BepiColombo

BepiColombo
	; Left: Mercury Planetary Orbiter ; Right: Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter
NSSDC ID	2018-080A
Mission goal	Mercury
Client	ESA JAXA;
Launcher	Ariane 5
construction
Takeoff mass	4081 kg
Course of the mission
Start date	October 20, 2018, 01:45 UTC
launch pad	CSG , ELA-3
End date	2027/28 (planned)

BepiColombo is a four-part space probe that launched for Mercury on October 20, 2018 at 3:45 a.m. ( CEST ) . The start date originally planned for 2013 had to be postponed several times because the development of various components for the strong thermal load in the vicinity of the sun took longer than planned.

BepiColombo is a cooperation between ESA and the Japanese space agency JAXA . The probe is named after the nickname of the Italian mathematician Giuseppe Colombo , who died in 1984 and who had made a special contribution to the exploration of Mercury. It is the third mission to Mercury after Mariner 10 in 1974 and 1975 and the MESSENGER orbiter from 2011 to 2015.

Mission objectives

BepiColombo's diverse tasks are intended to provide a comprehensive description of Mercury and references to its history. Cameras are to map the surface in different spectral ranges, determine height information and determine the mineralogical and chemical composition of the surface. Radiations, particles and spectra of different types and wave ranges as well as the gravitational field are to be measured. It should be clarified whether Mercury has a solid or molten core. The probe should also determine the shape, extent and origin of the magnetic field .

technology

overview

Planned orbits of the two probes of the BepiColombo mission

When launched as a Mercury Composite Spacecraft (MCS), BepiColombo consists of four parts:

the transport module ( Mercury Transport Module, MTM)

two separate orbiters that are mounted on top of each other on the transport module
during the flight to Mercury:
- the remote sensing orbiter below ( Mercury Planetary Orbiter, MPO; three-axis stabilized, hydrazine drive); he is in a 400 km x 1,500 km measured polar orbit swivel around Mercury.
- the magnetospheric orbiter ( Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter, MIO; spin stabilized , cold gas engines ), which sits above under the sun shield; after arriving at Mercury, it will also be placed in a polar orbit with the parameters 400 km × 12,000 km .

a sunshield ( MMO sunshield and interface structure, MOSIF), which serves as a heat shield for the MMO and forms the electrical and mechanical connection between the MPO and MIO.

BepiColombo weighed 4081 kg with a full tank. The Ariane 5 ECA was supposed to expose BepiColombo to an excessive hyperbolic speed of 3.475 km / s.

Originally, a lander was also supposed to fly, but this was canceled in November 2003 for cost reasons.

Mercury Transport Module (MTM)

Mercury Transfer Module in the ESA- ESTEC test center in Noordwijk, Netherlands

The transport module developed on behalf of ESA with a launch mass of approx. 1100 kg transports both orbiters during the flight to Mercury. The MTM is controlled by the MPO's computer during flight. There are three simple low-resolution cameras mounted on the MTM, which are referred to as "selfie cameras". They can be used to monitor the correct deployment of the solar panels. The transmitter and antenna of the MPO are used for communication.

The MTM has two different drives:

For the interplanetary phases there are four redundant solar-electrically operated QinetiQ -T6 ion thrusters , which each deliver a thrust of 75 to 145 mN . Xenon, which is carried in two tanks, serves as a supporting mass. Up to two of these four engines can be in operation at the same time. These engines ionize xenon gas and accelerate the resulting xenon ions through high-voltage grids to a speed of 50,000 meters per second. For the operation of the ion thrusters, the MTM has 42 m ² solar modules with an output of around 15 kW. These engines have a diameter of 22 cm and are mounted to pivot. The center of gravity of the spaceship changes as the fuels are used up. Thanks to the moving engines, the thrust can always be aligned with the center of gravity - regardless of whether one or two engines are used and regardless of which of the four engines is in operation.
In addition, the MTM has 24 chemical thrusters with 10 N thrust each for attitude and orbit control during the swing-by maneuver, for desaturating the reaction wheels during the mission and for braking into orbit.

The transport module is only required until arriving at Merkur. Before the probe enters Mercury orbit, the transport module will be disconnected and will remain in orbit around the sun.

Mercury Planetary Orbiter (MPO)

EMC and antenna test of the Mercury Planetary Orbiter at ESTEC

The MPO is the European contribution to the mission. The spacecraft's satellite body is 2.4 m wide, 2.2 m deep, 1.7 m high and has a 3.7 m wide radiator. The solar generator has an area of 8.2 m ² and is 7.5 m long when unfolded. When fueled, the MPO weighed approx. 1200 kg at the start. While MTM is in operation, the MPO's solar generator is turned with the narrow sides towards the sun. This minimizes the torque on the surface caused by the solar wind, serves to control the temperature, prevents the solar cells from prematurely aging and allows the sun sensors to see.

Instruments of the MPO

The MPO's scientific payload weighs 85 kg and includes eleven instruments, ten European and one Russian :

BELA ( BepiColombo Laser Altimeter )

MERTIS (Mercury Radiometer and Thermal Infrared Spectrometer): Infrared detector and spectrometer with the purpose of creating a mineralogical and a temperature map of Mercury. The instrument alternately observes the surface, space and two black body emitters with temperatures of 300 K and 700 K as references. Using uncooled microbolometer technology and working in a wavelength of 7 to 14 µm, it should be able to deliver spatial resolutions of 500 m for the mineralogical and 2000 m for the temperature map. The instrument has an observation angle of 4 ° and a spectral resolution of up to 90 nm. The entire surface should be recorded with a spatial resolution of a maximum of 500 m, but 5–10% of the surface should be recorded with a resolution better than 500 m.
PHEBUS (Probing of Hermean Exosphere By Ultraviolet Spectroscopy): Ultraviolet spectrometer with the purpose of analyzing Mercury's exosphere and better understanding its dynamic behavior, coupled to the surface and magnetosphere of the planet. The instrument consists of an EUV detector, working in the 55–155 nm wavelength range, and a second FUV detector for the 145–315 nm range with an extension for the NUV lines in 404.4 and 422.8 nm of potassium and calcium. Overall, they can achieve a spectral resolution of 1 nm. The instrument can detect the elements Si, Mg, Fe and the noble gases Ar, Ne as well as their spatio-temporal distribution in the exosphere. The scientific development and construction of the entire instrument was the responsibility of the French LATMOS , with CNES commissioning the instrument as general contractor. Contributions to the instrument come from the University of Tokyo in Japan, the Russian space research institute IKI and the CNR-IFN-LUXOR laboratory in Italy. The detectors measuring 25 × 40 mm consist of cesium iodide (CsI) for EUV and cesium telluride (CsTe) for FUV.
SIMBIO-SYS (Spectrometer and Imagers for MPO BepiColombo Integrated Observatory System): Camera system for stereo, high-resolution and multispectral recordings, the purpose of which is the geological analysis of the surface, the investigation of volcanism and tectonics, the age and components as well as general geophysics. The built-in stereo channel (STC) has four spectral channels (panchromatic 650 + 550, 700 and 880 nm) and has a resolution of up to 50 m / pixel; the built-in High Spatial Resolution Imaging Channel (HRIC) can in turn reach up to 5 m / pixel in the same spectral range; the Visible Infrared Hyperspectral Imager Channel (VIHI) will focus on visible and near infrared (400 to 2000 nm with extension for 2200 nm).
SIXS (Solar Intensity X-ray and particles Spectrometer): X-ray and particle detectors (protons, electrons) with the aim of better understanding the variable signature in the X-ray range of the planet's surface by measuring solar radiation . Reliable estimates of the planetary surface irradiation can be obtained from the SIXS measurements, which are then to be correlated with the related MIXS measurements. The instrument can perform spectral measurements in the X-ray energy range from 1 to 20 keV with a temporal resolution of up to one second and at the same time spectra of protons (from 0.33 to 30 MeV) and electrons (from 50 keV to 3 MeV) with count rates of record up to 20000 cps.
MIXS (Mercury Imaging X-ray Spectrometer): Telescope with collimator for the X-ray fluorescence of the surface of Mercury, which is supposed to help determine its elemental composition. MIXS measurements are to be calibrated with measurements from the partner instrument SIXS in order to then map the results on the planet. The MIXS telescope (MIXS-T) has a very narrow field of view (1 ° FoV ), while the collimator (MIXS-C) works at 10 °. The instrument was developed and constructed by the University of Leicester , the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research (MPS) and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (MPE).
SERENA (Search for Exospheric Refilling and Emitted Natural Abundances)

communication

MPO has two fixed low gain antennas for X-band , a movable medium gain antenna for X-band and a movable high gain antenna with a diameter of 1 m. The two low-gain antennas can send and receive from any location and are used for communication in the start-up phase and in the vicinity of the earth, as well as to secure emergency communication at great distances. The medium gain antenna is mainly used in the long phases between planetary encounters and when the probe goes into safety or emergency mode. The high gain antenna is used in the interplanetary phases when a higher volume of data is required. It can send and receive in the X-band and send in the Ka-band .

The 35-meter antenna of the ESTRACK network in Cebreros is set up for reception in the Ka-band and is planned to be the primary system for communication in all phases of the mission. For entry into orbit and other critical phases, New Norcia is to assist. The two Japanese radio stations Usuda Deep Space Center near Usuda and Uchinoura Space Center near Kimotsuki are to serve as backups and are used for special measurements. At the time of launch, JAXA did not yet have any deep space antennas for the Ka-band. At the end of fiscal year 2019, a new 54-meter antenna with Ka reception under the name GREAT was built in Usuda and has since been equipped with the appropriate technology and the existing 65-meter antenna is retrofitted with a Ka-band receiver.

Navigation and position control

The so-called Attitude and Orbit Control System (AOCS) has several tasks. On the one hand, it has to perform the navigation, but on the other hand it has to align the spacecraft in such a way that no components are damaged by the radiation even in the event of a malfunction. The different phases of the approach require different orientations. AOCS has several systems for navigation and position control:

Three star trackers with their own electronics and lens hoods. The star trackers have protective flaps in the housing. In the event that control over MPO is lost, these are automatically closed so that the devices are not destroyed by the intense sunlight.
Two inertial measurement systems, including four gyroscopes and four accelerometers in a tetrahedral arrangement and the associated electronics.
Twice four redundant sun sensors.
Four reaction wheels with double electronics. Three reaction wheels are necessary for operation.
Two redundant sets of four 22 Newton propulsion nozzles. They use MON3 as fuel , a mix of nitrogen tetroxide with 3% nitrogen oxide and hydrazine. These engines are used to slow down and swivel into a high orbit of Mercury. Then the orbits for MIO and MPO are lowered.
Two redundant sets of four 5 Newton hydrazine drive nozzles for position control and desaturation of the reaction wheels.
High and Medium Gain Antenna Pointing Mechanism (HGAPM / MGAPM), these automatically compensate for the interference caused by the alignment of the antennas.
Three Solar Array Drive Mechanisms (SADM), these move the two solar panels of the MTM and that of the MPO.
Solar Electrical Propulsion Subsystem (SEPS) as long as the ion propulsion of the MTM is ready.

AOCS operates a total of 58 position control elements and processes the data from 15 sensors.

In the event that the redundant on-board computer malfunctions, the correct alignment of the spacecraft must continue to be guaranteed at all times in order to prevent overheating and failure of components. For this reason there is the Failure Correction Electronics (FCE), this preserves the information from the inertial measurement systems and the star trackers about the alignment of the spacecraft, as long as the on-board computer is restarted or switched to the secondary on-board computer within a few minutes. In this case, FCE also ensures that the solar panels remain correctly aligned. During this time, FCE cannot read out the sun sensors and the star trackers are closed, but the information from the inertial measurement system can update the changes in position for this time compared to the last measured position with sufficient accuracy until the on-board computer is available again and all navigation systems can be read out again.

AOCS has several operating modes: Sun Acquisition and Survival Mode is required to find the sun immediately after start-up and to correctly align the probe. Only the control nozzles are used to check the position. The probe rotates around the axis that points to the sun. Otherwise this mode would only be executed after a computer failure. Then it changes to Safe and Hold Mode. The reaction wheels are used in this operating mode, which reduces fuel consumption. In addition, the medium gain antenna is aligned to the earth for reception, optionally also the high gain antenna. In this mode, AOCS automatically desaturates the reaction wheels. Save and Hold can only be changed to normal operation by a command from earth. In normal operation, the reaction wheels are only desaturated on command, because the control nozzles are switched off in this case and must be preheated before use. The rotation is stopped and both medium and high gain antennas can be operated. Orbit Control Mode is used as long as the chemical thrusters change the flight path significantly. There are two separate control units for the MTM and for MPO when the transport stage has been dropped. Electric Propulsion Control mode is required to operate the ion thrusters. All normal operation functions continue, but the reaction wheels are desaturated by the ion thrusters, if possible. The chemical engines are switched off and it is possible that neither the medium gain nor the high gain antenna can point to earth. There is an onboard error detection system that can detect problems and execute automatic procedures for isolating the error and for automatic error correction or for switching to redundant systems.

Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter (MIO)

Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter at ESTEC

The MMO was developed under Japanese responsibility and later renamed MIO. The space probe with an octagonal cross-section is 1.06 m high, 1.8 m in diameter and weighed about 255 kg when launched. When the MPO is separated from the MOSIF, MIO is set in rotation at a rate of 15 revolutions per minute. Then two five-meter-long masts for measuring the magnetic field and four 15-meter-long wire antennas for measuring the electrical field are extended. For communication, MIO has a high gain antenna with a diameter of 80 cm, as well as a medium gain antenna as a backup. The high gain antenna is a flat phased array antenna . A parabolic antenna would be more effective for data transmission, but since intensive light and infrared radiation act on the antenna at the same time, the radiation could concentrate in an undesired place and damage the orbiter.

Sun sensors on the side panels and a star sensor on the underside of the orbiter serve to detect the position . A cold gas system and a passive nutation damper in the central cylinder are used for position control .

MIO carries five scientific instruments (45 kg) - four Japanese and one European:

MIO-MAG (MIO magnetometer)

MPPE (Mercury Plasma Particle Experiment): The instrument is used to study the plasma and neutral particles of Mercury as well as its magnetosphere and the interplanetary solar wind . It is an instrument package consisting of seven different sensors: three sensors for electrons , three for ions and one sensor for neutral particles . The names of the sensors are: ENA (Energetic Neutral Atom), HEP-e (High Energy Particles - electron), HEP-i (High Energy Particles - ion), MEA (Mercury Electron Analyzer), MIA (Mercury Ion Analyzer) and MSA (Mass Spectrum Analyzer). The MSA sensor is a top hat ion spectrometer that is jointly developed by the Laboratory of Plasma Physics (LPP), the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research (MPS), the IDA-TU Braunschweig and the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS ).

PWI (Mercury Plasma Wave Instrument): A plasma wave detector for studying the electric field, electric waves and radio waves of the Mercury Magnetosphere and the interplanetary solar wind .

MSASI (Mercury Sodium Atmosphere Spectral Imager): Spectrometer for studying the thin sodium atmosphere on Mercury.

MDM (Mercury Dust Monitor): Dust detector for the investigation of the Mercury, interplanetary and interstellar dust around Mercury.

Construction and testing phase

In January 2008 the company Astrium in Friedrichshafen , which specializes in the development and construction of satellites, officially received the project order worth EUR 350.9 million. The total costs including start-up and operation up to 2020 were estimated at 665 million euros in 2008. The initial design studies still included a lander, but this was canceled for cost reasons.

The Japanese MMO was tested in a specially modified ESA space simulator at ESTEC , with the irradiation of 10 solar constants as they exist in Mercury orbit. Its outer skin had to withstand over 350 ° C. Tests of the MPO in the space simulator followed between September 12, 2011 and October 6, 2011.

The Qualification Acceptance Review was successfully completed in August 2018 and the MCS was approved for refueling with chemical fuels on August 30, 2018.

Initially, a Soyuz ST-B with a Fregat upper stage was planned as the launcher, which was supposed to take off from Kourou, but then an Ariane 5 ECA was used for weight reasons.

Start and flight to Mercury

Animation of the BepiColombo flight (probe: pink)

begin

The successful start of the Ariane 5 ECA VA-245 with a payload of 40811 kg from BepiColombo took place on October 20, 2018. The mission from start to arrival at Merkur is controlled solely by ESOC in Darmstadt. The scientific data are collected, archived and evaluated in Villafranca near Madrid at ESAC . Once MIO is disconnected, Jaxa will take control of MIO, while ESOC will continue to control MPO. Jaxa facilities are to serve as backup during the mission.

The MPO and MMO / MIO are launched and flown to Mercury on top of each other on the MTM as MCS (Mercury Composite Spacecraft). In order to save fuel, nine swing-by maneuvers on Earth, Venus and Mercury are planned on the seven-year journey . In between, several days of burning phases of the ion drive are planned. During the approach, MPO controls the MMO and the transfer module, which takes over the electrical supply during this time. The MIO is almost inactive during the flight and is only activated for test purposes.

Testing

The ion thrusters were tested for the first time on November 20, 2018. It was the first time that an engine of this model was operated in space. One after the other was put into operation. The commissioning and the resulting effects were monitored from Earth as long as the probe was still close enough to the earth for direct control. The engines were initially operated at a minimum thrust of 75 and then gradually up to the maximum thrust of 125 mN and maintained this for five hours. The measurements showed a maximum deviation of 2% from the expected values. The ion thrusters are to be used in 22 burning phases that last up to two months. The engines pause for eight hours once a week. This time is used to determine the position and to exchange data.

In July 2019, the two Mercury Electron Analyzers (MEA1 and MEA2, part of the Mercury Plasma / Particle Experiment MPPE) were put into operation and were able to carry out the first successful measurements, although the MMO was located behind the thermal protective shield MOSIF.

Fly by the earth

On April 8, 2020, the aim was to fly through a so-called gravitational keyhole, a critical space-time gate situation. On April 10, 2020, the swing-by maneuver was carried out on the earth as planned, with the probe coming close to the earth up to 12,689 km. Six of the MPO's eleven instruments could be tested, and seven sensors from three of the MIO's instruments were in operation to collect data. In addition, the MTM's three selfie cameras were in operation, which are used to take pictures of the earth. At the time of the flyby, MOC was operating in Darmstadt under safety measures to limit infections caused by the corona virus among the workforce. The scientific operation of some ESA missions has been temporarily suspended, activities have been relocated to the home office as far as possible, and staff in the MOC itself has been reduced to a minimum and special rules have been applied for social distance. Nevertheless, the flyby was carried out as planned.

With the secondary opening for space, MERTIS was able to record the thermal radiation of the moon from a distance of 700,000 km with a resolution of just a few pixels. During flight, the primary opening is covered by the MTM.
MPO-MAG was able to capture the earth's magnetic field. The data can be used to calibrate the instrument. There was little solar wind on the day of the measurement. The entry into the magnetosphere , the bow shock wave and the flight through the turbulent zone of the Magnetosheath could be recorded, then the flight through the magnetopause, which is dominated by the earth's magnetic field alone, and then again in reverse order when leaving.

The probe has since been on its way to Venus, which it is expected to reach on October 12, 2020 in order to carry out the next swing-by maneuver there.

Future steps

The following further steps are planned:

Before it finally reaches Mercury orbit in December 2025 Template: future / in 5 years, the MTM will be separated and the two probes sitting on top of each other will enter the polar target orbit of the MIO with the chemical drive of the MPO. There, MIO is separated from the MPO via a spin separation from the MOSIF. Then the MPO is also disconnected from the MOSIF and placed in its own polar orbit by chemical forcing. Both orbiters should operate in a coplanar arrangement.

When they arrive at their destination, the probes will be exposed to temperatures well over 300 ° C. Here you will not only enforce the strong direct sunlight, but also emanating from the day side of Mercury albedo and to hot to 470 ° C Mercury's surface radiated by the infrared radiation .

The formal main mission duration of the two orbiters after reaching Mercury orbits is estimated at one year, with the possibility of a subsequent one-year secondary mission.

literature

Harald Krüger, Norbert Krupp, Markus Fränz: Departure to Mercury. In: Stars and Space . 57, No. 10, 2018, ISSN 0039-1263 , pp. 26-37.
Tilmann Althaus: The Mercury probe BepiColombo. In: Stars and Space. 46, No. 7, 2007, ISSN 0039-1263, pp. 26-36.

Web links

Commons : BepiColombo - collection of images, videos and audio files

Karl Urban: The Mercury orbiter BepiColombo. In: Raumfahrer.net. May 13, 2007, accessed October 22, 2018 .
The BepiColombo Mission to Mercury. In: DLR.de. Retrieved October 22, 2018 .
BepiColombo Overview. In: ESA.int. February 20, 2018, accessed October 22, 2018 .
BepiColombo. In: sci.ESA.int. Retrieved October 22, 2018 .
BepiColombo. Mercury exploration. In: stp.isas.JAXA.jp. Retrieved October 22, 2018 .
BepiColombo in the NSSDCA Master Catalog (English)
RZ043 BepiColombo. In: Raumzeit-Podcast.de. August 3, 2012, accessed October 22, 2018 .
Rüdiger Jehn: Videos "How to fly to Mercury". Retrieved May 14, 2019 .

Individual evidence

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↑ Arianespace VA245 Launch Press Kit. (PDF; 1.7 MB) In: Arianespace.com. Retrieved October 13, 2018 .
^ ^A ^b Electric blue thrusters propelling BepiColombo to Mercury. In: ESA.int. Retrieved May 26, 2020 (English).
^ Fabian Lüdicke: BepiColombo Mission: space probe, mission profile, instruments. In: DLR.de. Institute for Planetary Research, accessed on September 17, 2017 .
↑ Fabian Lüdicke: BELA laser altimeter. In: DLR.de. Institute for Planetary Research, accessed on September 17, 2017 .
↑ DLR - Institute for Planetary Research - BELA laser altimeter. In: DLR.de. Retrieved June 13, 2020 .
↑ MERTIS. In: Cosmos.ESA.int. Retrieved October 18, 2018 (UK English).
↑ PHEBUS. In: Cosmos.ESA.int. Retrieved October 18, 2018 (UK English).
↑ J.-F. Mariscal, N. Rouanet, J.-L. Maria, B. Lustrement, E. Bertran, C. Montaron, G. Guignan, A. Reberac, E. Quemerais, P. Zuppella, MG Pelizzo, AJ Corso, I. Yoshikawa, K. Yoshioka, G. Murakami: PHEBUS UV spectrometer on board ESA-BepiColombo Mission: Instrument design & performance results . In: SPIE digital library (ed.): International Conference on Space Optics - ICSO 2018 . July 12, 2019, doi : 10.1117 / 12.2536020 .
↑ SIMBIO-SYS. In: Cosmos.ESA.int. Retrieved October 19, 2018 (UK English).
↑ SIXS. In: Cosmos.ESA.int. Retrieved October 19, 2018 (UK English).
↑ MPS: MIXS on BepiColombo. Retrieved June 20, 2020 .
↑ MIXS. In: Cosmos.ESA.int. Retrieved November 1, 2018 (UK English).
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↑ MPS: BepiColombo - SERENA. Retrieved June 20, 2020 .
↑ SERENA. In: Cosmos.ESA.int. Retrieved November 2, 2018 (UK English).
↑ MPO / MAG - Cosmos. In: Cosmos.ESA.int. Retrieved November 23, 2018 (UK English).
↑ ^a ^b ESA Science & Technology - Earth flyby opens new science opportunities for BepiColombo. In: sci.ESA.int. Retrieved June 13, 2020 .
↑ Christoph Steiger, Alkan Altay, Elsa Montagnon, Frank Budnik, Massimo Casasco, Pascal Espeillac, Susanne Fugger, Tommy Strandberg: GNC Operations for the BepiColombo Mission to Mercury: First In-flight Experience . Ed .: European Conference for aeronautics and space sciences 2019. 2019, doi : 10.13009 / EUCASS2019-218 ( researchgate.net ).
↑ MIO - Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter's New Name. In: global.jaxa.jp. Retrieved December 10, 2019 .
↑ ^a ^b MMO (Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter): Objectives. In: stp.isas.jaxa.jp. Space Plasma Group - ISAS / JAXA, accessed December 10, 2019 .
↑ MIO - Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter. In: global.jaxa.jp. JAXA, accessed December 10, 2019 .
↑ ^a ^b Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter MIO / BepiColombo. In: isas.jaxa.jp. JAXA Institute of Space and Astronautical Studies, accessed December 10, 2019 .
↑ Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter. In: Cosmos.ESA.int - Bepi Colombo. ESA, accessed December 10, 2019 .
↑ MMO / MGF MMO magnetometer. In: Cosmos.ESA.int - Bepi Colombo. ESA, accessed December 10, 2019 .
↑ MPPE Mercury plasma / particle experiment. In: Cosmos.ESA.int - Bepi Colombo. ESA, accessed December 10, 2019 .
↑ MPPE. Retrieved June 20, 2020 .
^ PWI plasma wave investigation. In: Cosmos.ESA.int - Bepi Colombo. ESA, accessed December 10, 2019 .
↑ MSASI Mercury Sodium atmosphere spectral imager. In: Cosmos.ESA.int - Bepi Colombo. ESA, accessed December 10, 2019 .
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[FactSheet-1] ↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h BEPICOLOMBO - Fact Sheet. In: ESA.int. December 10, 2019, accessed December 10, 2019 .

[ESA-2] BepiColombo blasts off to investigate Mercury's mysteries. In: ESA.int. Retrieved October 20, 2018 .

[3] Arianespace VA245 Launch Press Kit. (PDF; 1.7 MB) In: Arianespace.com. Retrieved October 13, 2018 .

[:2-4] A ^b Electric blue thrusters propelling BepiColombo to Mercury. In: ESA.int. Retrieved May 26, 2020 (English).

[5] Fabian Lüdicke: BepiColombo Mission: space probe, mission profile, instruments. In: DLR.de. Institute for Planetary Research, accessed on September 17, 2017 .

[6] Fabian Lüdicke: BELA laser altimeter. In: DLR.de. Institute for Planetary Research, accessed on September 17, 2017 .

[7] DLR - Institute for Planetary Research - BELA laser altimeter. In: DLR.de. Retrieved June 13, 2020 .

[8] MERTIS. In: Cosmos.ESA.int. Retrieved October 18, 2018 (UK English).

[9] PHEBUS. In: Cosmos.ESA.int. Retrieved October 18, 2018 (UK English).

[10] J.-F. Mariscal, N. Rouanet, J.-L. Maria, B. Lustrement, E. Bertran, C. Montaron, G. Guignan, A. Reberac, E. Quemerais, P. Zuppella, MG Pelizzo, AJ Corso, I. Yoshikawa, K. Yoshioka, G. Murakami: PHEBUS UV spectrometer on board ESA-BepiColombo Mission: Instrument design & performance results . In: SPIE digital library (ed.): International Conference on Space Optics - ICSO 2018 . July 12, 2019, doi : 10.1117 / 12.2536020 .

[11] SIMBIO-SYS. In: Cosmos.ESA.int. Retrieved October 19, 2018 (UK English).

[12] SIXS. In: Cosmos.ESA.int. Retrieved October 19, 2018 (UK English).

[13] MPS: MIXS on BepiColombo. Retrieved June 20, 2020 .

[14] MIXS. In: Cosmos.ESA.int. Retrieved November 1, 2018 (UK English).

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