Islamic historiography

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Islamic historiography describes the traditional or classical historiography of early Muslim authors, with which modern research, especially Islamic studies , deals . The term Arabic stands for history or historiography in Arabic تأريخ ta'rich , DMG taʾrīḫ . It is a verbal noun from the verb arrachaأرخ / arraḫa  / 'to date, to add a date'. The etymology of the word in this meaning is not clear. Franz Rosenthal assumes a possible South Arabian origin of the term: wr-ḫ (moon, month) and tawrīḫ in the meaning of determining the time - dating - based on the observation of the moon. The Arabic lexicography lists the archaic variant of tawrīḫ in addition to the above form taʾrīḫ. The word has only been traceable in the sense of "history" since the 8th century and is used in Arabic literature to mean historical chronology (taʾrīḫ ʿalā s-sinīn, literally: history arranged according to years, annals ). The term 'ilm at-ta'rich is also used as a scientific discipline in Arabic literatureعلم التأريخ / ʿIlm at-taʾrīḫ  / ' Science of History'. In this sense, the term is also used in Persian and Turkish .

The beginnings of Islamic historiography

Studies have dealt with the beginnings of Islamic historiography for over a hundred years, but its beginnings with the Arabs are still in the dark. In research to go from an initially oral tradition of historical events achbar  /أخبار / aḫbār  / 'News, Reports'. Correspondingly, the historians in Arabic literature are called achbari, Pl. Achbariyyun  /أخباريون, أخباريّ / aḫbārī, pl. aḫbāriyyūn  / 'intermediary of news, reports'. The news about the life of Mohammed was also used to be referred to as "achable" and the term was associated with hadith . However, the scientific discipline of the historian must be distinguished from that of the Ashāb al-hadīth . The beginnings of the written fixation of historical reports took place - as in the case of the Hadith - probably in the late 7th and early 8th centuries; The extent to which the first written records can be regarded as authentic is one of the basic questions of Islamic historical research.

“… Even eye and ear witness reports show the tendency to impose certain traditional motives and moments of expectation on the experience, ie to reshape the real processes in the sense of oral traditions and thus also to falsify them… Our memory contains more than we can remember, but it does selects and changes the contents of the memory. As a rule, we only keep what, firstly, seems familiar and, secondly, makes sense; We transform the strange until we are familiar with it. Unintentionally, unnoticed, the stories are rewrote in accordance with the interests, knowledge, likes, dislikes and moods of the retolders. The stories become more and more similar to the narrators. "

The exact point in time of the transition from oral tradition to the consequent written fixation of historical events is unknown.

Franz Rosenthal, one of the best experts on classical Islamic historiography, is of the opinion that historiography in the Islamic sciences of the first centuries did not have an "academically" recognized position. In fact, the earliest writings on the theory of history can only be observed in the seminal accounts of Ibn Khaldun .

The subjects of Islamic historiography

The Sira and Maghazi literature

The Sira and Maghazi literature represents the oldest genre of historiography and is limited to the life of Muhammad , to his campaigns up to the conquest of Mecca and his death. In contemporary research it is assumed that the letters of Muhammad to the Arab tribes, as well as the so-called municipal code of Medina, originate from the early days, although they are not preserved in the original, but in more or less identical traditions. The oldest source for these accounts of the life of Muhammad is the biography of the prophets of Ibn Ishāq , who was able to fall back on a rich material, both written and orally transmitted. One of the most important sources of this work is ' Urwa ibn az-Zubair . Some of his accounts of the life of the Prophet have come down to us in the literary form of letters which he addressed to the caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan and of which large excerpts have been preserved in at-Tabari's annalistic history (see below). The Austrian orientalist Aloys Sprenger translated these letters into German as early as 1861. The British orientalist William Montgomery Watt has briefly analyzed them and highlighted their importance as a source for historical research. Al-Waqidi (d. 823) , who worked in Baghdad, has summarized Muhammad's campaigns in chronological order.

The biography of the prophets is thematically followed by the news about the election of the first successor of Muhammad Abū Bakr , which both in Ibn Ishaq and in later compilations , or in separate monographs as "The news about the arcade of the Bani Sa'ida", where the first election of the caliphs took place in Medina.

The news of the Ridda Wars

These reports deal with the wars waged by the Medinan Muslims against the Arab tribes on the Arabian Peninsula , who either fell away from Islam after their conversion and followed other so-called "false" prophets - such as Musailima - or by Mohammed and the Medinan community had been largely or completely independent. The first monographs under the title "Kitab ar-ridda" (The Book About the Ridda Wars ) were created in the first half of the 8th century. They are only preserved in compilations of the following generations. The Kitab ar-ridda from al-Waqidi used by at-Tabari has also not survived; because a manuscript that was considered his Ridda book in research is part of the work of the Iraqi historian Ibn A'tham al-Kufi (see below). The genealogist and historian Ibn al-Kalbī (d. 819), the author of the “ Book of Idols”, has summarized the fight against Musailima in a monographic treatise “The book about the liar Musailama”.

The news of the Islamic Wars of Conquest

The history books about the wars of conquest ( futuh ) of the Arabs play a central role in the presentation of the history of the first caliphs, the Umayyads and the Abbasids . These books were called "The Conquest of Lands" (futuh al-buldan). It is assumed that the reports on the conquest of individual areas and provinces were written earlier than the comprehensive compilations on the conquests per se. These works were titled as “The Conquest of Syria ”, “The Conquest of Egypt ”, “The Conquest of Mesopotamia ” etc. The most famous works in this field have al-Waqidi and al-Baladhuri in the late 8th and early 9th centuries created. The most comprehensive work under the title Kitab al-futuh goes back to the above-mentioned Iraqi historian Ibn A'tham al-Kufi (died around 926), in which the author describes the conquests of ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān to Hārūn ar-Raschīd . One of the oldest futuh books that has survived was written by the Egyptian historian and legal scholar Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam (d. 871 in Fustat ), who expanded the historical events of the wars of conquest in Egypt, Nubia and North Africa with locally specific traditions. The Iraqi historian Saif ibn Umar (d. 809 at the latest), who is considered to be one of the most important sources for at-Tabari, linked the campaigns of conquest with the news about the Ridda of the Arab tribes; Ibn Hajar al-ʿAsqalānī used his work under the title: Kitab al-futuh al-kabir wa-r-ridda (The great book on the conquests and the Ridda). Ibn ʿAsākir in turn evaluated the reports of a certain Abdallah b. Mohammed b. Rabi'a al-Qudami (lived in the second half of the 8th century) with al-Massisa on the conquest of Syria in his Damascus scholar biography .

About the conquest of al-Andalus wrote Ibn al-Qūṭiya († 977), the son of a Gotin , a special work entitled Ta'rīḫ iftitah al-Andalus; History of the conquest of al-Andalus .

The assassination of the third caliph Uthman ibn Affan

Al-Waqidi is considered to be the author of one about the Ridda Wars, connected with the events of the assassination of Kitāb al- Ridda wa-d-dār , in which he summarized two thematically independent events: the news about the wars against the Arab tribes (see above ) and the murder of the third caliph ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān in his house ( dār ). The latter event is often referred to in the sources as the chapter heading as “(battle) day of the house” (yaumu d-dār). One of his younger contemporaries, the in Basra acting al-Mada'ini (d. 850 against) is a monograph titled "The murder of Uthman" ( Maqtal Uthman attributed). Both writings, which are no longer available today, have evaluated at-Tabari and above all al-Baladhuri in his "Ansāb al-ašrāf".

An early authority in the fields of hadith and historiography Asch-Sha'bi (d. 721) was the author of a book on the election of Uthman and his assassination (Kitab asch-shura wa-maqtal Uthman). This writing, too, is only preserved in fragments in a later review by the aforementioned great compilers at-Tabari and al-Baladhuri.

The news of the first civil war

In Islamic literature, the term “book about the Fitan” (Pl. From Fitna ) means collections of hadiths eschatological content; the canonical collections of traditions devote their own chapters to the description of the events on the day of the resurrection, the fall of the dynasties and chiliastic expectations in Islam, etc.

In the historiography, however, the “Fitna books” describe the intra-Muslim wars in early Islam, which began with the murder of Caliph Uthman. These are not comprehensive descriptions of all events in their historical causality and chronology, but rather smaller, thematically delimited monographs from the pen of authors from the 8th century. The Iraqi historian Abū Michnaf (d. 774) made a name for himself in this area ; He is said to have written around forty monographs on the battles in the first civil war, which found their way into the works of his successors. These writings, which are no longer available in the originals today, but are only accessible through the works of historiographers of the next generation, treated the Battle of Siffin - as Nasr b. Muzahim († 827) under the title Waqʿat Ṣiffīnوقعة صفين / Waqʿat Ṣiffīn - and the camel battle - like the Saif ibn Umar mentioned above at at-Tabari in particular in detail.

The genres of Islamic historiography

The so-called "class books"

An independent genre within the Islamic histories represent the كتب الطبقات / kutub aṭ-ṭabaqāt  / 'class books'. The first written records as forerunners of this genus, probably as early as the early 8th century, were the lists of names of those people who took part in Muhammad's campaigns. The oldest list of those companions of Muhammad who took part in the Battle of Badr is preserved in a papyrus fragment from the early 8th century. Other lists from the same period contained the names of the so-called early Muslims who converted to Islam during Muhammad's stay in the house of Arqam ibn Abi 'l-Arqam in Mecca. In the center of interest of this genus were the oldest members of the Medinan community in their "ranking" according to their conversion to Islam. These lists were the primary sources for writing history books on the creators of early Islamic history. “Therefore, on the part of the specialist traditionists, one has probably never thought of adopting the Ṭabaqāt as what it should actually be, a book that helps to criticize tradition”. Because the companions of Muhammad do not appear in these writings as narrators of the hadith , the statements and deeds of the prophet, but as designers of early Islamic history. The most important work in this genre to date has been written by the Iraqi historian Muhammad ibn Saʿd (d. 845); a group of German orientalists under the direction of Eduard Sachau and Carl Brockelmann published this work in eight volumes between 1904 and 1917 and included a summary in German with each biography.

Universal story

At-Tabari (born 839; died 923), who worked in Baghdad, with his Ta'rīch / Achbār ar-rusul wal-mulūk (story / news of the ambassadors and kings) is considered the best-known author in the field of universal or Imperial history. The annalistic structure of the work possibly goes back to predecessors from the 8th century, such as al-Haitham ibn 'Adi (d. 822). at-Tabari's work begins with the creation of the world and leads through the stories of the prophets to the presentation of the history of the Persians and Arabs at the time of the Sassanids . The annals begin with Islamic history - according to the Islamic calendar - with the summary of the biography of the prophets and description of the caliphate. The last entries refer to the event in 915.

At-Tabari relies on numerous written sources from his predecessors, which are no longer preserved today and can therefore only be reconstructed through his editing: the books of al-Waqidi, Abu Michnaf and the often cited Saif ibn 'Umar († 809 at the latest ) and others. The compilatory character of the entire work means that at-Tabari often introduces his sources with isnāden , indicating the routes of transmission, in order to show his approach to the older historical works. Although the application of the Isnade is not as consistent and precise as in his commentary on the Qur'an , it is an indispensable source for researching early stages of Islamic historiography.

According to his self-image, at-Tabari fulfills the role of the narrator, who, as presented in the introduction to his work, should refrain from any rational reflection:

“ ... Because knowledge of the events of past peoples and of the news of the present reaches those who are not contemporary or who have not witnessed such events exclusively through the reports of historians and the mediation of narrators. These [historians] do not resort to rational inferences or to their own explanations. If there is a report in my book [...] which the reader disapproves or which the listener regards as reprehensible because he can neither understand its correctness nor its real meaning, he should know that this report does not come from us [...] Rather, we have communicated (everything) exactly as it was communicated to us. "

- at-Tabarī : Ta'rīch ar-rusul wal-mulūk, Vol. 1, pp. 6-7. Ed. MJ de Goeje et al . Leiden 1879

In the post-classical period of Islamic historiography, al-Kāmil fī t-taʾrīch, "The Complete in History", was written by Ibn al-Athīr (d. 1233). In this annalistic work, the author compiles the events from the days of battle of the ancient Arabs in the Jāhiliyya up to the year 1231. He also relies on at-Tabari's work, which he consistently evaluated up to the events of the year 922, but omits the sources always cited by his predecessor. The book was first made available in print in twelve volumes between 1851 and 1876. Another edition, today of collectors value, was published in the Munīrīya printing works, Cairo, in 1929.

In this genre of Islamic historiography, al-Mas'udi (died 956 or 946 in Fustat ) with his Murūǧ aḏ-ḏahab "The Gold Meadows" occupies a special position. The work, which is not arranged chronologically, begins with the creation of the world and ends with the beginning of the reign of Caliph al-Mutīʿ li-ʾllāh (ruled between 946 and 974). In this work, the author processes his experiences that he had made on his travels beyond Persia to India , Ceylon , China to Zanzibar , Oman , Egypt and Syria . The work is not only an important topographical and historical source, but also contains a lot of cultural-historical and political information from the early 10th century.

Local and city history

The beginnings of local and city history are closely linked to the literature of the Islamic conquests. The early interest in this literary-historical genre is linked in a report by al-Mas'udi with the name of the second caliph ʿUmar ibn al-Chattāb , who is said to have written to a contemporary scholar:

“God made it possible for us, the Arabs, to conquer the countries. We want to settle down on earth and live in the cities. Describe to me the cities, their climate, their houses, the impact of the earth and the climate on the people ”.

The content and structure of this genre differ from the composition of the comprehensive universal story. In addition to the often legendary development of settlements and cities, reports about the advantages ( faḍāʾil ) of the region and its inhabitants are in the foreground. These so-called Fadā'il books - or only regional and oral reports - were apparently “in close connection with the historical-geographical genre dealt with here”. The above-mentioned work by the Egyptian Ibn ʿAbd al-Hakam contains numerous locally-specific traditions about the advantages of Egypt, which could even be used as sayings of the prophets after Mohammed as a hadith . Many of these books are only preserved today in fragments in the great compilations of Islamic historiography.

Valuable works of this genre are also accessible in print:

The story of Mecca by Abu l-Walid al-Azraqī (d. 837) in the processing of his grandson al-Azraqi, (d. 865) is for the first time with a comprehensive translation by Ferdinand Wüstenfeld taking into account other authors and their works about the city been issued. Ibn ad-Diya '(† 1450) combined the history of the city of Mecca of his predecessors with that of Medina . al-Chwarizmi, Muhammad ibn Ishaq, who wrote around 1375, united the history of the two holy places, Mecca and Medina, with that of Jerusalem and Hebron .

The story of Medina by Umar ibn Shabba (d. 877), was first published in 1976 in four volumes in Mecca. In addition to the biography of the Prophet, it includes the tribes resident in Medina and the topography of the city and its surroundings.

The story of Mosul (only part 2) by Abu Zakariya al-Azdi (d. 946) has been in print since 1967. This part includes the events related to the city of Mosul and its surroundings between 719 and 837 in the form of annals. The work is rooted in the Hamdanid tradition of dynastic historiography and is considered to be the earliest product of this genre.

The local and city history was initially closely linked to the history of the conquest ( futūḥ ) and thematically related. From this, however, a further genre of Islamic literature developed in the middle of the 9th century: the scholarly biographies. Their subject was limited to the presentation of the lives of scholars, judges and other dignitaries who had worked in a particular city or region. The Kitāb al-wulāt wa-kitāb al-quḍāt (The Book of Governors and Judges) by the Egyptian Abū 'Umar al-Kindī († 914), in which the author describes the history of Egypt by describing the activities of the judges, belongs to this genre and the Umayyad or Abbasid governors and their policies.

The urban and scholarly history of two centers in the Islamic East is much more comprehensive: Damascus and Baghdad . In the 11th century the monumental work Taʾrīḫ Baġdād madīnat as-salām, The History of Baghdad, the City of Peace by al-Chatib al-Baghdadi (d. 1071) was created. In the introduction there is a detailed historical-topographical description of the city; In the biographical section, around 8,000 biographies are offered by theologians, poets, lawyers and writers who lived in Baghdad or who stayed there briefly. The last volume is dedicated to important women in the scholarly life. The author endeavored to present Baghdad as the still important cultural and religious center of the Islamic world despite its political decline.

The city history of Damascus, Taʾrīḫ madīnat Dimašq by Ibn ʿAsākir (d. 1176) is structured similarly. The first four volumes are devoted to the life of the Prophet and the history of the city. The following 66 volumes present the biographies of scholars from all scientific disciplines who worked in Damascus.

The urban history and topographical description of Egypt reaches its climax with the monumental work of al-Maqrizi (d. 1442), a student of Ibn Chaldūn . His al-Mawāʿiz wal-iʿtibār fī dhikr al-chiṭaṭ wal-āthār , Paranese and reflections on the (Egyptian) landscapes and monuments is a historical study of Egypt from the time of the conquest to the time of the author, with two main parts about Cairo and Alexandria . At the same time, the strongly biographically oriented work of Ibn Taghribirdi (d. 1469) was written: an-Nudschūm aẓ-ẓāhira fī muluk Miṣr wal-Qāhira , The Shining Stars on the Rulers in Egypt and Cairo , in which the author alongside the rulers' stories , the representation of the Kadi offices also deals with the biographies of the scholars who worked in Egypt between 641 and 1467, taking into account the history of the neighboring states. Both works were printed several times in the Orient.

genealogy

The preoccupation of the Arabs with the ancient pre-Islamic history and the genealogy (nasab) of their ancestors can be traced back to the early 8th century. Its roots go back to the pre-Islamic times, its importance in the representation of the descent of tribes and clans including their "news" (achable) and slaughter days - i.e. i. the struggles of Arab tribes against each other in the pre-Islamic period (ayyam) - has remained part of Islamic scholarship. Ibn an-Nadim lists numerous writings of this genre, including collections of poetry by Arab tribes that were known in adaptations in his time - in the 10th century. Knowledge of the genealogies of the Arabs was also of particular importance in the Islamic period; their authors were called scholars ( ʿālim ) as well as those authorities who have made a name for themselves in the fields of the theological sciences of Islam.

Mohammed speaks out against the meaning of descent and tribal affiliation in the Koran, sura 49 , verse 13:

“You people! We created you (by letting you descend from a male and a female), and we have made you into associations and tribes so that you can know yourselves (based on the genealogical relationships) (but educate yourself on your noble descent not much too much!) The most noble of you is the one of you who is most pious. "

How strong the tribal ties and the old Arabic hierarchy have remained is shown not only by the description of the disputes between Meccans and Medinians in the election of Abu Bakr, but also by the distribution of the endowments under ʿUmar ibn al-Chattāb .

The books on the Nasab, Pl. Ansab نسب, أنساب / nasab, ansāb  / 'descent, origin, kinship' in Islamic historiography contain not only genealogical and biographical information, but also deal with the entire Islamic history - integrated into the history of individuals, groups and tribes, as well as the representation of religious sects and political groups. Al-Baladhuri has the richest material in this genre in his Ansab al-Ashrafأنساب الأشراف / Ansāb al-ašrāf  / 'The genealogy of the nobles' according to older sources - such as Abu Michnaf, Muhammad ibn Sa'd, al-Waqidi and others. a. - summarized. His work covers the history of the Umayyads up to the time of the Abbasid ruler al-Mansur . For the most part it is a collection of monographs by earlier authorities, furnished with poems that are often not found elsewhere in Arabic poetry. "The great genealogy", Jamharat an-nasab  /جمهرة النسب / Ǧamharat an-nasab by Hischam ibn Muhammad ibn as-Sa'ib, known as Ibn al-Kalbi (d. 819–821), the author of the book of idols , published by the German orientalist Werner Caskel . In this work, Ibn al-Kalbi worked on various topics from antiquity and even evaluated inscriptions in the churches of al-Hira for the history of the Lachmids . He is considered the founder of the science of the kinship relationships of the Arabs.

literature

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  • The Encyclopaedia of Islam . New Edition. Brill, suffering. Vol. 10, pp. 276-325 Art. Ta'rikh . II. Historical Writing; Vol. 7, p. 967 (Nasab)
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  • Albrecht Noth: Source-critical studies on topics, forms and tendencies of early Islamic historical tradition. Part I: Themes and Shapes. Bonn 1973 (Part II not published). The Early Arabic Historical Tradition . A Source Critical Study. 2nd ed. In collaboration with Lawrence I. Conrad. Transl. M. Bonner. Princeton 1994
  • Chase F. Robinson : Islamic Historiography . Cambridge 2003.
  • Franz Rosenthal: A History of Muslim Historiography. Brill, Leiden 1953. 2nd edition 1968
  • Fuat Sezgin : History of Arabic Literature . Brill, Leiden 1967. Vol. 1, pp. 135-364; Vol. 2, (poetry), 36ff. ISBN 90-04-04376-4 .
  • NK Singh, A. Samiuddin: Encyclopaedic Historiography of the Muslim World , 2003
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  • Ella Landau-Tessaron: Sayf Ibn ʿUmar in Medieval and Modern Scholarship . In: Der Islam 67 (1990), pp. 1–26
  • Otfried Weintritt : Arabic historiography in the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire (16th – 18th centuries) . EB-Verlag 2008. ISBN 3-936912-74-2 .
  • Otfried Weintritt: Forms of late medieval Islamic history. Steiner Franz Verlag 1992. ISBN 3-515-05587-8 .
  • Ferdinand Wüstenfeld: The historians of the Arabs and their works . Goettingen 1882

Web links

Portal: Islam  - Overview of Wikipedia content on Islam

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Franz Rosenthal (1968), pp. 11-17; The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition. Vol. 10, pp. 257f; "Historical Writing"; Adam Gacek: The Arabic Manuscript Tradition . A Glossary of Technical Terms & Bibliography.Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section One. Vol. 58. Brill, Leiden 2001, p. 5
  2. ↑ AJ Wensinck, JH Kramers : Short dictionary of Islam . Brill, Leiden 1941. p. 734: "The word taʾrīkh actually means 'dating' and has also assumed the meaning 'chronicle, historical work, history' ..."
  3. ↑ See the work of AA Dūrī: Baḥṯ fī našʾat ʿilm at-taʾrīḫ ʿinda al-ʿarab (Study on the origin of historical science among the Arabs; the English translation of the book is entitled: The rise of historical writing among the Arabs . Princeton 1983 ); abbreviated cited in Fuat Sezgin (1967), p. 311 and passim ; Ella Landau-Tessaron (1990), p. 4
  4. ↑ Ignaz Goldziher: Muhammedanische Studien. Hall a. S. 1890. Vol. 2, p. 4. Note 1.
  5. ^ Gregor Schoeler: Character and authenticity of the Muslim tradition about the life of Muhammad . Walter de Gruyter. Berlin, New York 1996, p. 4. From the foreword: “Truth and historical tradition: Three quotations to introduce the topic”: quotation from L. Röhrich: Oral traditions as a historical source. Some thoughts on the German oral folk tale. In: J. von Ungern-Sternberg and H. Reinau (eds.): Past in oral tradition . (Colloquium Rauricum. Vol. 1), Stuttgart 1988. p. 90.
  6. ↑ Fuat Sezgin (1967), p. 237ff.
  7. ↑ F. Rosenthal (1968), p. 31: “never achieved the position of an academic subject” ; Ella Landau-Tessaron: Sayf ibn 'Umar in Medieval and Modern Scholarship. In: Der Islam 67 (1990), p. 11.
  8. ↑ W.Montgomery Watt: Muhammad at Medina. Oxford 1972, pp. 345-347 (Excursus).
  9. ^ RB Serjeant: The Sunnah Jami'ah , Pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Taḥrīm of Yathrib. Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the So-Called "Constitution of Medina". In: Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (BSOAS), 41 (1978, pp. 1-42).
  10. ^ Josef Horovitz : The Earliest Biographies of the Prophet and their Authors . In: Islamic Culture, 1 (1927), pp. 535-559; 2, pp. 22-50 (1928); 164-182; 495-526; Fuat Sezgin : History of Arabic Literature . Brill, suffering. Vol. 1, pp. 250-251.
  11. ↑ Aloys Sprenger: The life and teachings of Mohammad based on mostly unused sources. Nicolai'sche Verlag Buchhandlung. Berlin 1861.
  12. ^ W. Montgomery Watt: Muhammad at Mecca. Oxford 199. pp. 180-182 (Excurus).
  13. ↑ Fuat Sezgin (1967), pp. 294-297.
  14. ^ Edited by Marsden Jones: The Kitāb al-Maghāzī of al-Wāqidī. London.Oxford University Press 1965. 3rd volumes. Reprint: ʿĀlam al-kitāb. 3. Edition. Beirut 1984. Partial edition by Julius Wellhausen (Ed.): Mohammed in Medina. This is Vakidi's Kitab al-Maghazi in a shortened German version. Reimer, Berlin 1882.
  15. ↑ Albrecht Noth: Source-critical studies on subjects, forms and tendencies of early Islamic historical tradition. Part I: Themes and Shapes. Bonn 1973. pp. 30-31.
  16. ↑ William Hoenerbach : Waṯīma's K. al-Ridda from Ibn Ḥaǧars ISABA . A contribution to the history of the apostasy of the Arab tribes after Muḥammad's death. Mainz 1951.
  17. ↑ Fuat Sezgin (1967), pp. 295-296. No. 3.
  18. ↑ Miklós Murányi : A new report on the election of the first caliph Abu Bakr . In: Arabica 25 (1978), pp. 233-260; esp. 236-238.
  19. ↑ A. Noth (1973), p. 31.
  20. ↑ Albrecht Noth (1973), p. 33.
  21. ↑ Fuat Sezgin (1967), p. 329; H. Massé: La chronique d'Ibn Atham et la conquête de l'Afriqiya. In: Mélanges Gaudefroy-Demombynes. Cairo 1935-1945.
  22. ↑ Heribert Busse (1987), p. 267
  23. ↑ Fuat Sezgin (1967), pp. 355-356; The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition. Brill, suffering. Vol. 3, p. 674. No. 4. Edited by Ch. C. Torrey. New Haven 1922.
  24. ↑ Fuat Sezgin (1967), pp. 311-312.
  25. ↑ Michael Lecker: The Futūḥ al-Shām of ʿAbdallāh b. Muḥammad b. Rabīʿ al-Qudāmī. In: Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (BSOAS), 57 (1994), pp. 356-360
  26. ↑ Fuat Sezgin (1967), pp. 363-364; Heribert Busse (1987), p. 267. The work was published in 1958 in Beirut
  27. ↑ A. Noth (1973), p. 31 and there note 14.
  28. ↑ Fuat Sezgin (1967), pp. 314-315.
  29. ↑ The Ansāb al-Ashrāf of al-Balādhurī. Vol. 5th Ed. S .DF Goitein. Jerusalem 1936
  30. ↑ Fuat Sezgin (1967), p. 277, where the statement maqtal Husain must be corrected. See ibid. P. 910: Indices (book title).
  31. ^ The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition. Brill, suffering. Vol. 2, p. 930; A. Noth: (1973) 34-36.
  32. ↑ Fuat Sezgin (1967), p. 308.
  33. ↑ Fuat Sezgin (1967), p. 313
  34. ^ Printed in Cairo in 1962
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  42. ↑ Translated by Theodor Nöldeke. Leiden 1879.
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  51. ^ Carl Brockelmann: History of the Arabic literature. Supplement II. P. 222
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  63. ^ Carl Brockelmann: History of the Arabic literature . Vol. 2, p. 38.
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