Anarchism in Germany

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Demonstration by members of FAU , an anarcho-syndicalist union, in front of the Babylon cinema in Berlin

The anarchism has in Germany a long tradition. It appeared here primarily as a revolutionary ideology in the labor movement and as a broad-based intellectual and cultural movement.

From the 1870s onwards, an anarchist movement gradually developed out of the opposition within German social democracy . After the repressive socialist laws came to an end in 1890, the anarchist movement grew and became a diverse cultural movement in literature, the fine arts, psychology and other fields. Union organization came to a climax in the Weimar Republic with FAUD , which at times had around 150,000 members. After the rise of the National Socialiststhe anarchist movement was crushed and the German anarchists ended up in concentration camps, were forced into military service or fled into exile. After the end of World War II , some scattered circles tried to reorganize. A larger-scale anarchist movement only regained greater importance in connection with the West German student movement of the 1960s .

history

precursor

Ludwig Börne (1786 to 1837) was the first to speak out in favor of anarchy in German-speaking countries .

Ludwig Börne (1786 to 1837) was the first to speak out in favor of anarchy in society in German-speaking countries , although historically he cannot be clearly assigned to anarchism and he represented changing political positions: “It does not matter that power is in one or the other Hand is: the power itself must be reduced, in which hand it is also. But no ruler yet has the power that he possessed, and no matter how nobly he used it, he willingly let it weaken. Rule can only be limited if it is ownerless - freedom only arises from anarchy. We must not turn our faces away from the necessity of the revolution because it is so sad. As men of danger, we have to look straight in the eye and not tremble at the surgeon's knife. Freedom only emerges from anarchy - that is our opinion, that is how we have understood the lessons of history. "

Anarchist thinking first blossomed in Germany in the 1840s. It emerged from the critical examination of intellectual circles with the works of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon , Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Ludwig Feuerbach . In 1843 the writer Moses Hess tried to elaborate liberal-socialist ideas in his writings Socialism and Communism and Philosophy of Action . Explicitly liberal ideas were first developed in Germany in the circle of the free , a group around Bruno and Edgar Bauer . In 1844 they published the anthology Berliner Monatsschrift , which the historian Max Nettlau describes as the first collection of anarchist articles in the German language. As a member of the circle, Max Stirner also worked on the publication of the anthology. In the same year he published his book The Only One and His Property , which caused a sensation and later influenced various anarchists. The writer Karl Grün made similar final demands in 1844. Influenced by his writings, the German worker Wilhelm Marr published the papers of the present for social life in Switzerland from December 1844 to July 1845 . The newspaper became the first German propaganda organ for anarchist ideas in the working class.

Through the revolutions of 1848/49 and the acquaintance with Michail Bakunin , for example, Carl Vogt , Arnold Ruge and Richard Wagner were also influenced by anarchist ideas. In Richard Wagner's case, this was particularly evident in his writings The Art and the Revolution and The Artwork of the Future from 1849/50. Due to the failure of the liberal democrats and the revolutions of 1848/49, anarchist ideas were again more widely received in Germany. In Hamburg , Edgar Bauer and Wilhelm Marr were the most important representatives of anarchist ideas. The book Anarchy and Authority , published by Marr in 1852, played an important role . Professor Karl Theodor Bayrhoffer worked in the same way in Hesse with his newspaper Die Hornisse . Translations of Proudhon appeared in the Freie Zeitung in Wiesbaden and, under the influence of Karl Grün, in the Trierschen Zeitung . After 1852 the spread of liberal ideas was stifled in the course of the reaction era.

First anarchist agitation and the socialist laws (1870–1890)

The journal Freiheit by Johann Most became the most important anarchist propaganda organ against the socialist laws in Germany.

The establishment of the International Workers' Association in 1864 also led to the formation of numerous proudhonist and collectivist-anarchist sections in many European countries . Germany remained largely excluded from this international development due to its political situation. The German Social Democrats, who constituted themselves as part of the International, had little influence on the IAA and did not attach great importance to it. It was only through the writings of Professor Eugen Dühring that anarchist ideas became known to a wider audience again in Germany. Above all, in his work Kursus der National- und Sozialökonomie from 1873, Dühring describes his societal and anti-cratic ideas, which are practically identical to the ideas of collectivist anarchists. The ideas met with greater approval among the German Social Democrats and an oppositional Dühring circle around Eduard Bernstein and Johann Most was formed within the party . Neither Dühring nor his sympathizers developed an independent agitation for anarchism during this time.

A first center of the anarchist movement in the German-speaking area came into being in 1876 with the formation of a workers' association in Bern, the members of which came mainly from Germany. Together with Paul Brousse and Peter Kropotkin , the workers' association published the Arbeiter-Zeitung from 1876 to 1878 , which was primarily aimed at workers in Germany. During these years an agitation for anarchism developed there, the most important exponents of which were August Reinsdorf , Emil Werner and Otto Rinke . After the adoption of the Socialist Law , the movement, together with the Social Democrats, was largely pushed underground. Most anarchists were subsequently arrested or fled from imminent arrest.

On September 23, 1883, August Reinsdorf, together with two comrades-in-arms, attempted an explosive attack on the German Kaiser and his entourage at the inauguration of the Niederwald monument . The attempt failed completely because of a soaked fuse. All three involved were arrested and Reinsdorf and Emil Küchler, who was also involved, were executed. Two years later, the 22-year-old shoemaker and anarchist Julius Lieske was made responsible for the assassination attempt on the leader of the political police in Frankfurt, Ludwig Rumpff , and was executed. The authorship could never be clearly proven. Police advisor Rumpff, who was also called the anarchist eater in left-wing circles , had already sent a spy to an anarchist group in 1881 to encourage an attack on himself and to equip the group with sulfuric acid for the attack. With this action, Rumpff was later able to arrest 44 people, but during their trial Rumpff's machinations were discovered by the judge. The murder of Polizeirat Rumpff was and remains the only assassination attempt by anarchists in Germany.

From 1879 on, Johann Most published the social revolutionary magazine Freiheit in his exile in London , which was smuggled into Germany. The magazine became the most important journal for revolutionary-minded German workers. With the exception of a few articles by August Reinsdorf, freedom had few points of contact with anarchism in the beginning. Max Nettlau describes the course of the newspaper until 1882 as rather " blanquistic ". It was only after Most left London for America in 1882 that he represented collectivist-anarchist positions in his newspaper. Another German organ of anarchism, Die Autonomie , came into being in London in 1886 . Josef Peukert , a former employee of Most, and Otto Rinke published the newspaper and increasingly came into opposition to Most and freedom . The autonomy represented communist anarchism and made Kropotkin's ideas known in Germany through translations of his articles. There a socialist opposition to social democratic reformism began to form, which was heavily influenced by the newspapers Die Autonomie und Freiheit .

The rivalry between the groups freedom and autonomy poisoned the mood among the German-speaking anarchists in exile. Victor Dave , an employee of Johann Most, attacked Josef Peukert because of his friendship with the dubious Theodor Reuss , who worked as a police spy. With the help of Peukert, Theodor Reuss was able to deliver Johann Neve , a travel agent of freedom , to the police in 1887. Josef Peukert, however, was not aware of any guilt and attacked Victor Dave and the Circle of Freedom . Johann Neve finally died after nine years in prison in Moabit . This so-called fratricidal war split the German anarchist movement in exile and had serious consequences for years afterwards.

Growth and Diversity in the Anarchist Movement (1890-1914)

Gustav Landauer was one of the defining figures of the anarchist movement in Germany from the 1890s.

With the end of the Socialist Laws in 1890, socialists of all types could again fight openly for their political goals. In the newly founded Social Democratic Party of Germany , the conflict between the party leadership and the left wing of the party, the young , broke out. This split off from the party in 1890 and founded the Association of Independent Socialists . Even Gustav Landauer , who coined the anarchist movement in Germany in the aftermath strong, was a member of the club. In July 1893, after the split of the Association of Independent Socialists , the young Landau took over as a representative of the anarchist wing, the publication of the organ Der Sozialist . Landauer dealt intensively with the ethics of a society free of domination and was among other things the author of the writings Thirty Socialist Theses (1907) and Call for Socialism (1911). As a delegate of the Berlin anarchists, Landauer also stood up for anarchism at the Congress of the Second International in Zurich in 1893 , before the social democratic majority permanently expelled the anarchists from the International at the same congress. In addition to Der Sozialist , which became the most influential newspaper of the movement in Germany, more and more newspapers appeared as a result, such as Neues Leben and Der Freie Arbeiter , which were published by communist-anarchist workers. In general, the anarchist movement in Germany was on the upswing until a few years before the First World War .

Despite the withdrawal of the Association of Independent Socialists from the SPD, the opposition of the trade unionists still existed within the party. The so-called localists opposed the centralization of the trade unions and in 1897 founded the Free Association of German Trade Unions and the newspaper Die Einigkeit , which was published by Gustav Keßler and Fritz Kater . The members were still organized in the SPD and saw themselves as the vanguard of the German Social Democrats. The FVdG, which was expelled from the SPD in 1907 at the instigation of August Bebel , changed in the first decade of the 20th century from a localist trade union federation into a syndicalist organization with anarchist influences. At the same time, the German anarchists also approached syndicalism. This was mainly a consequence of the influence of French syndicalism and the work The General Strike and the Social Revolution (1902) and other works by Siegfried Nacht. The doctor and former social democrat Raphael Friedeberg was the first to try to combine anarchism and syndicalism in 1896 and was thus also a pioneer of anarcho-syndicalism in Germany. The ideas met with approval from the trade unionists of the FVdG and the anarchists. But there has not yet been an attempt to combine the two forces. Max Baginski , Rudolf Rocker , Fritz Oerter and Rudolf Lange , who from 1903 onwards published the magazine Der Anarchist in Berlin, worked for anarchism in the labor movement .

Around 1890 an individualistic-anarchist movement began to form in Germany, mainly through the work of John Henry Mackay . Mackay was heavily influenced by Proudhon's mutualism and the writings of Benjamin Tucker and Max Stirner and was the author of the collection of poems Sturm (1888) and the novel The Anarchists (1891). He was the best-known representative of individualistic anarchism and worked in this sense until 1933. At the same time, a free economic movement developed within German anarchism. This development was initiated by the book Freiland, a social vision of the future from 1890, written by the economist Theodor Hertzka . In addition, Arthur Mühlberger tried to popularize Proudhonism through his own writings and translations. Even Benedict Friedlaender , Peter Hille , Bernhard Kampffmeyer , Bruno Wille , Eugen Heinrich Schmitt and Moritz von Egidy worked for anarchism in Germany or were heavily influenced by anarchism.

In 1900 Paul Eltzbacher , who was an opponent of anarchism, published the treatise Der Anarchismus , which introduced a broader public to philosophy and the various currents within the movement.

First World War and the rise of FAUD (1914–1933)

Delegate of the anarchist Free Workers Union of Germany (FAUD) at the congress in Erfurt in 1922

After the outbreak of the First World War, the SPD and the trade unions supported the war policy of Kaiser Wilhelm II. The Free Association of German Trade Unions , on the other hand, was the only German workers' organization that did not participate in the truce with the German state. The anti-militarist organ, Der Pionier , was subsequently suppressed and many of the FVdG members were forced to do military service.

The German anarchists, such as Gustav Landauer and Erich Mühsam, also fought against the war. But almost all anarchist papers, including Kain and Der Sozialist , were banned shortly after the war began. Many anarchists were arrested or they were forced into military service and mainly used in the dangerous fighting on the front lines. After the end of the war, Landauer and Mühsam played a leading role in the formation of the Munich Soviet Republic in 1919 . After the violent suppression of the Munich Soviet Republic by the Reichswehr and voluntary corps associations , Gustav Landauer was arrested in Munich on May 1, 1919 and murdered by soldiers a day later in the Stadelheim prison . Erich Mühsam was sentenced to 15 years in prison and finally given an amnesty in 1924.

After the November Revolution of 1918, the war-related period of repression also ended for the Free Association of German Trade Unions . On December 14th, Fritz Kater began publishing the newspaper Der Syndikalist in Berlin as a replacement for Die Einigkeit . After the strike movement in the Ruhr area and the subsequent collapse of the General Mining Union, the FVdG unions grew rapidly, particularly in the Ruhr area. The FVdG's criticism of the bureaucratic and centralized trade unions, its support for direct action and the comparatively low membership fees were well received by the workers in the Ruhr area. In August 1919 the association already had 60,000 members across the Reich.

The end of the collaboration between the FVdG and the political parties was part of a nationwide trend after Paul Levi , an outspoken opponent of the syndicalists, became chairman of the KPD in March . Then Rudolf Rocker joined the FVdG in March 1919. He had recently returned from exile in London, where he had been an active part of the Jewish anarchist scene. Augustin Souchy , an anarchist close to Gustav Landauer's tradition, also joined the association in 1919. Both quickly gained influence in the organization and, as anti-Marxists, were against all too close cooperation with the communists. The 12th Congress of the FVdG, which took place from December 27th to 30th, became the founding congress of the Free Workers' Union of Germany (FAUD). Rocker's anarchist statement of principles on syndicalism , which he had written at the request of the business commission, was chosen without further controversy as part of the FAUD program. According to the Business Commission, the Congress was attended by 109 delegates representing 111,675 members, double the number of members four and a half months earlier.

At the time of the Kapp Putsch the FAUD was instrumental in the founding of the Ruhr Red Army involved in the Ruhr Uprising fought against the policy response and for the continuation of the 1919 virtually ended revolution. With The Creation , a daily newspaper for the Rhineland appeared from August to December 1921, and with Die Internationale, from the mid-twenties, a monthly, internationally respected theoretical organ. There were also other local or subject-related FAUD bodies.

At Christmas 1922, on the initiative of FAUD, the International Workers' Association (IAA) was founded at a congress in Berlin , following the tradition of the First International . After its foundation, it comprised various anarcho-syndicalist groups, especially in Europe and America. The IAA was founded as a counterpart to the Communist Red Trade Union International (RGI) in order to reduce the influence of the communist party on the international workforce. During the time of its existence, the FAUD had to cope with a number of divisions (e.g. towards the FAUD-Gelsenkirchen direction, which was merged into the Union of Manual and Brain Workers in 1921 ) and transfers of important active people to other groups. From its peak of 150,000 members it sank to some 10,000 by the mid-1920s and in 1932 still had around 4,300 members. Nevertheless, it remained a decisive political and, above all, culturally active force in some areas and cities, for example in the unemployed and free thinkers movement and the Guild of Freedom Book Friends (GfB). In 1926 Otto Reimers founded, together with Karl Matzen, Karl Roche and Ernst Fiering, the block of anti-authoritarian revolutionaries in Hamburg , consisting of anarcho-syndicalists, anarchists, unionists and individual anarchists. Speakers at the meetings included Pierre Ramus , Ernst Friedrich , Helmut Rüdiger and Rudolf Rocker.

When almost all political groups formed their own combat units in the late 1920s, the so-called black multitudes also developed alongside FAUD / AS , the majority of which saw themselves as anti-fascist members. In 1921 some women from FAUD, such as Milly Witkop-Rocker and Hertha Barwich, formed the Syndicalist Women's Association (SFB) as a sub-organization of FAUD. The SFB published the Frauenbund as an organ , which appeared as a supplement in the Syndikalist . A youth organization closely related to FAUD was the Syndicalist-Anarchist Youth of Germany (SAJD), founded in 1920, with its magazine Young Anarchists .

Anarchists who wanted to organize outside the FAUD did so in the Federation of Communist Anarchists of Germany (FKAD), which allowed double membership. It was founded in 1919 as a continuation of the Anarchist Federation of Germany and had its focus in Berlin with its central seat as well as on the Rhine and Ruhr. In contrast to the anarcho-syndicalist movement, however, it remained marginal and comprised only a few hundred members. Their activity was largely exhausted in propaganda activity. Since the mid-1920s she increasingly opposed the FAUD. Important members such as Rudolf Rocker, Erich Mühsam and Victor Fraenkl turned their backs on her. Richard and Rudolf Oestreich , Paul Albrecht , Fritz Oerter and Berthold Cahn were among their protagonists . Personalities such as Heinrich Vogeler and Herbert Wehner also wrote in their press .

The "Anarchist Association", which has existed especially in Berlin since the mid-1920s and which mainly brought together prominent critics of the FKAD, including Erich Mühsam, Rudolf Rocker and Gustav Lübeck, behaved in harmony with FAUD. Its speakers were mostly close to anarcho-syndicalism, but the activity of this organization hardly went beyond educational and agitation events. She used the “Fanal” as the organ of publication, edited by Erich Mühsam. At the beginning of 1933 the “Anarchist Association” dissolved.

Germany during the Nazi dictatorship (1933-1945)

Legal political activity by anarchists in Germany was not possible during the National Socialist regime. Shortly after Hitler came to power in 1933, prominent spokesmen for the anarchists were taken to concentration camps and often murdered there, such as the poet and publicist Erich Mühsam . In 1933, after lengthy preparation, the FAUD officially dissolved shortly before the National Socialists came to power and tried to reorganize illegally. The office of the FAUD business commission in Berlin was stormed and closed at the beginning of the National Socialist takeover. The now illegal business commission was moved to Erfurt via Kassel. Some of FAUD's residential and work projects continued to exist for some time. Young and lesser-known activists tried to organize anti-fascist resistance groups with the black crowds , but the Gestapo removed them .

Most of the anarchists emigrated. Many of the emigrated German anarchists, including Augustin Souchy , joined the struggle of the International Brigades on the side of the CNT / FAI against Francisco Franco in Spain from 1936 during the Spanish Civil War . Hundreds of anarchists who remained in Germany were taken into " protective custody ", sentenced in show trials and taken to concentration camps, from where some were forced into the SS special unit Dirlewanger at the end of World War II .

Post-war period (from 1945)

German Democratic Republic

For a short time there was a resurgence of anarchism under the Soviet occupation forces , mainly by syndicalist workers. After the war, a new group of freedom-minded people had formed around Wilhelm Jelinek in Zwickau . Jelinek was the chairman of the works council of a large industrial company. This group sent circular letters to at least 18 different places in the Soviet zone and also maintained correspondence with anarchists in other zones of Germany. Through verbal and written agitation he succeeded in spanning a wide-meshed network over the entire eastern zone and later GDR . “In Zwickau, as unbelievable as it sounds, an information center for all-German anarchism was set up. In mid-1948 she called a secret conference in Leipzig of all anti-authoritarians from different directions living under the Soviet occupation forces. ” Circulars from the Zwickau Circle fell into the hands of the state organs. The State Security Service became aware and arrested all participants. After the end of the war until the demolished conference in 1948, the anarchist groups in the Soviet occupation zone were so strong that they were even able to support the West German anarchists with a duplicating machine and money. It is known from some places in the GDR that some former members of the FAUD joined the SED, most of whom were "cleared out" in the 1950s. Until the fall of the Berlin Wall , anarchist activities were limited to the publication of leaflets and some magazines.

Federal Republic of Germany

"After the Second World War, the few anarchists who had survived twelve years of the Nazi dictatorship tried to reorganize the anarchist movement, which in the first years after the First World War had more than 150,000 active members in Germany." From May to December 1945 Otto Reimers published the first anarchist magazine after the war with the title Mahnruf . Reimers wanted to contribute to the establishment of a "new" anarchist movement with the magazine. The hoped-for response did not materialize, however. Reimers had already issued the warning letter illegally from 1933 to 1934.

The Federation of Liberal Socialists (1947 to around 1970; successor organization to FAUD) was the largest anarchist organization in the Federal Republic of Germany after the Second World War . With the student movement in the late 1960s , public interest in anarchism increased. There was an anarchist current within the student movement. Anarchists were also represented in the Socialist German Student Union (SDS), which developed into the collecting basin for the entire movement. Furthermore, anarchism had a theoretical and practical meaning for the New Social Movements (NSB). In 1974, on the initiative of Kurt Zube and Uwe Timm , the Mackay Society was re-established (first founded in 1931). She brought individualistic anarchism up for discussion within the libertarian movement.

Within the Autonomen , as the left-wing radical wing of the NSB, there was and is a large libertarian current. A nationwide anarcho-pacifist-dominated organization was the Federation of Nonviolent Action Groups , which existed from 1980 to the 1990s and for years has published the magazine Graswurzelrevolution , which has been published to the present day . In 1989 the "Initiative for an Anarchist Federation in Germany" (I-AFD) was founded. It survived the turn of the millennium and was later absorbed into the “Forum of German-speaking Anarchists”, since 2013 the Federation of German-speaking Anarchists (FdA). The FdA is also active in Switzerland. In the early 21st century, several local groups of the Anarchist-Syndicalist Youth were formed.

present

Organizations

The anarcho-syndicalist trade union Free Workers' Union (FAU) is a member of the International Confederation of Workers (IKA). The Federation of German-Speaking Anarchists (FdA), the successor organization founded in 2003 to the initiative launched in 1989 to establish an anarchist federation in Germany , is associated with the IFA . There are some groups of the Anarchist Black Cross (ABC). Several local groups of the anarcho-syndicalist youth exist since 2009 .

Periodicals

The most important German-language periodicals are the online “ Direct Action ” of the anarcho-syndicalist organization FAU, the monthly anarcho-pacifist “ grassroots revolution ” and its separate supplement “Utopia” (which is currently discontinued). The quarterly “ Schwarze Faden ” has been discontinued, as has the “Unfassba” published in the 1990s. The monthly magazine of the Federation of German-Speaking Anarchists , the 改道 Gǎi Dào (chin .: “go a different way”), has been published every month since January 2011.

In Berlin in the 2000s, the English-language magazine " Abolishing the Borders from Below " (German: "Abolish the borders from below") was published. Some regular publications such as the Leipzig “Feierabend” are only received regionally. The self-organization magazine “ Contraste ” and the ecologically oriented “ Green Leaf ” are included in the anarchist environment . " Die Aktion " appears irregularly . The magazine " espero " published articles on anarchist and liberal as well as free economy topics until the early 2010s . The ABC's "Unleashed" appeared every three months in the 2000s.

See also

literature

  • Günter Bartsch : Anarchism in Germany. 1945-1965 . Volume 1, Fackelträger-Verlag, Hanover 1972, ISBN 3-7716-1331-0 .
  • Günter Bartsch: Anarchism in Germany. 1965-1973 . Volume 2/3. Fackelträger-Verlag, Hanover 1973, ISBN 3-7716-1351-5 .
  • Andrew R. Carlson: Anarchism in Germany . The Scarecrow Press, Metuchen, NJ 1972.
  • Hans Jürgen Degen: The return of the anarchists. Anarchist attempts 1945-1970 . Verlag Edition AV , Lich 2009, ISBN 978-3-86841-015-0 .
  • Helge Döhring: Organized Anarchism in Germany 1919 to 1933. The Federation of Communist Anarchists of Germany (FKAD) , Volume 1, Verlag Edition AV, Bodenburg 2018, ISBN 978-3-86841-192-8 .
  • Helge Döhring: Anarchists in search of meaning. The Federation of Communist Anarchists in Germany (FKAD) 1919-1933 , Volume 2, Verlag Edition AV, Bodenburg 2019, ISBN 978-3-86841-191-1 .
  • Helge Döhring: The "Anarchist Association" 1923 - 1933. History and Documents, Volume 3, Verlag Edition AV, Bodenburg 2020, ISBN 978-3-86841-208-6 .
  • Bernd Drücke : Between a desk and a street battle? Anarchism and Libertarian Press in East and West Germany . Ulm 1998, ISBN 3-932577-05-1 .
  • Bernd Drücke (ed.): Yes! Anarchism! Lived utopia in the 21st century. 20 interviews and discussions . Berlin 2006, ISBN 3-87956-307-1 .
  • Ulrich Linse : Organized anarchism in the German Empire from 1871 . Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1969. Also: University of Munich, dissertation 1969.
  • Max Nettlau : History of Anarchy . 5 volumes, Vaduz 1972–1984.
  • Rudolf Rocker : Johann Most. The life of an anarchist . Berlin 1924. New edition: Libertad Verlag , Berlin u. a. 1994, ISBN 3-922226-22-1 , pp. 384, 385.
  • Horst Stowasser : Anarchy! Idea, history, perspectives. Edition Nautilus, Hamburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-89401-537-4 .
  • Horst Stowasser: Pure freedom. The idea of ​​anarchy, history and future. Eichborn, Frankfurt 1995, ISBN 3-8218-0448-3 . ( PDF; 3.01 MB )

Web links

Commons : Anarchism in Germany  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ DadA quotation from Gustav Landauer: "Börne und der Anarchismus" (first published in: Sozialistische Monatshefte, No. 2, 1900), in: ders .: Knowledge and Liberation. Selected speeches and essays, Frankfurt a. M. 1976, p. 20.
  2. ↑ Max Nettlau: The anarchism in Germany . Excerpt from his book La Anarquía a través de los tiempos .
  3. ↑ Mommsen, Wolfgang J. / Hirschfeld, Gerhard: Social protest, violence, terror . Klett-Cotta, 1982, p. 232.
  4. ^ Rudolf Rocker : Johann Most. The life of a rebel. Verlag Der Syndikalist, Berlin 1924, pp. 90ff.
  5. ↑ Max Nettlau: The anarchism in Germany . Excerpt from his book La Anarquía a través de los tiempos .
  6. ^ Hans-Manfred Bock: Syndicalism and left communism from 1918 to 1923: A contribution to the social and intellectual history of the early Weimar Republic . Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1993, pp. 118-120.
  7. ^ Hans-Manfred Bock: Syndicalism and left communism from 1918 to 1923: A contribution to the social and intellectual history of the early Weimar Republic . Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1993, pp. 105-107.
  8. ↑ Krüschedt, Fritz (1910–1978) from Freie Arbeiter-Union Deutschlands, accessed on August 20, 2009.
  9. ^ Günter Bartsch : Communism, Socialism, Anarchism . Herder Verlag, 1982
  10. ↑ Anarchists in the GDR . Tobacco shop . April 12, 1984. Archived from the original on June 24, 2007. Retrieved on August 27, 2012.
  11. ↑ Knowing and wanting. Anarchism and Syndicalism in Magdeburg ( Memento from August 13, 2007 in the Internet Archive ). In: The Troublemaker . Issue 12
  12. ↑ Bernd Drücke : “Anarchy in East Germany. Without the environmental papers and the telegraph , the turning point in 1989 would not have happened ”. About the libertarian press in the GDR . September 15, 2009. Retrieved May 17, 2012.
  13. ↑ Author Bernd Drücke . Anarchy in East Germany . In: Grassroots Revolution No. 340, 2009
  14. ↑ Libertarian Days on Anarchismus.de
  15. ↑ Schwarzer Faden Journal for Lust and Freedom ( Memento of the original from July 21, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / schwarzenfaden.de
  16. ↑ Unfassba in Dada
  17. ↑ Gaidao website