Fly agaric
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Fly agaric ( Amanita muscaria ) |
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The fly agaric ( Amanita muscaria ), also Red Toadstool called, is a toxic fungal species from the family of Wulstlingsverwandten . The fruiting bodies appear in Central Europe from June to the beginning of winter, mainly from July to October.
There are several recognized varieties (variants): The fly agaric in the true sense is the type variety muscaria . In contrast, the variety aureola often has no flakes on its hat, but a membranous sheath . The var. Formosa has an orange-yellow cap with sparse yellow flakes. Both of the last-mentioned varieties cause the same symptoms of poisoning as the actual type variety of the fly agaric. The brown king's fly agaric ( Amanita regalis ) is not recognized by some authors as an independent species, but is also listed as a variety of the red fly agaric - the fruiting bodies are externally very similar to those of the panther mushroom ( A. pantherina ).
As with related species such as the panther mushroom ( Amanita pantherina ), the poisonous effect of the fly agaric is mainly attributed to the toxic effect of ibotenic acid and, secondarily, to muscarin .
etymology
For the word Amanita origin see Amanita . "Muscaria" comes from the Latin musca - the fly.
According to a widespread belief, the German name fly agaric is said to come from an old custom of using sugared pieces of the fruiting body doused with milk as a deadly attractant for flies. However, modern research doubts this, among other things because the flies were usually only anaesthetized in corresponding experiments. Instead, a connection with flies as an ancient symbol of madness is suspected.
Brief description
- Hat : up to 18 centimeters wide, bright red with white spots that are missing when it rains. Removable skin
- Slats : white, soft
- Stem : up to 20 centimeters long, white, tuber zoned warty (without sheath in toadstool of the type muscaria , but in aureola )
- Flesh : white, quite soft
- Occurrence: under spruce and birch , rarely under other trees
- Confusion: with the Kaiserling
features
The fly agaric can be seen far and wide with its striking red, white spotted hat. It has a diameter of 5 to over 15 centimeters, is spherical or hemispherical when young, then convex, finally disc-shaped with a slightly bent, striped edge. Young it is almost white with very dense warts and scales with a faint orange or reddish sheen, then deep red and with gray-white cone-shaped warts, partly also broad scales - the characteristic white "spots" - which can be easily wiped off. They are remnants of an overall shell ( Velum universale) that initially protects the young mushroom.
The red hat is sometimes lighter in spots, especially towards the edge with a mixed orange color, occasionally streaked like fibrous lines by deeper red lines. Some easily removable white velum flakes hang on the edge of the hat. In addition, the surface is largely smooth or, as if hammered, uneven, a bit greasy and slightly shiny when wet. The top layer of the hat is removable as a skin up to the middle of the hat; the hat meat that is exposed is deeply saffron yellow in color.
There are lamellas on the bottom of the hat. These stand free, mixed in and rather crowded. They are slightly bulbous and have a finely serrated cutting edge that is also flaky when viewed under a magnifying glass. Their color is whitish, with older pieces from the depths with a weak salmon-colored glow. They are bluntly shaped against the brim of the hat. They feel soft and have a smooth lamella surface. The spore dust is white.
The stem is 8 to 20 centimeters high and 1.5 to 3 centimeters thick and has a round cross-section. The tip of the stem widens towards the hat, the base of the stem is thickened in a bulbous manner. In its upper half (often quite high) it has a membranous, sensitive ring that is flaky on the underside and looks like pressed cotton on the top; this has a serrated edge and is white or occasionally and in places slightly yellowish in color.
The stem is white overall, frosted at its tip, also slightly brownish against the stem tuber and sometimes marked by inconspicuous lines that can converge in an irregular network. Numerous whitish-gray warts form three to four mostly incomplete ring zones on the stem. Occasionally there is also a volva , but it is usually not well developed.
The meat is spongy, soft, only quite firm in the tuber and without a particular odor. It is full in the stem and weakly fibrous to spongy. The surface of the hat is colored orange-yellow, otherwise pure white. During the drying process, the hat skin temporarily shimmers golden to copper, but later takes on a dull orange color, whereby the metallic shimmer fades again.
Species delimitation
Another red-capped Amanita species occurs in Europe: the edible Kaiserling . Since the characteristic white velum scales on the hat skin of the fly agaric can easily be wiped off and the often deep red hat skin can also be lighter, it can easily be confused with the Kaiserling. The fly agaric is distinguished by its white lamellae and a white stem and usually has no volva, which in the Kaiserling is free and well developed. Furthermore, in the fly agaric the cell material of the velum universale contains inflated hyphae elements and spherocysts .
Ecology and phenology
The fly agaric comes from summer to autumn common in coniferous and deciduous forests before and is common in some areas, especially near birch with whom he a mycorrhiza - symbiotic forms. It grows in dense and light forests as well as on the edges of forests. In the mountains it thrives up to the tree line. The fly agaric prefers acidic soils. These arise, for example, from the rocks granite, gneiss, porphyry, greywacke, quartzite, sandstone as well as quartz sand and peat.
Its geographical area includes the northern temperate climate zone, especially the boreal coniferous forest region of North America, North Asia and Northern Europe, but it can also be found on Iceland and in mountainous regions of subtropical climates.
Poisonous effect
ingredients
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The main active ingredient of the fly agaric is ibotenic acid , a non-proteinogenic amino acid . Particularly high concentrations of it were found in the yellow meat under the cap skin. Meat and lamellas contain significantly more ibotenic acid than hat skin and stem. Ibotenic acid is an easily decomposable substance that decarboxylates to muscimol when the water of crystallization is removed . Muscimol is therefore always found in place of ibotenic acid in dried mushrooms. It seems that muscimol is only produced when the mushrooms are processed, but is not naturally present in the mushroom meat. Muscimol is the active ingredient that causes the fly agaric to be psychotropic. It is about five to six times more effective than ibotenic acid. It is assumed that the established psychotropic activity of ibotenic acid is only due to the fact that it is partially converted to muscimol in the body, but is in itself ineffective.
The ibotenic acid is accompanied by muscazone , a decay product of the same which also develops under the influence of light. Muscazone is hardly pharmacologically active. Like muscarin, it plays no or only a subordinate role in the course of action of toadstool poisoning.
There are also small amounts (two to three ppm of fresh weight) muscarin and ( R ) -4-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidone. All of the compounds mentioned are obviously related to ibotenic acid.
In some books it is stated that the content of the various active ingredients depends on where the fungus grows. In the south-west of Europe, therefore, one active ingredient predominates, in the north-east another with the opposite effect. In the area of the former East Prussia , the effects cancel each other out, which is why it was known there as an edible mushroom. After the Second World War, the displaced people moved west, especially to Bavaria, and there was then poisoning from eating the mushroom.
Analytics
For the reliable qualitative and quantitative determination of the ingredients from the different test materials, after special sample preparation , such as B. the use of ion exchangers , HPLC or gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry . Also, the capillary electrophoresis coupled with mass spectrometry can be used as an analytical method.
Pantherina Syndrome
The poisoning symptoms of the fly agaric are summarized together with those of the panther mushroom (Amanita pantherina) under the name "Pantherina syndrome". The latency period is generally given as ½ to 3 hours. After that, symptoms appear that are generally similar to an alcohol intoxication: confusion, speech disorders, ataxia , severe motor restlessness, mydriasis , fatigue. Depending on the mood, the focus is on feelings of fear and depression, indifference or euphoria up to a blissful rush of happiness. Disturbances in the sense of personality, place and time are also typical. There are also reports of a feeling of floating, of above-average physical strength, of color illusions and, more rarely, of real hallucinations. Tremors, convulsions, and clonic muscle twitches are commonly seen. A deep sleep usually ends the pantherina syndrome after 10 to 15 hours. Afterwards, the patients are usually somewhat recovered and have no memory of the poisoning they went through. Only in rare cases do long-term effects persist for some time: lack of interest, easy fatigue, poor memory.
The symptoms described largely coincide with those that occur after taking muscimol, the main active ingredient in fly agaric, which is produced from ibotenic acid during the drying of the mushroom. In amounts of around 15 milligrams, it solves central nervous disorders with dizziness, drowsiness, restlessness, feelings of anxiety, ataxia, muscle cramps, paralysis, intense excitement, delirium, euphoric or dysphoric moods, drowsiness, disabilities in the motor system, reduced concentration, increased emotional tension, Derealization and depersonalization phenomena and changes in space-time experience with all the characteristics of a model psychosis. These effects of muscimol, which resemble extreme alcohol intoxication (but without a hangover), are explained by the fact that both alcohol and muscimol interact with the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Muscimol is considered a GABA mimetic and is now used in pharmaceutical research as a model substance for compounds that specifically act on the GABA transmitter system (especially painkillers). The occasional occurrence of additional, usually weak muscarinic symptoms in the initial phase of the poisoning has not yet been clarified. These include abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, sweating and salivation.
Overall, it becomes clear that the fly agaric does not act as a hallucinogen, but as a delirium , in which the insight into the cause and effect of the intoxication has been lost. The clouding of consciousness and misjudgments of reality that are typical for delirantia appear and the conviction that strangers are present. The visual hallucinations (if they occur at all) are not strongly colored, but acoustic hallucinations occur. Typically there is no insight into the artificiality of the process, the observer's position and the memory of the peak of the effect are lost.
Louis Lewin , the founder of modern toxicology , refers in his work Phantastica , in which he also describes the effects of the toadstool, among other things, to the Russian explorer Stepan Krasheninnikov, who published a report on Kamchatka in 1755 and in 1776 in German appeared. In it he describes the phenomenon of macropsia , which is expressed as follows:
“With dilated pupils, such a person sees all objects presented to him at an enormous magnification and expresses himself about them. A small hole appears to him to be a terrible abyss and a spoonful of water to be a lake. According to this delusion, he can also be induced to act. If you put a small obstacle, for example a stick, in his way - which Korjäken do with someone so intoxicated as a joke - after he has been made to walk, he stops, looks at it and finally jumps over it with a mighty leap . "
Krasheninnikov's report also became popular, and Louis Lewin's account of the phenomenon of macropsia made its way into toxicological textbooks, although it was not observed anywhere else. The same applies to the fits of rage described by Krascheninnikow, which he claims to have observed. Spells of mania, if they should occur at all, tend to be the exception. It therefore seems that the majority of his report is based on hearsay rather than his own perception.
The magazine integration , issue 2 & 3, contains a report on 18 cases of panther mushroom poisoning, which are described from the perspective of both the treating physician and the affected patients. In none of the cases described were fits of rage or other forms of violence observed. This coincides with the report by Carl von Dittmar from 1900, according to which he could not remember anyone “who went mad or wild.” All the reports that have become known do not confirm the fits of rage listed in the specialist literature under the Pantherina syndrome. Wolfgang Bauer, who claims to have a collection of stories from toadstool consumers from 1978 to 1990, confirms that none of these consumers experienced outbursts of anger or acts of destruction.
Estimation of the lethal dose
The prognosis for fly agaric poisoning is generally considered to be good. So far, there is no documented death that can be traced back to the exclusive consumption of toadstool. From laboratory tests on rats, the lethal dose of muscimol was determined to be 45 milligrams per kilogram of body weight when ingested orally. Although it is fundamentally problematic to transfer results from animal experiments to humans, this gives an indication of the magnitude of the deadly amount of poison. These 45 milligrams per kilogram of body weight would be the equivalent of about three grams for an adult human. Since it is commonly observed that the lethal dose of a poison decreases as the animal's mass increases, it is believed that one gram of muscimol could be fatal to humans. The main active ingredient ibotenic acid is found in fresh toadstools in concentrations of 0.03 to 0.1 percent of the mushroom mass. During the drying process, the fungus loses around 90 percent of its mass as the cell water evaporates. At the same time, the ibotenic acid decarboxylates to muscimol, which is now the main active ingredient with 1 percent of the dry matter. The previously estimated lethal amount of one gram of muscimol is therefore equivalent to 100 grams of fly agaric dry matter or 1000 grams of fresh fly agarics. A single medium-sized toadstool weighs an average of 100 grams, which means the lower limit of a possible lethal dose is ten whole toadstools.
In addition to ibotenic acid and muscimol, the toadstool also contains other fungal toxins that have not yet been researched, including one that is certainly liver-damaging. A report on 18 panther mushroom poisoning contains the information that liver damage has occurred regularly and that there is an urgent warning against self-experiments. This corresponds to the remark by Johanna Wagner, who documented a self-experiment with fly agaric:
“And what is really very uncomfortable, I have swollen the whole stomach and liver area. And now, since I suffer from a tropical liver anyway, I don't want to annoy her for a long time. I have had peace with my liver for months now and everything was in perfect order, and you don't have to provoke that with toadstools, as sweet and as nice as they are. ... In itself it was really a nice experience, but as I said, the liver is not worth it to me. "
Ibotenic acid could also have a nerve-damaging effect if it is injected directly into the brain of test animals. Since, on the one hand, ibotenic acid is converted to muscimol in the body and, on the other hand, the toadstool preparation is ingested orally, this risk is probably only hypothetical.
However, it is completely unclear what resonances exist between different poisonous effects. The estimate of ten fungi as a lethal dose is therefore not a toxicologically secured value, but at most points to the dimension close to which the exact number can be assumed.
The fly agaric as an intoxicant
Traditional use among Siberian peoples
The fly agaric was and is used as an intoxicant in some cultures . For thousands of years the shamans of some Siberian peoples (proven in Woguls , Ostyaks, Kamchadals) have been collecting it for its ecstasy- inducing property. For some of these peoples, the toadstool is considered to be the divine flesh that has become material and allows the consumer to merge with the spiritual world. In addition to shamanistic use, hedonistic use was common among the Kamchadals .
A variation among indigenous Siberian peoples is to drink the shaman's urine after the toadstool has been consumed. This practice makes sense because the active ingredient ibotenic acid is broken down into muscimol and is largely excreted unchanged in the urine. Ibotenic acid is more toxic and less intoxicating than muscimol. This process can be repeated three to four times. The urine drinking is considered as the poisons contained as muscarinic first be metabolized by the body and then excreted less dangerous than the consumption of the fungus itself. While stomach cramps and nausea are the rule with direct ingestion of the mushroom, these unpleasant side effects do not apply to urinal drinks - the intoxication then unfolds undisturbed. The urine of reindeer that ate toadstools was also consumed.
In the 18th century, the use of toadstool by the Siberian peoples became known in Europe. The earliest such communication comes from the Swedish Colonel Philip Johan von Strahlberg , who reported on the peoples resident there in a book that was published in 1730 and was very popular at the time about his captivity in Kamchatka:
“The Russians, who deal and deal with them in this way, bring them, among other goods, a kind of sponges that grow in Russia, which in Russian are called muchumor (fly agaric), which they attach to squirrels, foxes, ermines, sables, etc. exchange, since the rich among them can make quite a commission from these sponges for winter. If they now want to keep their festivals and collations, they pour water on these sponges, boil them, and drink themselves full of it, then around the rich huts the poor who cannot get such sponges commission, and wait a bit comes down from the guests to knock off his water, hold a wooden bowl under him, and drink the urine in them, which still sticks some strength from the sponges, they also get full, so such strong water does not want to hit the ground so in vain drop."
Even Georg Heinrich von Langsdorff this mushroom culture describes in detail in the book about his trip to Russia.
Hypotheses about other traditions
Interpretation of the ancient Indian soma drink as a fly agaric extract
In his book Soma - Divine Mushroom of Immortality , published in 1968, R. Gordon Wasson hypothesizes that the ancient Indian Soma drink is identical to the fly agaric. Soma is referred to in Rigveda as a pouring drink that is initially cloudy and later purifies. The preparation is done by pressing with grinders or millstones. All of this is more reminiscent of a berry fruit or a plant with fleshy leaves or stems than a mushroom. Due to the relationship between the Aryas and the Greeks, whose common original home is probably to be found in the Caucasus region, it cannot be ruled out that the identity of the Soma relates to the grapevine, which also comes from there.
While the Greeks were able to continue to cultivate the grapevine in their new homeland and associated it with Dionysus , the god of intoxication and ecstasy, the aryas lost this plant and turned to surrogates that occurred in the arid regions of Iran and the Punjab, for example steppe rue (Peganum harmala) or sea ruff (Ephedra vulgaris), which in turn have a psychotropic effect. It is interesting in this context that the Greeks called wine a “god potion” and used a similar vocabulary to characterize or glorify wine as the aryas did with regard to soma. So it seems to be more true that Soma was obtained from the grapevine and not from the fly agaric.
Wasson hoped to prove his thesis by ingesting toadstools himself, but the results were far from encouraging. Wasson then re-studied the reports from Siberia and repeatedly came across indications that toadstools were never eaten raw, but always dried. This was in blatant contradiction to his Soma theory - cf. In order to maintain his thesis, however, he resorted to individual Rig Veda hymns, which in his opinion supported the hypothesis Some = fly agaric (juice).
His interpretations are not recognized in Indology. Regardless of this, the Soma hypothesis was and is still accepted uncritically in the relevant specialist literature and further spread unchecked, for example in the handbook of intoxicating drugs :
“Wasson collected all the evidence with remarkable accuracy and, after careful examination, finally found that Soma is most likely identical to Amanita muscaria. Based on linguistic considerations, Wasson assumes that the Siberians took over the custom of the fly agaric from the Aryans. But while in India and the rest of Europe the sacramental enjoyment of hallucinogens soon ceased, in remote Eastern Siberia it lasted for a long time. "
Relation to the old Norse berserkers
Under the impact of the first reports on the fly agaric use in Siberian peoples, the Swede put Samuel Ödman in 1784 hypothesized that the Norse berserker had taken toadstools to in their proverbial ( "He rages like a madman.") Rage to decay. This "attempt to on the natural history berserk course to explain the old Nordic Fighter" (the translated title of Ödmans treatise), represented the first attempt at a historical phenomenon based on an ethnobotanical explaining hypothesis. It has been in the relevant literature for over 200 years and has remained popular up to the present day. Attacks of rage do not belong to the typical symptoms of fly agaric poisoning, so that this hypothesis cannot be confirmed. However, this was not yet known during Ödman's lifetime. In 1784, for example, the Berlin professor Johann Samuel Halle wrote that the toadstool caused
"Intoxication, madness, recklessness, tremors and such anger that one throws oneself into despair in Schwerdter and into the fire."
Hypotheses that remained marginal
On the other hand, the hypothesis of Robert von Ranke-Graves remained marginal, that nectar and ambrosia in Greek mythology contained intoxicating mushrooms and especially the fly agaric. The assumption by John Marco Allegro that the Gospels of the New Testament actually portray a cult around a mushroom with the code name Jesus met with unanimous rejection in the professional world. Wolfgang Bauer lists in his article The fly agaric in magical fairy tales, fairy tale pictures, legends, songs and poems , which names in fairy tales refer to the appearance, shape and effects of the fly agaric. Among other things, he understands the cut finger, which plays an important role in the fairy tale of the three ravens , as a fly agaric. For him, fairy tales are a collection of encrypted metaphors that, in the form of an “intentional language”, point to a pre-Christian use of toadstool.
The fly agaric as an insecticide
Traditionally, the toadstool is also used as an insecticide to combat flies by soaking the fresh or dried toadstool in milk and then attracting the flies.
An article published in 2016 compares nine different methods of processing fly agaric for these purposes in Slovenia with regard to the content of ibotenic acid and muscimol , which are responsible for a weak insecticidal effect. The content of ibotenic acid and muscimol therefore does not depend on the solvent (milk or water). The extraction of these substances can, however , be accelerated thermally or mechanically .
Naming
The common and striking-looking mushroom has many regional names. Most of the names of Amanita muscaria are associated with the fly or the toad (fly agaric, mosquito sponge, mosquito pepper, fly sponge, fly devil, sun umbrella, colorful pogging tool, fool's sponge, toad chair). While the connection to flies expresses the idea that toadstools are suitable as an insecticide (see above), the connection to toads possibly refers to the similarity of dried mushroom hats to toad skin.
In the 1st century, Dioscurides and Pliny reported in detail about the poisonous effects of mushrooms in general, but the species they mentioned could not be recognized from their descriptions. The first description of the fly agaric was given by Albertus Magnus in his treatise “De vegetabilibus” in the 13th century. He called it “fungus muscarum” (“mosquito mushroom”) because - powdered in milk - it kills mosquitoes.
Lucky symbol
In addition to the horseshoe and the four-leaf clover, the toadstool is one of the most popular symbols of luck . You can find it on greeting cards and in illustrated fairy tale books .
Advertising medium
In the 1950s, the Waldner company built a total of 50 kiosks in the shape of a toadstool , which were originally intended to sell dairy products and were also exported. Some of the examples that still exist today are now listed .
swell
literature
- René Flammer, Egon Horak: Poison mushrooms - mushroom poisons. Mushroom poisoning. A reference work for doctors, pharmacists, biologists, mycologists, mushroom experts and mushroom pickers . Schwabe, Basel 2003, ISBN 3-7965-2008-1 .
- Clark Heinrich: The magic of mushrooms. Eugen Diederichs Verlag, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-424-01396-X .
- Samuel Ödmann: Försök, at utur Naturens Historia förklara de nordiska gamla Kämpars Berserka-gång. In: Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens handlingar. 1784, Vol. 5, pp. 240-247.
- Frank Roth, Hanns Frank, Kurt Kormann: Poisonous mushrooms, fungal toxins - molds, mycotoxins . Nikol, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-933203-42-2 .
- Bernhard van Treeck: Drugs and Addiction Lexicon. Lexikon-Imprint-Verlag, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-89602-221-0 .
- R. Gordon Wasson: Soma - Divine Mushroom of Immortality. (= Ethno-Mycological Studies. 1). Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York 1971, ISBN 0-15-683800-1 .
Individual evidence
- ↑ Takashi Oda, Chihiro Tanaka, Mitsuya Tsuda: Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of the widely distributed Amanita species, A. muscaria and 'A. pant henna . In: Mycological Research . tape 108 , no. 8 , 2004, p. 885-896 , doi : 10.1017 / S0953756204000620 .
- ↑ Michael J. Moss, Robert G. Hendrickson: Toxicity of muscimol and ibotenic acid containing mushrooms reported to a regional poison control center from 2002-2016. Clinical Toxicology 57 (2), 2019; Pp. 99-103. doi : 10.1080 / 15563650.2018.1497169 .
- ↑ Helmut Genaust: Etymological dictionary of botanical plant names. 3rd, completely revised and expanded edition. Birkhäuser, Basel / Boston / Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-7643-2390-6 , p. 401.
- ↑ Hans Kratzer: Why toadstools are foolish mushrooms. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung. September 7, 2019, accessed September 8, 2019 .
- ↑ a b C. Hahn, S. Raidl, L. Beenken: Can Amanita muscaria and Amanita caesarea be clearly separated on the basis of herbarium material? In: Journal of Mycology. Volume 66/2, 2000, p. 173. (online)
- ↑ a b c Andreas Bresinsky, Helmut Besl: Poison mushrooms. A handbook for pharmacists, doctors and biologists . Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft, Stuttgart 1985, ISBN 3-8047-0680-0 .
- ↑ Moser 1983, p. 222.
- ^ Breitenbach, Kränzlin, 1995.
- ^ A b Eberhard Teuscher, Ulrike Lindequist: Biogenic poisons: Biology - Chemistry - Pharmacology . 2. edit u. exp. Edition. Deutscher Apotheker Verlag, 1994, ISBN 3-8047-1580-X .
- ↑ K. Tsujikawa, K. Kuwayama, H. Miyaguchi, T. Kanamori, Y. Iwata, H. Inoue, T. Yoshida, T. Kishi: Determination of muscimol and ibotenic acid in Amanita mushrooms by high-performance liquid chromatography and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. In: J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci. 852 (1-2), Jun 1, 2007, pp. 430-435. PMID 17317341
- ↑ J. Stříbrný, M. Sokol, B. Merová, P. Ondra: GC / MS determination of ibotenic acid and muscimol in the urine of patients intoxicated with Amanita pantherina. In: Int J Legal Med. 126 (4), Jul 2012, pp. 519-524. PMID 21751026
- ↑ P. Ginterová, B. Sokolová, P. Ondra, J. Znaleziona, J. Petr, J. Ševčík, V. Maier: Determination of mushroom toxins ibotenic acid, muscimol and muscarine by capillary electrophoresis coupled with electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. In: Talanta. 125, Jul 2014, pp. 242-247. PMID 24840440
- ↑ a b Christian Rätsch (author and ed.), Werner Pieper, Terence McKenna, Stanislav Grof, Ralph Metzner: The gateway to inner spaces. A commemorative publication in honor of Albert Hofmann . Sacred plants and psychedelic substances as sources of spiritual inspiration. The Green Force, 1996, ISBN 3-930442-10-8 .
- ↑ Louis Lewin: Fantastica. The numbing and exciting stimulants. For doctors and non-doctors . Volksverlag, Linden 1980.
- ^ A b Peter Stafford: Encyclopedia of Psychedelic Drugs . Volksverlag, Linden 1980, ISBN 3-88631-030-2 .
- ↑ a b Wolfgang Bauer, Edzard Klapp, Alexandra Rosenbohm: The fly agaric. Dream cult, fairy tale magic, myth rush . AT-Verlag, Basel 2000, ISBN 3-85502-664-5 .
- ↑ Wolfram Leonhardt: About intoxication in panther mushroom poisoning . In: Integration. Journal for mind-moving plants and culture . tape 2/3 . Bilwis-Verlag, 1992, ISSN 0939-4958 , p. 119-128 .
- ↑ a b c d Wolfgang Bauer , Edzard Klapp, Alexandra Rosenbohm: The fly agaric. A cultural history museum . Wienand Verlag, Cologne 1991, ISBN 3-87909-224-9 .
- ↑ Ronald Rippchen: Zauberpilze (= The Green Branch . Volume 155 ). Die Grüne Kraft, 1993, ISBN 3-925817-55-7 .
- ↑ BBC Studios: Magic mushrooms & Reindeer - Weird Nature - BBC animals. Retrieved December 23, 2018 .
- ↑ Langsdorff . Remarks on the Kamchadal fly sponge . In: Joseph Rehmann (editor). Collection of exquisite treatises and curious news from Russian doctors and naturalists. St. Petersburg 1812, pp. 55–71 (digitized version )
- ^ Wolfgang Schmidbauer, Jürgen Scheidt: Handbook of intoxicating drugs . Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1998, ISBN 3-596-13980-5 .
- ↑ John Marco Allegro: The secret cult of the sacred mushroom. 1971.
- ↑ Wolfgang Bauer : The fly agaric in magic fairy tales, fairy tale pictures, sagas, songs and poems . In: Integration. Journal for mind-moving plants and culture . tape 2/3 . Bilwis-Verlag, 1992, ISSN 0939-4958 , p. 39-54 .
- ↑ Mateja Lumpert, Samo Kreft: Catching flies with Amanita muscaria: traditional recipes from Slovenia and their efficacy in the extraction of ibotenic acid. In: Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 187, 2016, pp. 1–8. doi: 10.1016 / j.jep.2016.04.009
- ↑ Julius Berendes : Des Pedanius Dioskurides medicament theory in 5 books. Enke, Stuttgart 1902, Book IV, Cap. 83 (digitized version)
- ↑ Pliny . Naturalis historia (King 1985 edition), Book XXII, § 92-100.
- ^ Carl Jessen , Ernst Heinrich Meyer : Alberti Magni ex Ordine Praedicatorum. De vegetabilibus libri VII. Historiae naturalis pars XVIII. Reimer, Berlin 1867. Book II / 87, p. 137. (digitized version) and Book VI / 345 (p. 517) (digitized version)
- ↑ A mushroom under monument protection. Bavarian radio.
- ↑ Toadstool milk. German Foundation for Monument Protection.
Web links
- Toxicity information
- Fly agaric . In: Erowid . (English)
- Reindeer intoxicated
- Time lapse growth toadstool
