Japanese architecture
The Japanese architecture ( 日本建築 , Nihon kenchiku ) extends from the first settlements of the Yayoi period and the large Kofun -Hügelgräbern on the Chinese -influenced buildings of classical and medieval Japan and the cities and castles of the Edo period to modern. Modern Japanese architecture is a global pioneer when it comes to disaster control and earthquake security, but is also a leader in form and design thanks to world-famous star architects.
Prehistoric, Yayoi and Kofun periods
There are no more surviving buildings from the Yayoi period and the oldest Japanese texts such as Kojiki and Nihonshoki hardly mention architecture . It is known from excavations that former farmhouses were thatched and built with soil. As rice cultivation spread from China to Japan, the communities grew with it, and bigger buildings came up for the local ruling family or for rice storage. Examples are the Sannai Maruyama archaeological site (before the 2nd century BC) in the Aomori prefecture or Yoshinogari in the Saga prefecture (before the 3rd century BC).
The style of this architecture has been preserved in the sanctuary of the Ise Shrine to this day.
After the 3rd century a centralized administration developed. The eponymous keyhole-shaped barrows, the Kofun, are characteristic of the period known as the Kofun period . These princely graves bear witness to the new wet rice cultivation culture that has now shaped Japan, because the graves are surrounded by moats. The construction of the tombs has been adopted from the Korean peninsula, where similar structures can be found. The most notable is Daisen-kofun , the tomb of Emperor Nintoku . This kofun is approximately 486 by 305 m, with a height of 35 m.
Asuka and Nara times
With the Buddhist monks and scholars, the Chinese architecture of the Sui dynasty came to Japan in the 6th century . The style of the newly built Buddhist temples should have a lasting impact on Japanese architecture. The main building material of the Asuka and Nara times was wood. These buildings have been repeatedly destroyed by fires and natural disasters, but a few temples are at least partially preserved in their original form. Even more important for the preservation of the architecture of this era is, however, that many buildings have been faithfully rebuilt several times over the centuries, which is why the knowledge of the building techniques has largely been preserved.
The oldest Buddhist buildings in Japan and the oldest surviving wooden buildings in the world are in Hōryū-ji in the southwest of Nara prefecture . They are the most outstanding example of architecture from the Asuka period . The 41 buildings of the temple complex were built in the 7th century as a private temple by Shōtoku Taishi .
Heian period
Buddhism gained more and more influence in Nara, and the monk Kūkai (774-835) toured China and studied Tantra or Vajrayana in Xi'an . Back in Japan he founded Shingon-shū . At the center of this teaching were mandalas , diagrams of the spiritual universe, which also influenced the construction of temples. Japanese Buddhist architecture also took over under the name stupa known grave mound, and its Chinese development, the pagoda .
The temples were built in the mountains, far from the royal courts and secular cities. The irregular terrain of these places forced the Japanese architects to rethink the construction of the temples. More native elements have been included. Instead of ceramic tiles, cypress bark was used again for roofing , and instead of the ground, the floor was covered with wooden boards.
During the reign of the Fujiwara , Amidism spread , which teaches that salvation is possible through trust in the goodness of Amida. At the same time, the nobility in Kyoto developed courtly manners, which strive for elegance and aesthetics were their own. The Amidic conception of paradise (the "pure land") adapted to the courtly ideal. In Amida halls, one or more representations of the Buddha were erected in a building complex that resembled the residences of the nobles in a fusion of religious and secular ideas.
The Phoenix Hall ( hōō-dō ) of the Byōdōin , a temple in Uji, southeast of Kyoto, was completed in 1053 and is one such Amida hall. It consists of a rectangular main building with two L-shaped side corridors and a rear corridor. It was built on the bank of a large, artificially created pond. Inside is a single golden portrait of Amida on a high pedestal. Reliefs of ghosts who accompany Amida on the redeeming descent ( raigō ) from Western Paradise are engraved on the walls . Colored representations of the raigō on the wooden portals of the Phoenix Hall are early examples of the Japanese Yamato-e , as they contain landscape images of the Kyoto area.
Kamakura time
After the unrest of the Heian period, the samurai warrior nobility gained increasing importance in the Kamakura period . Its simple and military ideas also increasingly influenced the architectural style; and so many samurai houses are a mixture of shinden-zukuri (residences of the court aristocracy of the Heian period) and military fortifications such as towers and trenches.
During the Genpei War (1180–1185), many traditional buildings in Nara and Kyōto were damaged. For example, the Kōfuku-ji and the Tōdai-ji were burned down by Taira no Shigehira . Many of the destroyed temples and shrines were rebuilt by the Kamakura shogunate with the aim of strengthening the authority of the shogun. This rebuilding program was so intense that the Kamakura period set the style for temples and shrines of subsequent eras.
Muromachi period
In the Muromachi period (around 1336–1573), essential new principles of secular architecture were developed, which would shape the following centuries. The large, older, hall-like pavilions in the aristocratic seats, which were mainly designed for ceremonial purposes, were increasingly supplemented by buildings that took up a number of smaller rooms. In this way, new areas for retreat, contemplation and the aesthetic handling of selected art objects could be gained. The mostly single-storey buildings were laid out according to an increasingly standardized grid that allowed the connection with movable elements such as the regionally standardized floor mats ( tatami ) and wall-forming sliding elements with painting. A lively exchange with the culture of Zen Buddhism promoted a new understanding of a simple and functional design. An important development at that time were the special rooms for the tea ceremony , which has become more and more formal since the 15th century, and the tea houses, which were deliberately kept rustic . The tea ceremony is also rooted in Zen and frames tea enjoyment with rituals and an aesthetic environment. The teahouses, deliberately kept simple, should make it easier for visitors to free their minds from everyday thoughts. They were built in the style of country houses with raw wood or bamboo and plaited straw. Most of the time, a tea house also had a tea garden , which was supposed to create an inner distance from the outside world before entering the tea house. Since that time, various examples of the wooden architecture, which is basically susceptible to destruction, have been preserved, e.g. B. two pavilions of a noble country villa from around 1485 in Ginkaku-ji in Kyoto.
Azuchi Momoyama time
As a reaction to the military conflicts of the Sengoku period , two new forms of architecture emerged: the castle as a military retreat for feudal princes and their soldiers; and the Shoin ( 書院 , lit. "writing house") as a retreat for studies and private receptions.
One of the most beautiful buildings of the Momoyama period is Himeji Castle , also known as the "Castle of the White Herons" ( hakuro-jō , shirasagi-jō ), which was built in its current form in 1609. The only thing that has been preserved is the tower complex - never used for living - consisting of a main tower, around which spiral entrances and three secondary towers, all of which are national treasures, are arranged. The actual residence has not been preserved. In the Nijo Castle (1626) that the residence of the Tokugawa - Shogun was in Kyoto, there is a classic example of the Shoin style : strictly according to the feudal separate rooms for the prince and his vassals, and two Shoin rooms with Tokonoma and the shoin window, which allows you to see the carefully laid out garden (and from that point of view).
Edo period
The imperial Katsura villa was conceived as a realization of the palace from the story of Prince Genji and combines classic elements of Japanese architecture with some innovations. The entire complex is surrounded by a large garden, into which a moon-viewing veranda ( tsukimi- dai ) protrudes from the oldest of the three shoin .
Edo , the capital of the shoguns , grew rapidly during this period and was regularly hit by large fires, especially in the very dry winters. In response, a simple architecture developed that could be quickly rebuilt if necessary. In the cities in the area, lumber depots were created so that entire streets could be rebuilt quickly after a fire.
The sankin kōtai policy also contributed to the rapid growth of the city , according to which the daimyō had to spend part of their time in Edo, bringing their followers and servants with them. As befits their standing, they laid out large houses and gardens for themselves and their guests. The Koishikawa Kōraku-en is one such garden that is now located next to Tokyo Dome City and is open to the public.
Traditional construction of simple houses
As in European countries, the construction of ordinary farmhouses and town houses went through a historical development. The Japanese peculiarities resulted from the earthquake safety requirement. As with many large buildings, the load-bearing structure was a relatively flexible timber framework , with the wall surfaces in between made of the lightest possible material. Simple buildings of traditional Japanese design are collectively referred to as minka (“people's house”), farmhouses as nōka , traditional townhouses as machiya .
Pre-war period
The modernization of the Meiji period also affected Japanese architecture. Japanese architects traveled to European cities to learn about the architecture there, and European architects came to Japan. The City of Vienna had a particular influence.
Japanese cities, especially the Shitamachi ( 下町 , "lower town") of Edo , were densely built with wooden houses, which is why the major fires that often occur often destroyed entire city districts. When a large fire destroyed the Ginza district in Tokyo on February 26, 1872 , it was decided to rebuild the area in the style of western brick buildings, the first such major project in Japan. The English architect Thomas J. Waters was commissioned with the planning and execution . The first construction phase was completed in 1873 and the second in 1877. A wide boulevard was created in the style of the Parisian Rue de Rivoli , lined with two-storey buildings with wide balconies resting on columns. The Great Kanto earthquake of 1923 showed, however, that brick buildings are not earthquake-proof, and so from now on reinforced concrete was used.
Buildings such as Tokyo train station and the parliament building also come from this mixture with European styles . This architecture before World War II is under Giyōfū architecture ( 擬洋風建築 , -kenchiku known western pseudo) or architecture.
- Reception of Japanese architecture in the west
The book by zoologist Edward Sylvester Morse Japanese Homes and their Surroundings was published in London in 1885 . Franz Adolf Wilhelm Baltzer's work The Japanese House , which was published in 1903, is significant for the knowledge of traditional building forms in Germany . Traditional Japanese architecture also had a lasting influence on representatives of Western modernism in the 1930s. The German architect Bruno Taut (1880–1938) in particular was deeply impressed by the Katsura villa near Kyoto, in which he recognized fundamental ideas of modernity: unity of construction and design, modular structure (based on the tatami grid), factual Design, penetration of living and nature experience. During his exile in Japan from 1933 to 1936, Taut dealt intensively with Japanese architecture and culture and wrote the book Houses and People of Japan . When Walter Gropius visited Japan in 1954, he wrote to Le Corbusier :
"The Japanese house is the most modern and best that I know and is really prefabricated"
post war period
Like many aspects of Japanese culture and society, architecture has been greatly influenced by advances in technology. The necessity of rebuilding Japan after the Second World War also stimulated the architecture; Within a very short time the cities were functional again, but their appearance had changed significantly. The current shape of Japanese cities is both a result of and a contribution to basic architectural ideas of the 20th century. The construction techniques, materials and styles introduced in the pre-war period made it possible to construct new reinforced concrete buildings that contrasted sharply with traditionally constructed buildings. As in other places, there is a big difference between the bulk of residential and commercial buildings and large public buildings and office towers.
After the Second World War, not only was the combustible wood used as a building material replaced by steel scaffolding, the style also changed. Important pre-war buildings such as the Wakō department store , Tokyo train station , Akasaka Palace or the Bank of Japan were designed according to classic European standards, while modern, functionalist buildings were increasingly built in the post-war period. The constant danger of earthquakes, the bombing of the war and the dynamic economic boom after the war favored a brutalist modernism.
Since the early 1990s, the situation has gradually changed. Turning points in architectural design were the postmodern Tokyo Metropolitan Government Building ( tochō ), completed in 1991, and the Yokohama Landmark Tower, built two years later . In 1996 the ship-shaped Tokyo International Forum , a conference and event center designed by Rafael Viñoly, was completed . With the Roppongi Hills complex of residential, office and commercial buildings, including the surrounding parks, completed in 2003 , not only was modern design implemented, but urban planning ideas for a concentration of living, working and leisure environments in a very small space were also implemented. While the architecture of such large-scale projects corresponds to the international avant-garde, the bulk of the buildings, especially in the suburbs, remains dominated by uninspired designs from the 1960s, which is still favored by the extremely high density of buildings in the big cities.
See also
For more information on other artistic achievements, see Japanese Art .
Examples of prehistoric Japanese architecture:
- Shinto shrine
- Japanese castle
- Minka - Nōka farmhouses and Machiya townhouses
- Sukiya style - architectural style for residential buildings of the Edo period
Typical of Japanese architecture are also:
literature
- Franz Adolf Wilhelm Baltzer: The Japanese House, A structural study. Ernst & Son, Berlin 1903.
- Osamu Gotō (後 藤 治): History of Japanese Architectures (日本 建築 史). Kyoritsu Shuppan (共 立 出版), 2003.
- William H. Coaldrake: Architecture and authority in Japan. London et al. 1996.
- Walter Gropius , Kenzo Tange , Yasuhiro Ishimoto : Katsura, Tradition and Creation in Japanese Architecture. Yale University Press, Zōkeisha / New Haven 1960.
- Edward S. Morse: Japanese homes and their surroundings. Trübner & Co, London 1885.
- Tanizaki Jun'ichirō : Praise of the shadow . Design of a Japanese aesthetic. Essay, trans. and commented by Eduard Klopfenstein. Manesse, Zurich 2010, ISBN 978-3-7175-4082-3 .
- Bruno Taut: Houses and People of Japan. Sanseido, Tokyo 1937. (German edition: The Japanese house and its life. Gebrüder Mann Verlag, Berlin 1997)
- Bruno Taut: I love Japanese culture. Small writings on Japan. Published by Manfred Speidel. Gebrüder Mann Verlag, Berlin 2003.
- Sven Ingmar Thies: Japanese Rooms - Intimate interiors of Japanese living in Tokyo, Berlin, New York, Shanghai and Vienna. Verlag Schwarzerfreitag, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-937623-90-0 .
- Yuichiro Edagawa: Japanese Identities. Architecture between aesthetics and nature. JOVIS Verlag, Berlin 2008, ISBN 978-3-939633-38-9 .
- Koji Yagi (text), Ryo Hata (photos): A Japanese Touch For Your Home. Kodansha International, Tokyo / New York / London 1999, ISBN 4-7700-1662-X .
Individual evidence
- ↑ Manfred Speidel: Dreams of the Other. Japanese architecture seen through European eyes. - Some aspects of the reception between 1900 and 1950. In: archimaera. Issue 1/2008.
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Web links
- JAANUS (Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System) (English dictionary of the terminology of Japanese architecture and art history)