Greek fir
| Greek fir | ||||||||||||
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Greek fir ( Abies cephalonica ) |
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| Abies cephalonica | ||||||||||||
| Loudon |
The Greek fir ( Abies cephalonica ), also called Kefalonian fir , is a European conifer from the genus of firs ( Abies ) in the pine family (Pinaceae). It is endemic to Greece, which means that it only occurs there. From the similar silver fir ( Abies alba) it differs in its lower growth height of up to 30 meters and its needles, which are up to 3.5 centimeters in length, longer. The bark of the Greek fir is more gray-brown instead of white to dark gray as in the white fir. The male cones of the Greek fir are colored carmine red when they bloom in May. The 10 to 20 centimeter long and strongly resinous cones, which are 10 to 20 centimeters long and strongly resinous, are cylindrical in shape - just like those of the silver fir tree.
Their populations are considered stable, although forest fires often occur in the summer months and there are also studies that see the population as declining for five decades. The IUCN has classified the species in its Red List since 2011 as "not endangered". It was previously viewed as "low risk". It is protected in two reserves and in several Greek national parks.
It is considered to be susceptible to infestation by harmful insects, especially representatives of the bark beetle . An infestation with bark beetles can lead to economically significant failures. Fungal infestation only plays a subordinate role in this species. Although cultivation trials have shown that the Greek fir has a medium resistance to air pollution, it cannot be ruled out that this plays a role in reduced growth.
The quality of the wood can be compared to that of the silver fir and is also used as building and construction wood. Where their range overlaps, the species forms intermediate forms that go back to a naturally occurring cross between the two species. These forms are often referred to as the Bulgarian fir ( Abies borisii-regis ). Another form, which probably goes back to a natural crossing with the Nordmann fir ( Abies nordmanniana ), is the Troy fir ( Abies nordmanniana subsp. Equi-trojani ) native to Turkey .
description
Appearance
The Greek fir grows as an evergreen tree that reaches heights of 20 to 30 meters and a diameter of 40 to 70 centimeters at chest height . The long branches go horizontally from the straight trunk and spread wide. A pyramidal crown is usually formed.
Buds and needles
The conical to egg-shaped, hairy buds are resinous and stand between the needles. They are purple to reddish in color and between 1.2 and 1.6 millimeters thick. The bud scales can be seen at the tip. The egg-shaped winter buds are around 6 millimeters long. They are usually very gummy and have a yellow to yellowish-brown color.
The sharply pointed needles are between 1.5 and 3.5 centimeters long and 2 to 3 millimeters wide and have a flat cross-section. They stand on the side shoots in the shape of a brush or slightly parted and slightly directed towards the branch tip. The top of the needle is glossy dark green and the underside of the needle is greenish white. On the top of the needle, which is rarely grooved, there are two to three short rows of stomas that extend from the tip to the middle of the needle. There are six to seven rows of stomas on the keeled bottom of the needle. The needles stay on the tree for up to ten years before they fall off. The seedlings have (five to nine cotyledons cotyledons ) which have a length of 2 to 2.5 centimeters.
Bark and roots
The gray-brown bark is smooth in young trees and tears into small, elongated plates in older trees. Branches have a smooth, light brown to reddish brown colored bark . The Greek fir forms a taproot , around which a strong root system develops.
Flowers, cones and seeds
The Greek fir is single-sexed ( monoecious ). It becomes manageable in the free standing with 20 to 25 and in closed stocks with 30 to 35 years. The flowering time is in May. The egg-shaped male cones are 12 to 18 millimeters long and around 4 millimeters thick. They are colored carmine red at flowering time. They are mainly found in the lower part of the crown. There they stand on the underside of last year's shoots in the needle axes.
The almost cylindrically shaped, heavily resinified cones are 10 to 20 centimeters long and 3 to 5 centimeters thick. When they are ripe, they are colored from purple to brownish red and yellowish brown to brown in August to September. They are mainly found in the upper crown area, where they are at the tips of last year's shoots. Under the wedge-shaped, 2 to 4 millimeters long and equally wide seed scales protrude the bent-back, golden-brown cover scales. The seeds are released from the cones in October.
The reddish, with a length of 10 to 19 millimeters angular seeds have a 12 to 20 millimeter long wing. The thousand grain weight is between 50 and 65 grams.
Distribution and location
The natural range of the Greek fir is in Greece , where it is endemic . It comprises five locations in the Epirus region , eleven in the Peloponnese and ten in central Greece . In Central Macedonia the species is found on Olympus and Mount Athos . On the Ionian Islands it occurs only on Kefalonia , on the Aegean Islands only on Euboea . The northern limit of their range runs through the southern Pindos Mountains. Their entire range is estimated at around 200,000 hectares.
The Greek fir is a species of the Mediterranean climate . It occurs at altitudes of 400 to 2100 meters, whereby it thrives optimally at altitudes between 1000 and 1800 meters. The annual rainfall is between 700 and 1500 mm, depending on the location. In the natural location, a summer drought of up to seven months can occur. The species predominantly colonizes crevice-deep, developed limestone (red clay) soils on banked limestones and dolomites . Since it is tolerant of acidic locations, it also occurs on sandstone , serpentinite, as well as mica and clay slate . The pH value of the populated soils is between 5 and 8. The Greek fir is largely hardy in Central Europe, but is sensitive to late frosts due to its early budding.
Due to the frequent colonization of initial limestone soils, the Greek fir has the character of a pioneering species with a modest growth rate for pronounced dry firs. In general, the pure stands of the Greek fir (600–1700 / 400–2100 m; Chelmos 2300 m) , mainly consisting of hard limestone and dolomite, are climax forests , which largely form the tree line. They are severely decimated by pasture, fire and clearing.
ecology
Mycorrhizal partner
Possible mycorrhizal partners are the emperor ( Amanita caesarea ), the fly agaric ( Amanita muscaria ), the spruce stone mushroom ( Boletus edulis ), the chanterelle ( Cantharellus cibarius ), the lizard ( Lactarius deliciosus ) and the greenling ( Tricholoma equestre ). All of these species enter into a symbiosis with the European silver fir ( Abies alba ) and could also be found on the Greek fir. More mycorrhizal partner of could butyriboletus appendiculatus ( Boletus appendiculatus ), the Tonblasse Fälbling ( Hebeloma crustuliniforme ), the Butterröhrling ( Suillus luteus ) and Suillus granulatus ( Suillus granulatus ) be.
Multiplication and growth
The Greek fir is fully masted every two to four years ; this means that a particularly large number of seeds are formed. Due to their relatively high weight, the seeds usually fall to the ground near the mother tree. However, 50 to 70 percent of the seeds of a tree can be so-called hollow grains, i.e. seeds without a seedling . Before the seeds sprout next spring, they must be covered in a moist substrate for 21 to 28 days. The species does not seem to be able to immediately repopulate areas destroyed by forest fires, as the seeds cannot survive fire and it is dependent on natural regeneration from neighboring forest areas. Even three years after the fires, no young plants could be found at the sites.
Young trees only grow very slowly. When they are five years old, they reach heights of growth of 20 to 50 centimeters and when they are ten years of age they reach heights of growth of 100 to 150 centimeters. At the age of 15 to 25, however, there is a significant increase in height growth. In field tests in France it was shown that the species can reach heights of stature of 2.4 meters at 15 years and 4 meters at the age of 24 years. Furthermore, it was shown that the annual increase in height lasts for a maximum of two months and falls during the time with the maximum content of soil water.
Socialization
The Greek fir forms xerophytic forest communities. These societies, which have adapted to the Mediterranean drought, include the plant sociological associations Abieto-Pinion , Quercion frainetto and the evergreen holm oak forest (Quercion ilicis). In contrast, the Abies borisii-regis found in northern Greece is already part of the mesophytic red beech forests ( Fagus sylvatica ) the so-called ( Fagion ) but also goes down to the level of supramediterranean hornbeam - hop beech forests ( Ostryo-Carpinion ). The Greek fir forests are assigned to an oromediterranean and the Bulgarian fir forests to an alpine level . As a result, Abies cephalonica forests no longer show any synsociological relationship to Fagion societies.
Abies cephalonica is in an ecological intermediate position among the Mediterranean firs , since both Fagus species and Cedrus species are absent here. In addition, Greek firs also build largely closed, almost pure stands, mostly of a plenter- like structure. The species mostly forms pure stands, but at lower altitudes there can also be mixed forests with the sweet chestnut ( Castanea sativa ), the Hungarian oak ( Quercus frainetto ) and the black pine ( Pinus nigra ). At higher altitudes, these species are often replaced by the stinging juniper ( Juniperus oxycedrus ). In closed, pure stands hardly any soil flora grows, and mold formation occurs . In mixed stands, mainly gauze is formed.
Diseases and pests
The Greek fir is attacked by both vegetable and animal pests and fungi. Insects are more common than fungi.
Vegetable pests
Among the plant pests is primarily as a half parasite occurring fir mistletoe ( Viscum album subsp. Abietis to name). It is particularly common on older trees.
Harmful fungi
In Christmas tree cultures the pine needle rust ( Pucciniastrum epilobii ) plays an economic role. It attacks the needles, which then turn yellow. If the infestation is severe, young shoots can wither or die off. A major cause of stem and root rot is the pine root sponge ( Heterobasidion abietinum ). In young trees, an infestation can lead to death. Reports of stock failures caused by the common honey fungus ( Armillaria mellea ) are mainly from southern and central Greece, mostly from areas in which prolonged drought often occurs. Smaller trees that are suppressed by other species and grow below the canopy can be attacked by the flesh-colored honey fungus ( Armillaria gallica ).
Insect pests
Among the insects, representatives of who bark beetles such as the Small fir bark beetle ( Cryphalus picae ), the medium fir bark beetle ( Pityokteines vorontzowi ), the Krummzähnige fir bark beetle , the Western fir bark beetle ( Pityokteines spinidens ), the Striped Nutzholzborkenkäfer ( Trypodendron lineatum ) and the jewel beetle Phaenops knoteki as proved particularly dangerous. Trees that grow in unfavorable soil and climatic conditions are particularly susceptible to attack by these species. Especially during the drought periods that occur every four to seven years, there is a particularly high increase in these pests. In 1988 there was infestation due to the low rainfall and the low air temperature in the Parnassus Mountains, which led to losses in up to 40 percent of the old stands.
The beetle Ernobius abietis and the borer Dioryctria abietella are among the most important cone pests of the Greek fir and can destroy all cones of an entire vintage if they are heavily infested , thereby causing great economic damage. The beetle species Ernobius kailidisi may also be able to do this. The winder Evetria margorotana and fly Lonchaea viridana attack seeds. In Greece only the seed-dwelling wasp Megastigmus suspectus occurred in crops in France as Zapf pest. It is assumed that, on average, sperm and cone-eating insects destroy between 30 and 50% of seed production each year.
There are also species that infest the silver fir ( Abies alba ), such as the winder Choristoneura murinana and Epinotia nigricana , the spanner Pungeleria capreolaria and Thera variata, as well as the brown-black fir bark louse ( Cinara confinis ) on the Greek fir.
Abiotic harmful factors
Although additions in the former Soviet Union showed a medium level of resistance to air pollution, it can still be assumed that immissions are a reason for growth losses. Lichen, for example, collected from stocks suffering from depression on Mount Parnitha north of Athens, showed a high content of heavy metals. These stocks are also characterized by a strong bark beetle infestation that has persisted for years.
Other important damaging factors are droughts. After very dry years, there is often a sharp decline in stocks, which can also be attributed to forest fires. Even three years after the fires, no young plants could be found at the sites, indicating that the Greek fir is unable to repopulate burned areas immediately. One reason for this is that the seeds do not survive the fires and natural rejuvenation must come from neighboring areas. Symptoms similar to those of the silver fir ( Abies alba ) appear in this species, the cause of which is probably the interaction of various stress factors. Discoloration occurs and the needles later fall off, shoots and branches die off, and the entire tree later dies. Sick trees usually also have a damaged root system with few fine roots. The mortality rate for these symptoms is five to ten percent, but can be up to 50 percent in some herds.
Systematics
Taxonomic classification
The Greek fir is assigned to the Abies section within the genus of firs ( Abies ) . Some authors assign them together with the silver fir ( Abies alba ), the Nebrodi fir ( Abies nebrodensis ) and the fir species native to Turkey of the Septentrionales series , which are characterized by excellent covering scales.
The first description was made in 1838 by John Claudius Loudon based on material from the island of Cephalonia under the valid even today name Abies cephalonica in Gardener's Magazine and Register of Rural and Domestic Improvement 14 81. synonyms for Abies cephalonica Loudon include Abies alba var . cephalonica (Loudon) dir. , Picea cephalonica (Loudon) Loudon , Pinus abies var. Cephalonica (Loudon) H. Christ and Pinus cephalonica (Loudon) Endl.
In southern Greece a large number of other taxa such as Abies apollinis (Link) Bertrand , Abies heterophylla K.Koch , Abies panachaica (Heldreich) Pardé , Abies pectinata var. Graeca Fraas and Abies reginae-amaliae Heldreich have been described, which today are different varieties of the The species Abies cephalonica is quite rich in form . However, not all authors recognize these varieties.
Species origin and genetic diversity
Due to the easy formation of hybrids and the genetic variability, it is assumed that all fir species native to the Mediterranean region form a related, taxonomic unit and thus clearly differ from the Asian and American firs. Investigations of the terpenes and isoenzymes of the firs of the eastern Mediterranean region showed that they probably descended from a single species of fir that occurred in the Pliocene . After the Pliocene, due to the separation by the Aegean Rift and the associated isolation, three different species emerged from this: a Greek, a Pontic and a European. From these three species, further isolation during the Ice Age and the associated sparse genetic exchange between the individual populations gave rise to today's species. As a result of the warming in the Holocene and the long-term human impact, the Greek fir was displaced into its current area of distribution, which consists of isolated mountain locations.
Analyzes of the isoenzymes showed that the Greek fir has a high genetic diversity of 80 to 90 percent. This value is higher within individual populations than between them. There is a low degree of heterozygosity in some herds , which is likely due to inbreeding from repeated sibling crosses.
The number of chromosomes is 2n = 24.
hybrid
The Greek fir forms easily hybrids with the other European fir species . To the north of the isthmus of Corinth there is a natural, introgressive hybrid formation with the silver fir ( Abies alba ). Stocks are often heterogeneous and composed of trees with intermediate characteristics in a mosaic-like manner. A closer look at morphological and chemical features such as the terpenes reveals gradients that encompass northern Greece and the mountains of Bulgaria. However, genetic analyzes also show introgression of Abies alba genes in individuals who come close to morphologically pure Abies cephalonica . This non-stabilized hybrid swarm is often referred to as the Bulgarian fir ( Abies borisii-regis ), the hybrid nature of which, assumed in the initial description, has now been clearly established.
Successful attempts at crossing were made with the silver fir ( Abies alba ), the Cilician fir ( Abies cilicica ), the Nordmann fir ( Abies nordmanniana ), the Numidian fir ( Abies numidica ) and the Spanish fir ( Abies pinsapo ). The crossings with the white fir and the Nordmann fir are heterotic in youth and the hybrid growth can be demonstrated up to an age of 25 years. The Troy fir ( Abies nordmanniana subsp. Equi-trojani ), which is native to Turkey, probably originates from a natural cross with the Nordmann fir . Crossing attempts with American and Asian fir species failed.
use
The relatively soft, almost white wood of the Greek fir is used as building, construction and firewood. It is also used for carpentry and for making masts. The wood quality is similar to that of the white fir ( Abies alba ), but can also be slightly higher (→ main article: fir wood ). The species is also planted as an ornamental tree, and young trees are sold as Christmas trees .
| Mechanical properties of wood | value | unit |
|---|---|---|
| Density ( ) | 0.414 | g / cm³ |
| Compressive strength | 439 | kg / cm² |
| Flexural strength | 888 | kg / cm² |
| tensile strenght | 990 | kg / cm² |
| modulus of elasticity | 108,000 | kg / cm² |
In forestry, the Greek fir stands are most often rejuvenated by means of an umbrella . In cultivated stocks, propagation using cuttings and cultivation in containers is also possible. The peak value of the annual height increase was between 60 and 80 centimeters. The annual wood growth is around 7 cubic meters per hectare of forest area. Experimental crops in France showed that the annual increase in height lasts for a maximum of two months and coincides with the maximum soil water content. The rotation period is 110 to 150 years.
Essential oils can be extracted from the needles, the twigs, the bark and the balm . The needle oil, also known as Abietis cephalonicae aetheroleum known, is by means of steam distillation recovered and consists of 85 percent of monoterpene - hydrocarbons , of which α- pinene about 20 percent, and β-pinene about 35 percent account. The remaining part of the 85 percent make up camphene with around 9 percent and lime with around 12 percent. You can also find α- terpineol , bornyl acetate and various sesquiterpenes in needle oil. It has an expectorant and weakly antiseptic effect. It can be used externally by rubbing in as well as internally by ingestion in drop form or by inhalation against inflammation of the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract. External use is also possible for the treatment of neuralgic pain , rheumatism and tension. The oil on the branches contains α-pinene, camphene, borneol and isoborneol. The oil extracted from the bark contains α- and β-pinene and limonene. The balsam oil similar to Pinus - turpentine and contains α- and β-pinene and limonene and phellandrene and 3-Caren .
The boiled leaves were used in folk medicine as a blood purifier. The resin of the bark and the cones were taken in pill form as a laxative. It was also processed as an ointment for the treatment of skin injuries, sprains and bruises as well as stomach problems and respiratory diseases in both humans and animals. However, there is no clear evidence of the effect.
Hazard and protection
The Greek fir is in the red list of the IUCN out "not at risk" since 2011 as well. It was previously classified as "low risk". However, this evaluation was changed due to the large distribution area and the frequency of the species. The total stock is considered stable, although forest fires can often occur, especially in summer. In addition to forest fires, the populations are also endangered by overgrazing, tourism and air pollution. However, there are also reports that stocks have been in decline for five decades. Especially after very dry years, stocks decline.
On the island of Kefalonia and in the Iti Mountains in central Greece there are reserves where the Greek fir is protected. Furthermore, it was placed under protection in some Greek national parks.
literature
- Bruno Fady: Abies cephalonica . In: Schütt (Hrsg.): Lexicon of the conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 27-34 .
- Christopher J. Earle: Abies cephalonica. In: The Gymnosperm Database. www.conifers.org, November 28, 2012, accessed April 13, 2013 .
- Juan Carlos Linares: Biogeography and evolution of Abies (Pinaceae) in the Mediterranean Basin: the role of long term glacial refugia and climate change . In: Journal of Biogeography . tape 38 . Blackwell Publishing, April 2012, pp. 619–630 , doi : 10.1111 / j.1365-2699.2010.02458.x (English).
Web links
Individual evidence
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i Bruno Fady: Abies cephalonica . In: Schütt (Hrsg.): Lexicon of the conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 28 .
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i Christopher J. Earle: Abies cephalonica. In: The Gymnosperm Database. conifers.org, November 28, 2012, accessed April 13, 2013 .
- ↑ a b c d Bruno Fady: Abies cephalonica . In: Schütt (Hrsg.): Lexicon of the conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 30-31 .
- ↑ a b c d e f g Bruno Fady: Abies cephalonica . In: Schütt (Hrsg.): Lexicon of the conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 30 .
- ↑ a b c d e Abies cephalonica in the endangered Red List species the IUCN 2012. Posted by: M. Gardner, S. Knees, 1998. Accessed April 13, 2013.
- ↑ a b c d Bruno Fady: Abies cephalonica . In: Schütt (Hrsg.): Lexicon of the conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 31-32 .
- ↑ I. Horvat, V. Glavac, H. Ellenberg: Vegetation of South East Europe .- Geobotánica Selecta, IV, Gustav Fischer, S. 539-546, Stuttgart 1974th
- ↑ M. Block, R. Brandes: Dynamics and structural change in Mediterranean fir forests in southern Spain and southern Greece .- In: Mitteilungen der Fränkische Geographische Gesellschaft, 48, 305–336, Erlangen 2001.
- ↑ a b P. Tsopelas: Distribution and ecology of Armillaria species in Greece . In: iForest - Biogeosciences and Forestry . tape 5 , 2012, p. 6–12 ( sisef.it [PDF]).
- ^ A b Francisco Moreira, Margarita Arianoutsou, Piermaria Corona, Jorge De las Heras: Post-fire Management and Restoration of Southern European Forests . Springer, 2012, ISBN 978-94-007-2208-8 , pp. 263–267 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
- ↑ Cikovac P .: DISTRIBUTION AND ECOLOGY OF DINARIC CALCAREOUS FIR FORESTS IN THE HIGH-KARST ZONE . In: FUTURE WITH FOREST, Belgrade, (2010), pp. 55-56. pdf ( Memento from March 4, 2016 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ MAYER, H. 1984: Forests of Europe - Fischer, Stuttgart.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i Bruno Fady: Abies cephalonica . In: Schütt (Hrsg.): Lexicon of the conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 33 .
- ↑ Pucciniastrum epilobii. (No longer available online.) Www.forst.tu-muenchen.de, archived from the original on June 10, 2007 ; Retrieved May 7, 2013 .
- ↑ HT Doğmuş-Lehtijärvi, A. Lehtijärvi, K. Korhonen: Heterobasidion abietinum on Abies species in western Turkey . In: Forest Pathology . tape 36 , no. 4 , August 2006, p. 280-286 , doi : 10.1111 / j.1439-0329.2006.00456.x .
- ↑ P. Tsopelas, K. Korhonen: Hosts and distribution of the intersterility groups of Heterobasidion annosum in the highlands of Greece . In: European Journal of Forest Pathology . tape 26 , no. 1 , February 1996, p. 4-11 , doi : 10.1111 / j.1439-0329.1996.tb00705.x .
- ↑ P. Tsopelas: distribution and ecology of Armillaria species in Greece . In: European Journal of Forest Pathology . tape 29 , no. 2 , April 1999, p. 103-116 , doi : 10.1046 / j.1439-0329.1999.00139.x .
- ↑ a b Y. Raftoyannisa, I. & K. Spanosb Radogloub: The decline of Greek fir (Abies cephalonica Loudon): Relationships with root condition . In: Plant Biosystems . tape 142 , no. 2 , August 2008, p. 386-390 , doi : 10.1080 / 11263500802151017 .
- ↑ a b c Bruno Fady: Abies cephalonica . In: Schütt (Hrsg.): Lexicon of the conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 32 .
- ^ Abies cephalonica at Tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, accessed April 13, 2013.
- ↑ DJ Mitsoupolos, CP Panetsos: Origin of variation in fir forests of Greece . In: Silvae Genetica . tape 36 , no. 1 , 1987, pp. 1–15 ( sauerlaender-verlag.com [PDF]). PDF ( Memento of the original from April 2, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ B. Ziegenhagen, B. Fady, V. Kuhlenkamp, S. Liepelt: Differentiating Groups of Abies Species With a Simple Molecular Marker . In: Silvae Genetica . tape 54 , no. 3 , 2005, p. 123–126 ( sauerlaender-verlag.com [PDF]). PDF ( Memento of the original from April 2, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ A. Scaltsoyiannes, M. Tsaktsira, AD Drouzas: Allozymes differentiation in the Mediterranean firs (Abies, Pinaceae). A first comparative study with phylogenetic implications . In: Plant Systematics and Evolution . tape 216 , no. 3-4 , 1999, pp. 289-307 , doi : 10.1007 / BF01084404 .
- ^ Daniel Heindl: Silvicultural assessment of the tree species Abies equi-trojani in Kaz-Dagi / Western Anatolia from the point of view of possible use in Central Europe . University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna 2000 ( abstract - diploma / master thesis).
- ^ Bruno Fady: Abies cephalonica . In: Schütt (Hrsg.): Lexicon of the conifers . Nikol, Hamburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-933203-80-9 , pp. 32-33 .
- ↑ a b c R. Hansel, K. Keller, H. Rimpler, G. Schneider: Hagers Handbook of Pharmaceutical Practice . Drugs AD. tape 4 . Springer, Berlin Heidelberg 1992, ISBN 3-540-52688-9 , pp. 18–19 ( limited preview in Google Book Search).
- ^ R. Hänsel, K. Keller, H. Rimpler, G. Schneider: Hagers Handbook of Pharmaceutical Practice . Drugs AD. tape 4 . Springer, Berlin Heidelberg 1992, ISBN 3-540-52688-9 , pp. 10–13 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
