha Hindi (pure Hindi). Chiefly, the proponents of the so-called Hindutva ("Hindu-ness") are vociferous supporters of Shuddha Hindi.

Excessive use of tatsam words sometimes creates problems for most native speakers. Strictly speaking, the tatsam words are words of Sanskrit and not of Hindi—thus they have complicated consonantal clusters which are not linguistically valid in Hindi. The educated middle class population of India can pronounce these words with ease, but people of rural backgrounds have much difficulty in pronouncing them. Similarly, vocabulary borrowed from Persian and Arabic also brings in its own consonantal clusters and "foreign" sounds, which may again cause difficulty in speaking them.

Sociolinguistics of Hindi

Variants

Sociolinguists have traditionally classified Hindi into four major variants or styles, viz.,[12]

  • Shuddha Hindi, the standardized Hindi (based on the Khariboli dialect), written in Devanagari script, which contains numerous Sanskrit loanwords, including those introduced more recently to enrich the technical and poetical vocabulary or to replace words of Perseo-Arabic origin. This is the register spoken by the urban Hindu population of north India and is the form of Hindi taught in Indian schools and used in television news and newspapers. High Hindi with Persian and English loanwords is the spoken form of this language in much of North India as well as being used in Hindi films, drama and television serials.
  • Dakhini, spoken in the Deccan plateau region in and around Hyderabad, similar to Urdu but with fewer words derived from Perso-Arabic in its vocabulary.
  • Rekhta, a form of Urdu used in poetry.
  • Urdu, a language of prestige in its own right but whose development is closely tied to that of Hindi (and also based on the Khariboli dialect), written in Perso-Arabic script. It utilizes a more extensive Persian and Arabic vocabulary and fewer Sanskrit loanwords, especially in its formal register. Before the Partition of India, Urdu's linguistic area was similar to that of High Hindi and it was considered the language of choice for the majority of educated middle classes - both Hindu and Muslim - until political currents and lingusitic nationalism post-partition encouraged a more pronounced divide between the two varieties of Khariboli.

Hindustani is generally coined for a hybrid of High Hindi and Urdu, which is used in common speech in India.

Dialects

Main article: Hindi languages

Hindi in the broad sense (formerly referred to as "Hindustani"; now often referred to as "Hindi-Urdu") is a dialect continuum without clear boundaries. For example, both Nepali and Punjabi are sometimes considered to be Hindi (based on the high level of mutual intelligibility for Punjabi and Hindi especially), though they are more often considered to be separate languages. Hindi is often divided into Western Hindi and Eastern Hindi, and these are further divided. Following is a list of principal Hindi dialects; many linguists regard only the dialects under Western and Eastern Hindi as proper Hindi dialects, and the rest as separate languages or sub-languages. The following listing is taken from Tiwari ([1966] 2004); even he notes that the classification of the dialects under various branches and their classification as a dialect of Hindi or as an independent language depends upon the perception of the linguist.

Hindi region of the Indian subcontinent

This region includes the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chandigarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand. Some people, such as the Government of India (while taking census) regard all the languages spoken in these states to be "mother tongues" of Hindi (barring tribal languages). Tiwari ([1966] 2004) lists them under five groups:

  1. Western Hindi (the speech varieties developed from Sauraseni):
  2. Eastern Hindi (the speech varieties developed from Ardhamagadhi)

Rajasthani, Malwi, Pahari languages and Bihari languages are considered as dialects of Hindi by the Indian census of 1991. In 2003, Maithili (Bihari) gained the status of an independent official language.

These are usually classified as separate languages by the linguists, belonging to the Western, Northern and Eastern zones of Indo-Aryan.

Depending upon perceptions, people also include various other dialects under Hindi, such as Nimari, Baiswari, Vajjika, Angika, etc.[citation needed]

Non-Hindi regions in the Indian subcontinent

  • Bambaiya Hindi, the dialect of the city of Bombay (Mumbai); it is based on Khariboli dialect, but heavily influenced by Marathi and Gujarati. Technically it is a pidgin, i.e., neither is it a mother language of any people nor is it used in formal settings by the educated and upper social strata. However, it is often used in the movies of Hindi cinema (Bollywood), where it often gives a comical effect on the movie characters.
  • Dakhini, as discussed above.
  • Kalkatiya Hindi, another Khariboli-based pidgin spoken in the city of Calcutta (Kolkata), Shillong, etc., heavily influenced by Bhojpuri and Bengali.
  • Arunachal Hindi is a regional dialect of Hindi popularly spoken in Hindi. This is an amalmagation of Hindi and the various tribal dialects of the state. Words such as 'Yamtar', meaning "pickle" are spoken instead of 'achaar' and so on. Arunachal Hindi is the most popular language spoken in Arunachal Pradesh even in the most remote parts of the state.

Outside the Indian subcontinent

  • Tadj-Uzbeki, a term coined by Tiwari ([1966] 2004), for the dialect spoken by Indian immigrants from 13th century onwards in the border region of Tadjikistan and Uzbekistan (towns of Hisar, Shehr-e-nau, Regar, Surchi, etc). It seems to be based on the Braj, Hariyani and Rajasthani dialects, and is of course highly influenced by Uzbek, Tadjik and Russian languages.
  • Mauritian Hindi, spoken in Mauritius, based on Bhojpuri and influenced by French.
  • Sarnami, a form of Bhojpuri with Awadhi influence spoken by Surinamers of Indian descent.
  • Fiji Hindi, a form of Awadhi spoken by Fijians of Indian descent.
  • Trinidad Hindi, based on Bhojpuri, and spoken in Trinidad and Tobago by people of Indian descent.
  • South African Hindi, based on Bhojpuri, and spoken in South Africa by people of Indian descent.
  • Though Chinese Mandarin is forced upon the Tibetans through the education system, it is Hindi that is popular, spoken and understood widely by the Tibetan traders of Lhasa, and along the area of Tibet bordering India, which is thousands of miles[citation needed].

Hindi and Urdu

The term Urdu arose in 1645. Until then, and even after 1645, the term Hindi or Hindvi was used in a general sense for the dialects of central and northern India.

There are two fundamental distinctions between Standard Urdu and Standard Hindi that lead to their being recognised as distinct languages:

  • the source of borrowed vocabulary (Persian/Arabic for Urdu and Sanskrit for Hindi); and
  • the script used to write them in (for Urdu, an adaptation of the Perso-Arabic alphabet written in Nasta'liq style; for Hindi, an adaptation of the Devanagari script).

Colloquially and linguistically, the distinction between the Urdu and Hindi is nearly meaningless. This is true over much of the northern half of the Indian subcontinent, wherever neither learned vocabulary nor writing is used. Outside the Delhi dialect area, the term "Hindi" may be used in reference to the local dialect, which may be very different from both Hindi and Urdu.

The word Hindi has many different uses; confusion of these is one of the primary causes of debate about the identity of Urdu. These uses include:

  1. standardized Hindi as taught in schools throughout India,
  2. formal or official Hindi advocated by Purushottam Das Tandon and as instituted by the post-independence Indian government, heavily influenced by Sanskrit,
  3. the vernacular nonstandard dialects of Hindustani/Hindi-Urdu as spoken throughout much of India and Pakistan, as discussed above,
  4. the neutralized form of the language used in popular television and films, or
  5. the more formal neutralized form of the language used in broadcast and print news reports.

The rubric "Hindi" is often used as a catch-all for those idioms in the North Indian dialect continuum that are not recognized as languages separate from the language of the Delhi region. Panjabi, Bihari, and Chhatisgarhi, while sometimes recognised as being distinct languages, are often considered dialects of Hindi. Many other local idioms, such as the Bhili languages, which do not have a distinct identity defined by an established literary tradition, are almost always considered dialects of Hindi. In other words, the boundaries of "Hindi" have little to do with mutual intelligibility, and instead depend on social perceptions of what constitutes a language.

The other use of the word "Hindi" is in reference to Standard Hindi, the Khari boli register of the Delhi dialect of Hindi (generally called Hindustani) with its direct loanwords from Sanskrit. Standard Urdu is also a standardized form of Hindustani. Such a state of affairs, with two standardized forms of what is essentially one language, is known as a diasystem.

Urdu was earlier called Zabān-e-Urdū-e-Mu’allah (زبانِ اردوِ معلہ, ज़बान-ऐ उर्दू), lit., the "Exalted Language of the Camp". Earlier, terms Hindi and Urdu were used interchangeably even by Urdu poets like Mir and Mirza Ghalib of the early 19th century (rather, the terms Hindvi/Hindi was used more often). By 1850, Hindi and Urdu were no longer used for the same language. Other linguists such as Sir G. A. Grierson (1903) have also claimed that Urdu is simply a dialect or style of Western Hindi. Before the Partition of India, Delhi, Lucknow, Aligarh and Hyderabad used to be the four literary centers of Urdu — none of which lie in present Pakistan.

The colloquial language spoken by the people of Delhi is indistinguishable by ear, whether it is called Hindi or Urdu by its speakers. The only important distinction at this level is in the script: if written in the Perso-Arabic script, the language is generally considered to be Urdu, and if written in devanagari it is generally considered to be Hindi. However, since independence the formal registers used in education and the media have become increasingly divergent in their vocabulary. Where there is no colloquial word for a concept, Standard Urdu uses Perso-Arabic vocabulary, while Standard Hindi uses Sanskrit vocabulary. This results in the official languages being heavily Sanskritized or Persianized, and nearly unintelligible to speakers educated in the other standard (as far as the formal vocabulary is concerned).

These two standardized registers of Hindustani have become so entrenched as separate languages that many extreme-nationalists, both Hindu and Muslim, claim that Hindi and Urdu have always been separate languages. The tensions reached a peak in the Hindi-Urdu controversy in 1867 in the then United Provinces during the British Raj. However, there were and are unifying forces as well. For example, it is said that Indian Bollywood films are made in "Hindi", but the language used in most of them is the same as that of Urdu speakers in Pakistan.

Phonology

This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

There are approximately 11 vowels and 35 consonants in Standard Hindī. They are shown below:

Vowels

The vowels of Hindi with their word-initial devanagari symbol, diacritical mark with the consonant प (p), pronunciation (of the vowel alone and the vowel following /p/) in IPA, equivalent in IAST and (approximate) equivalents in British English are listed below:[13]

The vowel phonemes of Hindi
The vowel phonemes of Hindi
Alphabet Diacritical mark with प Pronunciation Pronunciation with /p/ IAST equiv. English equivalent
अ प /ə/ /pə/ a short or long Schwa: as the a in above or ago
आ पा /ɑː/ /pɑː/ ā long Open back unrounded vowel: as the a in father
इ पि /ɪ/ /pɪ/ i short close front unrounded vowel: as i in bit
ई पी /iː/ /piː/ ī long close front unrounded vowel: as i in machine
उ पु /ʊ/ /pʊ/ u short close back rounded vowel: as u in put
ऊ पू /uː/ /puː/ ū long close back rounded vowel: as oo in school
ए पे /eː/ /peː/ e long close-mid front unrounded vowel: as a in game (not a diphthong)
ऐ पै /ɛː/ /pɛː/ ai long open-mid front unrounded vowel: as e in bed, but longer
ओ पो /οː/ /pοː/ o long close-mid back rounded vowel: as o in tone (not a diphthong)
औ पौ /ɔː/ /pɔː/ au long open-mid back rounded vowel: as au in caught

Additional notes on vowels

  • The short open-mid front unrounded vowel (/ɛ/: as e in get) can occur as a conditioned allophone of schwa. Thus, the pronunciation of the vowel अ occurs in two forms. When this vowel is followed by word-middle /h/, or it surrounds word-middle /h/, or is followed by word-ending /h/, it changes allophonically to short /ɛ/. In all other cases it is the mid central vowel schwa. Thus, the following words शहर, रहना, कह are pronounced as /ʃɛhɛr/, /rɛhnɑː/ and /kɛh/ and not as /ʃəhər/, /rəhənɑː/ and /kəh/. It also occurs in loanwords from English, where it is sometimes accorded a new vowel symbol of ऍ (candra: पॅ). e.g., pen: पॅन.
  • The short open back rounded vowel (/ɒ/: as o in hot in Received Pronunciation), does not exist in Hindi at all, other than for English loanwords. In orthography, a new symbol has been invented for it: ऑ (पॉ). If included in Hindi phonology, it brings the number of phonemic vowels to 11.
  • There are some additional vowels traditionally listed in the Hindi alphabet. They are
    • ऋ (originally in Sanskrit a vowel-like syllabic retroflex approximant), pronounced in modern Hindi as /ri/, used only in Sanskrit loanwords (पृ).
    • अं (called anusvāra), pronounced as /əŋ/. Its diacritic (the dot above) is used for a variety of purposes, consisting of vocalic nasalization, and the nasal consonants /n/, /m/, /ɳ/, /ɲ/, /ŋ/ before another consonant. This leads to alternative Hindi spellings for the some words, e.g., the word Hindi itself has two spellings: हिन्दी and हिंदी.
    • अः (called visarga), pronounced as /əh/. Used only in Sanskrit loanwords (पः).
    • The diacritic अँ (called candrabindu), not listed in the alphabet, is used interchangeably with the anusvāra to indicate nasalization of the vowel (पँ).
  • If a lone consonant needs to be written without any following vowel, it is given a halanta/virāma diacritic below (प्).
  • There is less lip-rounding than in English in the long open-mid back rounded vowel (/ɔː/: as au in caught). The vowel /ɑː/ in Hindi is more central and less back than in English, like /ä/.
  • All vowels in Hindi, short or long, can be nasalized, except ऑ. There is disagreement in the scholarly literature over the extent to which nasalization is phonemic.[14] Minimal pairs exist for many vowels: e.g. कहा, /kəhɑː/, "he said", vs. कहाँ, /kəhɑ̃ː/, "where".
  • In Sanskrit and in some (eastern) dialects of Hindi (as well as in a few words in Standard Hindi), the vowel ऐ is pronounced as a diphthong /əi̯/ or /ai̯/ rather than /ɛː/. Similarly, the vowel औ is pronounced in some words as the diphthong /əu̯/ or /au̯/ rather than /ɔː/. Other than these, Hindi does not have true diphthongs—two vowels might occur sequentially but then they are pronounced as two syllables (a glide might come in between while speaking).
  • The vowel ऐ is used to represent the English vowel /æ/ in loan-words. In these cases, many Hindi speakers pronounce the vowel as [æː] instead of [ɛː], adding an additional vowel phoneme to the Hindi inventory. For example, बैट "cricket bat" may be pronounced [bæːʈ] rather than the expected [bɛːʈ] [15]
  • In the Devanagari script used for Sanskrit, whenever a consonant in a word-ending position is without a virāma (ie, freely standing in the orthography: प as opposed to प्), the short neutral vowel schwa (/ə/) is automatically associated with it—this is of course true for the consonant when in any other position in the word. However, in Hindi, even if the word-ending consonant is written without a virāma, the associated schwa is almost never pronounced. The schwa (/ə/) may be pronounced very short only if the absence of schwa would otherwise make the pronunciation of the word very difficult — such a situation arises when there is a consonantal cluster at the end of the word. Thus, for phonological purposes, a word-ending grapheme without a halant or any other vowel-diacritic must be treated as consonant ending. The schwa in Hindi is usually dropped (syncopated) in khariboli even at certain instances in word-middle positions, where the orthography would otherwise dictate so. e.g., रुकना (to stay) is normally pronounced as /ruknɑː/, while according to the orthography, it should have been /rukənɑː/. (Tiwari, [1966] 2004). Schwa is never syncopated in the first syllable, but often syncoped in the second or the penultimate syllable — this of course reduces the number of syllables in the word. The syncopation of schwa is not phonemically contrastive.

The dropping of schwa at the end in Hindi (for Sanskrit loanwords)is illustrated in the examples given below:

Hindi/Sanskrit word Usual transliteration Sanskrit pronunciation Hindi pronunciation English pronunciation
शिव—a deity Shiva /ɕiʋə/ /ʃiʋ/ /ʃiːvə/
वरुण—a deity Varuna /ʋəruɳə/ /ʋəruɳ/ /vʌɹuːnə/
वेद—a scripture Veda /ʋeːd̪ə/ /ʋeːd̪/ /veɪdə/
राम—a hero Rama or Rāma /rɑːmə/ /rɑːm/ /ɹɑːmə/
कामसूत्र—a love manual Kamasutra /kɑːməsuːt̪rə/ /kɑːmː suːt̪r̩/ or /kɑːm suːt̪rə/ /kɑːmə suːtɹə/
अशोक—an emperor Ashoka or Asoka /əɕoːkə/ /əʃoːk/ /ʌsəʊkə/

The Handbook of the International Phonetic Association also describes the near-close near-front unrounded vowel (/ɪ/) the near-close near-back rounded vowel (/ʊ/) as occurring in Hindi phonology. They respectively occur as free allophones of short /i/ and /u/.

Consonants

Hindi has a large consonant system, with about 38 distinct consonant phonemes. An exact number cannot be given, since the regional varieties of Hindi differ in the details of their consonant repertoire. To what extent certain sounds that appear only in foreign words should be considered part of Standard Hindi is also a matter of debate. The traditional core of the consonant system, inherited from Sanskrit, consists of a matrix of 20 plosives, 5 nasals, and 8 sonorants and fricatives. The system is filled out by 5 sounds that originated in Persian, but are now considered Hindi sounds. The table below shows the phonology of the Hindi consonants.[16] Note that all nasals, trills, flaps, approximants and lateral approximants in Hindi are regarded as voiced consonants, and that many linguists also call the aspirated voiced plosives as breathy voice or murmur stops.

Bilabial Labio-
dental 		Dental Alveolar Retroflex Post-alveolar/
Palatal 		Velar Uvular Glottal
Plosives (unaspirated)
Plosives (aspirated) 		p
pʰ 		b
bʱ 		t̪
t̪ʰ 		d̪
d̪ʱ 		ʈ
ʈʰ 		ɖ
ɖʱ 		k
kʰ 		g
gʱ 		q
Affricates ʧ or cɕ
ʧʰ or cɕʰ 		ʤ or ɟʝ
ʤʱ or ɟʝʱ
Nasals m n (ɳ) (ɲ) (ŋ)
Fricatives f (v) x ɣ (χ) (ʁ) h ɦ
Sibilants s z ʂ ʃ
Flaps ɾ ɽ
ɽʱ
Trills (r)
Approximants ʋ j
Lateral
approximant 		l

The 25 stop consonants occur in five groups, with each group sharing the same position of articulation. These positions in their traditional order are: velar, retroflex, palatal, dental, and bilabial. In each position, there are five varieties of consonant, with four oral stops and one nasal stop. An oral stop may be voiced, aspirated, both, or neither. This four-way opposition is the hardest aspect of Hindi pronunciation for a speaker of English. The table below shows the traditional listing of the Hindi consonants (in the Devanagari script) with the (nearest) equivalents in English/Spanish. Each consonant shown below is deemed to be followed by the neutral vowel schwa (/ə/), and is named in the table as such. The Roman script equivalent that is normally used to transcribe Hindi in casual transliteration is also given in the second line.

Plosives
Unaspirated
Voiceless 		Aspirated
Voiceless 		Unaspirated
Voiced 		Aspirated
Voiced 		Nasals
Velar क /kə/
k; English: scald 		ख /kʰə/
kh; English called 		ग /gə/
g; English: game 		घ /gʱə/
gh; Aspirated/murmured /g/, somewhat similar to doghouse 		ङ /ŋə/
n; English: ring
Palatal च /cɕə / or / tʃə/
ch; English butcher 		छ /cɕʰə / or /tʃʰə/
chh; English: chat 		ज /ɟʝə / or / dʒə/
j; English: jam 		झ /ɟʝʱə / or / dʒʱə/
jh; Aspirated/murmured /ɟʝ/, somewhat similar to hedgehog 		ञ /ɲə/
n; English: hinge
Retroflex ट /ʈə/
t; like "t" but with the tongue tip curled back 		ठ /ʈʰə/
th; Aspirated /ʈ/ 		ड /ɖə/
d; like "d" but with the tongue tip curled back 		ढ /ɖʱə/
dh; Aspirated/murmured /ɖ/ 		ण /ɳə/
n; like "n" but with the tongue tip curled back
Apico-Dental त /t̪ə/
t; Spanish: tomate 		थ /t̪ʰə/
th; Aspirated /t̪/ 		द /d̪ə/
d; Spanish: donde 		ध /d̪ʱə/
dh; Aspirated/murmured /d̪/ 		न /nə/
n; English: name
Labial प /pə/
p; English: spin 		फ /pʰə/
ph; English pin 		ब /bə/
b; English: bone 		भ /bʱə/
bh; Aspirated/murmured /b/, somewhat similar to clubhouse 		म /mə/
m; English: mine
Non-Plosives/Sonorants
Palatal Retroflex Dental/
Alveolar 		Velar/
Glottal
Approximant य /jə/
y; English: you 		र /ɾə/ or /rə/
r; Scottish English: trip 		ल /lə/
l; English: love 		व /ʋə/ or /və/
v; between English "w" and "v"
Sibilant/
Fricative 		श /ʃə/
sh; English: ship 		ष /ʂə/
sh; Retroflex /ʃ/ 		स /sə/
s; English: same 		ह /ɦə / or / hə/
h; English: behind

At the end of the traditional table of alphabets, three consonantal clusters are also added: क्ष /kʃə/ (in Hindi), त्र /t̪rə/ and ज्ञ /gjə/ (pronunciation given for Hindi). Other than these, sounds borrowed from the other languages like Persian and Arabic are written with a dot (bindu or nukta) beneath the nearest approximate alphabet. They are not included in the traditional listing. Many native Hindi speakers do not pronounce these sounds (except /ɽ / and / ɽʱ/) and replace them instead with the nearest equivalents, as shown in column 4 in the table below. These are:

Extra sounds
Symbol IPA Pronunciation and name Equivalent in other languages Often replaced with:
क़ /qə/ voiceless uvular plosive Arabic: Qur'an /k/
ख़ /xə/ voiceless velar fricative German: doch /kʰ/
ग़ /ɣə/ voiced velar fricative Persian: Mughal /g/
ज़ /zə/ voiced alveolar fricative English: zoo /ɟ / or / dʒ/
य़ /ʒ/ voiced postalveolar fricative English: Measure /dʒ/
ड़ /ɽə/ unaspirated retroflex flap Similar to English butter pronounced laxly
ढ़ /ɽʱə/ aspirated retroflex flap <none>
फ़ /fə/ voiceless labiodental fricative English: fun /pʰ/

ड़ /ɽə/ and ढ़ /ɽʱə/ are not of Persian/Arabic origin, but they are allophonic variants of simple voiced retroflex stops of Sanskrit.

Additional notes on the consonants

Some additional features of Hindi consonant system are given here, as well as some useful tips to those whose native language is English but are interested in learning Hindi language.

  • The distinction between the aspirated and the unaspirated consonants is really very strong, not only in Hindi, but also in Sanskrit and many other languages of India.
  • The distinction between the dental plosives and the retroflex plosives is also very stark in all Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages.
  • Aspiration is actually a puff of breath that may follow a plosive consonant. English speakers should try to pronounce the voiceless aspirates by speaking these words in a quick but clear liaison-like fashion:
    • "take him", "get him", "ditch him", "slap him".
    • One could also try speaking the words "kite", "take", "chip" and "pat" with a greater-than-usual puff of breath after the first consonant. The corrsponding unaspirated plosives must be pronounced with no significant puff of breath at all.
  • No nasal consonant except /m/ and /n/ can start a word in Hindi. All the other nasal consonants in modern Hindi are conditioned allophones of /n/.
  • Tiwari ([1966] 2004) lists the following additional phonemes in Hindi: the aspirates /nʰ/, /mʰ/ and /lʰ/. They are phonemically contrastive to the corresponding unaspirated consonants, but orthographically appear as consonant clusters न्ह, म्ह, ल्ह.
  • The retroflex flaps cannot start a word. They did not exist as such in Sanskrit—they have sprung up as the allophonic flap variants of Sanskrit's simple voiced retroflex plosives. The other Indo-Aryan languages and Dravidian languages tend to use retroflex flaps in their vocabulary even more frequently than Hindi does. Originally, they were purely conditioned allophones in Hindi, coming if and only if the consonants /ɖ/ and /ɖʰ/ came in word-middle positions when surrounded by two vowels or word-ending positions when preceded by a vowel, and never in the word-beginning position or in consonantal clusters (where the plosives would come). But the inclusion of English words, whose alveolar plosives become retroflex in Hindi, have made at least the unaspirated retroflex flap /ɽ/ a separate phoneme. The grapheme ण /ɳ/, when followed by a vowel, is usually flapped.
  • Hindi /t̪/ and /d̪/ are (apico-) dental, somewhat similar to Spanish or Italian.
  • The retroflex consonants are pronounced by curling the tongue such that its tip touches the roof of the mouth. Much though has been listed that Hindi (being an Indo-Aryan language) has retroflex plosives, certain linguists (who are also the native speakers of Hindi) disagree. According to Tiwari ([1966] 2004), the so-called retroflex plosives in Hindi are at the most (apico-) post-alveolar or pre-palatal, and sometimes even alveolar. The retroflex flaps are pronounced in a similar way, by bringing the tongue's tip to the roof of the mouth or pre-palatal region and giving it a sharp flap downwards. Hence, the so-called retroflex plosives are not phonemically contrastive with the alveolar stops that come through English loanwords, but rather with the dental plosives.
  • The palatal affricates of Hindi do not have as much a sharp frictional release as in English. They have more of a plosive component. It is not very clear whether they are clearly palatal or postalveolar (as in English). Tiwari ([1966] 2004) classifies them as palatal, and certainly as affricates and not pure plosives, that Sanskrit used to have. He has also called the sibilant श as a voiceless palatal fricative /ç/, rather than postalveolar. However, Hock (1991) prefers to say that this particular sibilant is phonetically the same, whether articulated from the postalveolar region or from the palatal region.
  • The letter व corresponds to /ʋ/, but may also be realized by /v/ or /w/ [17][18]. /ʋ/ is very close to /v/, but does not have a friction or buzzing sound associated with it. Hindi makes no phonemic distinction between these three sounds.
  • ष represents the voiceless retroflex fricative /ʂ/ in Sanskrit, but in modern Hindi is usually realized as /ʃ/, and is thus indistinguishable from श.
  • It is doubtful whether Hindi has a voiced glottal fricative /ɦ/ (for the alphabet ह) or its unvoiced counterpart. The difference between them, unlike in Sanskrit, is not phonemically contrastive.
  • The five new consonants borrowed from Perso-Arabic, /q/, /x/, /ɤ/, /z/ and /f/, are only peripheral phonemes in Hindi. Most native Hindi-speakers cannot produce them, and substitute /k/, /kʰ/, /g/, /ɟʝ/ and /pʰ/ respectively for these consonants. Because the phonemes /z/ and /f/ come in English loanwords, people of the new generation well-educated in English usually pronounce them correctly, but still use substitutes for the other three. In the Urdu style, all five are pronounced correctly.
  • The consonant cluster ज्ञ, found in Sanskrit-derived words, is pronounced /gjə/ in Hindi rather than the expected /dʒɲə/, thus becoming indistinguishable from ग्य. The vowel following ज्ञ is often nasalized, reflecting the original sound of the cluster.[19]

Supra-segmental features

Hindi has a stress accent, but it is not so important as in English. Usually in a multisyllabic Hindi word, the stress falls on the last syllable if all the syllables are equally heavy or equally light. (A light syllable is closed by a short vowel a, i, u, while a medium syllable is closed by a long vowel or diphthong ā, e, ī, o, ū, au, ai or by two consonants, and a heavy syllable is closed by both a long vowel/diphthong and two consonants.) If the word contains a mixture or heavy and light syllables, the stress falls automatically on the penultimate heaviest syllable. (Cf. McGregor, pp. xx-xxi.) Content words in Hindi normally begin on a low pitch, followed by a rise in pitch.[20][21] Strictly speaking, Hindi, like most other Indian languages, is rather a syllable timed language. The schwa /ə/ has a strong tendency to vanish into nothing (syncopated) if its syllable is unaccented. Also note that in written Hindi, many words end in short /u/ or short /i/, but in speech they are often converted to ending in long /uː/ or long /iː/, respectively.

Writing system

Main article: Hindustani orthography

Hindi is written in the standardized Devanagari script, which is written from left to right. The Devanagari script represents the sounds of spoken Hindi very closely, so that a person who knows the Devanagari letters can sound out a written Hindi text comprehensibly, even without knowing what the words mean or having heard them before. The entire alphabet has been discussed in the preceding section on phonology.

Transliteration Conventions

The standard transliteration of Hindi into the Roman alphabet is usually the IAST scheme, whereby the retroflex consonants (retroflex t, d, their aspirates, n, vowel-like r) and the breath h are shown with a dot beneath; the long vowels are shown with a macron or a bar (as ā above; aspiration of a plosive is shown with a following h; and elided a's are removed for a truer correspondence to speech. Other alphabet characters are pronounced as in normal English. Another transliteration (ITRANS) uses capital letters of English to transcribe the long vowels and retroflex consonants. However, since English is a lingua franca of the educated Indians, and since computer keyboards do not have features for typing the IAST characters, Indians today use a casual transliteration into English for Hindi words; in such a casual transliteration, used especially in online chatting, the retroflex and dental consonants are not differentiated, and neither the short and the long vowels (except that sometimes people double the alphabet to indicate a long vowel).

Grammar

Main article: Hindi-Urdu grammar

Sample Text

See also: Urdu § Examples

The following is a sample text in High Hindi, of the Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (by the United Nations):

अनुच्छेद 1 — सभी मनुष्यों को गौरव और अधिकारों के मामले में जन्मजात स्वतन्त्रता प्राप्त है। उन्हें बुद्धि और अन्तरात्मा की देन प्राप्त है और परस्पर उन्हें भाईचारे के भाव से बर्ताव करना चाहिये।

Transliteration (IAST):

anucched 1 — sabhī manuṣyoṃ ko gaurav aur adhikāroṃ ke māmle meṃ janmajāt svatantratā prāpt hai. Unheṃ buddhi aur antarātmā kī den prāpt hai aur paraspar unheṃ bhāīcāre ke bhāv se bartāv karnā cāhiye.

Gloss (word-to-word):

Article 1 — All human-beings to dignity and rights' matter in from-birth freedom acquired is. Them to reason and conscience's endowment acquired is and always them to brotherhood's spirit with behaviour to do want.

Translation (grammatical):

Article 1 — All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Common difficulties faced in learning Hindi

  • the phonetic mechanism of some sounds peculiar to Hindi (e.g. rda, dha etc) The distinction between aspirated and unaspirated consonants will be difficult for English speakers. In addition, the distinction between dental and alveoloar (or retroflex) consonants will also pose problems. English speakers will find that they need to carefully distinguish between four different d-sounds and four different t-sounds.
  • pronunciation of vowels: In English, unstressed vowels tend to have a "schwa" quality. The pronunciation of such vowels in English is changed to an "uh" sound; this is called reducing a vowel sound. The second syllable of "unify" is pronounced /ə/, not "ee." The same for the unstressed second syllable of "person" which is also pronounced /ə/ rather than "oh." In Hindi, English-speakers must constantly be careful not to reduce these vowels.
    • In this respect, probably the most important mistake would be for English speakers to reduce final "ah" sounds to "uh." This can be especially important because an English pronunciation will lead to misunderstandings about grammar and gender. In Hindi, "vo bolta hai" is "he talks" whereas "vo bolti hai" is "she talks." A typical English pronunciation in the first sentence would be "vo boltuh hai," which will be understood as "she talks" by most Hindi-native speakers.
  • The 'a' ending of many Sanskrit and Sanskrit borrowed masculine-gender words, due to Romanization, is highly confused by non-native speakers, because the short 'a' is dropped in Hindi. There are exceptions, of course, if the devanagari script itself dictates the additional diacritical mark for the vowel "long ā" at the end of certain masculine words, like Brahmā (ब्रह्मा).
  • the Verbal concordance; Hindi exhibits split ergativity; see Ergative-absolutive language for an example.
  • Relative-correlative constructions. In English interrogative and relative pronouns are the same word. In "Who are you?" the word "who" is an interrogative, or question, pronoun. In "My friend who lives in Sydney can speak Hindi," the word "who" is not an interrogative, or question-pronoun. It is a relative, or linking-pronoun. In Hindi, there are different words for each. The interrogative pronoun tends to start with the "k" sound:" kab = when?, kahaaN = where?, kitna = how much? The relative pronouns are usually very similar but start with "j" sounds: jab = when, jahaaN = where, jitna = as much (as).

Literature

Main article: Hindi literature

Hindi literature draws upon the heritage of Sanskrit literature, and has a long history. Tulasidas's Ramacharitamanasa was an early work in Awadhi that attained wide popularity. Modern Hindi literary figures include :

Main Poetry (Kavya) writers

Main Prose (Gadya) writers

Entertainment and showbusiness

Main article: Bollywood
Further information: [[:Bollywood songs]]

Hindi films play an important role in popular culture. The dialogues and songs of Hindi films use Khariboli and Hindi-Urdu in general, but the intermittent use of various dialects such as Awadhi, Rajasthani, Bhojpuri, Punjabi and quite often Bambaiya Hindi, as also of many English words, is common.

Alam Ara (1931), which ushered in the era of "talkie" films in India, was a Hindustani film. This film had seven songs in it. Music soon became an integral part of Hindustani/ Hindi cinema. It is a very important part of popular culture and now comprises an entire genre of popular music. So popular is film music that songs filmed even 50-60 years ago are a staple of radio/TV and are generally very familiar to an Indian.

Hindi movies and songs are popular in many parts of India, such as Punjab, Gujarat and Maharashtra, that do not speak Hindi as a native language. Indeed, the Hindi film industry is largely based at Mumbai (Bombay), in the Marathi-speaking state of Maharashtra. Hindi films are also popular abroad, especially in Pakistan, Afghanistan,Nepal,Bangladesh, Iran and UK.

The role of radio and television in propagating Hindi beyond its native audience cannot be overstated. Television in India was controlled by the central government until the proliferation of satellite TV rendered regulation redundant. During the era of control, Hindi predominated on both radio and TV, enjoying more air-time than local languages. After the advent of satellite TV, several private channels emerged to compete with the government's official TV channel. Today, a large number of satellite channels provide viewers with much variety in entertainment. These include soap operas, detective serials, horror shows, dramas, cartoons, comedies, host shows for Hindi songs, Hindu mythology and documentaries.

Common Phrases

English Hindi (Transliteration) Hindi (Devanagari)
Hindi [Hindī] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) हिन्दी
English [Angrezī] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) अंग्रेज़ी
Yes [Hān] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) हाँ
You1 [āp (assigned to Elders/Respected Person)] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) आप
You² [Tum (assigned to Children/Person smaller in age)] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) तुम
You³ [Tū (used intimately)] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) तू
No [Nahīn] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) नहीं
Hi/Hello [Namaste] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) नमस्ते
Goodbye [Namaste] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), [Alvidā] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), [Khudā Hāfiz] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) नमस्ते, अलविदा, ख़ुदा हाफ़िज़
How are you? [āp Kaisé Hain?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) आप कैसे हैं?
See you [Phir Milengé] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) फिर मिलेंगे
Thank you [Dhanyavād] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), [Shukrīā] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) धन्यवाद, शुक्रीया
I'm Sorry [Kshamā Kījiyé] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), (also Māf Kījiyé) क्षमा कीजिये (माफ कीजिये)
Why? [Kyon?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) क्यों?
Who? [Kaun?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) कौन?
What? [Kyā?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) क्या?
When? [Kab?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) कब?
Where? [Kahān?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) कहाँ?
How? [Kāisé?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) कैसे?
How much? [Kitné?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) कितने?
I did not understand [Main samjha nahīn] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) मैं समझा नहीं
Help me (please)
Help me!		 [Meré maddath kījiyé / Sahāyatā kījié!] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) मेरी मदद कीजिये / सहायता कीजिये
Do you speak English? [Kyā āp angrezī bolté hain?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) क्या आप अंग्रेज़ी बोलते हैं?
Time please?
Time please?		 [Samay kyā hua? / kitné bajé hain?] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) समय क्या हुआ? / कितने बजे हैं?
I do not know [Mujhé nahīn pata] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) मुझे नहीं पता

Hinglish

Main article: Hinglish

"Hinglish" is the use of Hindi and English, combining both, in one sentence. This is more commonly seen in urban and semi-urban centers of population, but is slowly spreading its root into rural and remote areas via television and word of mouth, slowly achieving vernacular status. Many speakers do not realize that they are incorporating English words into Hindi sentences or Hindi words into English sentences.

This highly popular mixing of both the languages in most parts of northern and central India has grown from the fact that English is a popular language of choice amongst the urban youth who find themselves comfortable in its lexicon. It is already the medium for imparting education in many schools across the nation. The advent of cable television and its pervasive growth has seen the masses exposed to a wide variety of programming from across the world.

Another factor contributing to the spread of Hinglish is the popularity of Bollywood films.

Examples

  • "Dad, time kya hua hai?" (Dad, what is the time right now?).
  • "I have hazaar things on my mind right now." (I have thousands of things on my mind right now.)
  • "Mama, mujhe mall se jeans lenee hai." (Mama, I want to buy jeans from the mall).

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ Central Hindi Directorate regulates the use of Devanagari script and Hindi spelling in India. Source: Central Hindi Directorate: Introduction
  2. ^ The Union: Official Languages
  3. ^ PDF from india.gov.in containing Articles 343 which states so
  4. ^ McGregor, R.S. (1993) Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary. Oxford University Press, USA. Reprint 2004. p. 1071.
  5. ^ Census of India
  6. ^ SIL International's report on Hindi in its Ethnologue
  7. ^ Language Use and English-Speaking Ability: 2000 - Census 2000 Brief Issued October 2003. Retrieved 24 August 2006.
  8. ^ http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm
  9. ^ PDF (in Hindi & English) from india.gov.in to confirm the claims on rajbhasha
  10. ^ Article 344(1) of the Constitution of India
  11. ^ Shapiro, M: Hindi.
  12. ^ Ethnologue report for Hindi
  13. ^ Ohala, p. 102
  14. ^ Masica, Colin P (1993). The Indo-Aryan Languages (First paperback edition ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 117. ISBN 0521299446. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  15. ^ Orala, p. 102
  16. ^ Ohala, p. 100
  17. ^ Tiwari [1966] 2004
  18. ^ Ohala
  19. ^ McGregor, R S (1995). Outline of Hindi Grammar (Third edition ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. xxix. ISBN 0198700083. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  20. ^ http://www.und.nodak.edu/dept/linguistics/theses/2001Dyrud.PDF Dyrud, Lars O. (2001) Hindi-Urdu: Stress Accent or Non-Stress Accent? (University of North Dakota, master's thesis)
  21. ^ http://www.speech.sri.com/people/rao/papers/icslp96_wbhyp.pdf Ramana Rao, G.V. and Srichand, J. (1996) Word Boundary Detection Using Pitch Variations. (IIT Madras, Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering)

Bibliography

  • Bhatia, Tej K. Colloquial Hindi: The Complete Course for Beginners. London, UK & New York, NY: Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-11087-4 (Book), 0415110882 (Cassettes), 0415110890 (Book & Cassette Course)
  • Grierson, G. A. Linguistic Survey of India Vol I-XI, Calcutta, 1928, ISBN 81-85395-27-6
  • Hock, Hans H. (1991), Principles of Historical Linguistics, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin–New York, ISBN 3-11-012962-0
  • McGregor, R. S. (1977), Outline of Hindi Grammar, 2nd Ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford-Delhi, ISBN 0-19-870008-3 (3rd ed.)
  • Ohala, Manjari (1999), "Hindi", in International Phonetic Association (ed.), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: a Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge University Press, pp. 100–103, ISBN 0-521-63751-1
  • Shapiro, Michael C. Hindi. Facts about the world's languages: An encyclopedia of the world's major languages, past and present. Ed. Jane Garry, and Carl Rubino: New England Publishing Associates, 2001.
  • Snell, Rupert Teach yourself Hindi: A complete guide for beginners. Lincolnwood, IL : NTC Publishing Group, 1992. ISBN 0-8442-3863-5
  • Taj, Afroz (2002) A door into Hindi. Retrieved November 8, 2005.
  • Tiwari, Bholanath ([1966] 2004) हिन्दी भाषा (Hindī Bhāshā), Kitāb Mahal, Allahabad, ISBN 81-225-0017-X.

Further reading

  • Bhatia, Tej K A History of the Hindi Grammatical Tradition. Leiden, Netherlands & New York, NY : E.J. Brill, 1987. ISBN 90-04-07924-6

External links

Hindi edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Wikibooks has more on the topic of: Hindi

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