San (people)

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San woman in Botswana
San man with Bushman pearls

The term San describes a number of indigenous ethnic groups in southern Africa who originally lived as pure hunters and gatherers. The word "San" goes back to a name used by the Nama of South Africa and means something like "those who pick something up from the ground". The San and the related Khoikhoi are often summarized as Khoisan . Another term that is frowned upon today, but which is still often used, is Bushmen . In Botswana, the San Basarwa are called.

Concept history

Cattle-keeping Khoisan groups used the term San to distinguish themselves from the hunter-gatherer Khoisan groups - they called themselves Khoikhoi (real people). The origin of the word San is not known; in the Nama language of the Khoisan, however , San means something like "stranger", "useless" or "bandit". The foreign names changed depending on the era from San to Bosjesman / Bushman / Bushmen , Basarwa or Khwe . The term " Bushman " includes both genders and children. The term " Bushmen " is also used; Among other things, in the sense of a self-term used by the indigenous peoples to express their relationship to their country to strangers. On the other hand, the opinion is also expressed that the term has a negative connotation. In 2003, representatives of the San stated that they preferred the name of their individual group to the collective name of San. Sometimes the terms “Noakwe” or “ Nǀoakwe ” (red people) or “Kwe” (people) are used as a proper name.

groups

The San are ethnolinguistisch after the three Khoisan families divided "Khoe", "Tuu" and "Ju-ǂHõã", each again into different individual languages and several dozen dialect groups (usually proper names) are divided that the separated single ethnic groups correspond .

Some better known groups:

  • Language family Khoe : Gǀwi, Gǁana, Haiǁom, Shua, Tsoa, Xoe, Naro, Gǀui-Gǁana, Deti, Xun, Kua
  • Language family Tuu :! Xoo, Nǁng, ǀXam, ǃXóõ, Nǀamani
  • Language family Ju-ǂHõã : !Kung , ǂHõã

Biological characteristics

While the obvious features (especially skin, hair and eye color) and, even more clearly, the genomes of almost all other human populations on earth, flow into one another, the San (especially the South African population of the ǃKung ) can be clearly differentiated from their black African neighbors. The San have a relatively small body size , a yellowish-brown skin color, protruding cheekbones and the so-called filfil or "peppercorn hair" . In terms of human genetics , it is above all the so-called haplogroup L0 that is characteristic of the Khoisan populations. The special features go back to the evolutionary adaptation to the desert climate , and mixing with their neighbors has always been relatively low. A large-scale study of African genetic diversity in 2009 found that the San of 121 populations studied were among the five with the highest measured genetic diversity.

Geneticists working with Joseph Pickrell from Harvard Medical School and Nick Patterson from the Broad Institute reported in the journal PNAS that they had found sections in the DNA of today's San that presumably go back to a population group from the Iron Age of the Middle East who migrated to South Africa. The gene sequences in question are similar to those of today's southern Europeans.

With a fully grown height of 1.40 m to 1.60 m, the San were sometimes referred to as pygmies , but have no relation to them.

history

1000–2000 year old San rock carvings near Murewa (Zimbabwe).
1000–2000 year old rock drawing of the San in the Drakensberg , showing an eland .

Data about the first colonization of southern Africa by the San vary widely: they go back from about 10,000 years to 25,000 years. From a paleo-anthropological point of view, the high genetic variation that is characteristic of the San population and unique in the world is remarkable. The results of the analysis of mtDNA of the San (for some researchers also their click languages ) are cited as evidence that the San are remnants of a genetically diverse early African population of modern humans, of which only a small one genetically differs during the spread of humans from Africa split off homogeneous population. Accordingly, the ancestors of the San were genetically isolated from other populations for 100,000 years. This thesis was supplemented by another in 2013, according to which parts of the San, which have 1–5% non-African DNA, immigrated back from Europe 3,000 years ago.

The distribution area of ​​the San extended in the distant past to Ethiopia and Somalia . The San had a mobile hunter-gatherer lifestyle. In the course of time they were pushed further and further into inhospitable areas by Khoikhoi groups, but especially since the 15th century by Bantu-speaking groups. Many San in what is now Botswana were enslaved by the Tswana, who immigrated from the Transvaal in the 18th century , forced into pastoral work and inherited like cattle or, if their masters were defeated in the numerous tribal wars, killed.

With the beginning of contact between the San and Dutch settlers in the mid-17th century, the San were driven out of their regional habitats and enslaved in the course of the land grabbing for farm purposes. The first opposing developments resulted from the founding of the Moravian mission station in Baviaanskloof in 1738 by Georg Schmidt from Kunewalde . The development of this missionary work in the second stage (1792–1793) was achieved with the support of the VOC inspector for the Baviaanskloof district, Martin Teunessen. The faith mission pursued under the San went hand in hand with lessons in script and mathematics as well as handicrafts among children and adults, which were then considered progressive. At the same time, you received a secure right of residence here. Such developments aroused the nuisance of neighboring Dutch settlers and the government agencies in Cape Town .

Before the foundation of the mission area in Baviaanskloof, the government did not recognize the San on their own land. The attraction of the Moravian Mission in the Cape Colony was largely determined by this. The resulting conflict culminated in 1794 with the government decreed expulsion of the herds of cattle from the area of ​​the mission station. In future, San had to get written proof from a Boer that they were not obliged to serve any European in order to be allowed to live here. In nationalist-minded circles there was a propaganda pamphlet with around 3,000 signatures calling for the expulsion of the missionaries. There was an attempt to destroy the facilities of the mission station by a group of European settlers, but this was prevented. When the British fleet reached the Cape in August 1795, the tension increased and the Dutch settlers made a new attempt at destruction. British troops prevented this project at the last moment in 1796. After that the missionary operation could recover and develop again. The number of San trained in agriculture and handicrafts grew; some even came to this place from over 100 miles away. The activities successfully conveyed here included viticulture, but also agriculture and orchards. Finally, the relationship with the Boer neighboring farms harmonized. When the colony briefly came under Dutch rule again ( Peace of Amiens , 1802), the name of Baviaanskloof was renamed Genadendal ("Valley of Grace") at the suggestion of Governor Jansen . Nelson Mandela paid tribute to this achievement and, since 1995, has remembered the merits of the missionaries for their work among the San population by renaming the official residence ( Genadendal Residence , previously Westbrook ) for the South African President in Cape Town when he is present at Tuynhuys .

In 1904, following the war against the Herero , the German protection force took similar action against the San in the area of ​​the former colony of German South West Africa (today's Namibia). In Botswana alone there was no systematic persecution of the San by Europeans; however, human rights violations and displacement have occurred here since the late 1990s .

Until Namibia's independence in 1990, the South African army deployed around 3000 San as trackers against the independence movement SWAPO . The Portuguese colonial rulers in Angola proceeded similarly, which led to the extensive expulsion of the San after Angola's independence in the 1970s.

Situation of the San today

While there were around 300,000 to 400,000 San 2000 years ago, today there are around 100,000 in all of southern Africa. In Botswana (49,000), Namibia (38,000), South Africa (4500), Angola (6000), Zambia (1600) and Zimbabwe (1200) they are only a minority. Most of them are employed on farms as workers. Few of them still live the traditional way today. Avgeropoulos gives much lower numbers.

Roy Sesana , who is actually called Tobee Tcori in his language , was awarded the Right Livelihood Award in 2005 for his commitment to protecting the rights and way of life of the San. An important retreat for San, whose culture and rights are threatened by coercive measures, is the Kalahari with the Central Kalahari Game Reserve .

Alcoholism is cited as a particular problem that contributes to the loss of one's lifestyle. The San may not be able to dehydrogenate alcohol . Poor living conditions, displacement and violations of their rights further contribute to the spread of health problems. Displacement from their land is also a problem in all of southern Africa, as the situation of the indigenous peoples continues to deteriorate. The conflict surrounding the Central Kalahari Game Reserve , which was founded in 1961 as a sanctuary for the people and for wild animals, is best known here . However, diamonds were found in the area in the 1980s and the San have been urged several times by the Botswana government to leave the area. In 2006 they were given the right to repopulate their land and officially hunt there in court. However, while tourists were granted unlimited hunting licenses for the area, the San were denied many licenses and only allowed to build a well in 2011.

In an ombili school project, a foundation imparts school knowledge to San children. At the same time, however, an alienation from the original way of life is reported from these. After their boarding school they return to their villages as “owners of the shadow”. This means that they sit around without a drive. Due to a lack of appropriate teaching staff, there are no native-language classes in the school. The location of the project is the Hedwigslust farm in Namibia. A cattle breeding is also being set up there. This farm was bought by German aid organizations (e.g. Lions Mosbach) and donated to the Ombili Foundation. This means that the approximately 400 San on Ombili have around 3000 hectares of land available for agriculture.

Traditional San culture

San in front of a branch hut in Namibia.
A San man attaches a tip made of giraffe bones to an arrow shaft made of hard grass.
A San woman makes a jewelry necklace from ostrich eggs.

Social order

The San are one of those egalitarian societies that organize themselves without a higher-level political leadership system. Formal jurisdiction is also not exercised. In the worst case, violations of the moral principles of the San are punished with expulsion from the community.

Mobile small groups of 40 to a maximum of 200 people can be put together flexibly according to personal preferences, in addition to family relationships. Group issues (such as hunting, relocation, etc.) are decided jointly. Individual experiences, knowledge and persuasiveness have an influence on decisions.

Specialized professions are not known. However, there is a division of labor according to gender. The hunt for larger game is carried out exclusively by men.

Hunting is generally shared, including plant-based food if necessary. There is no trade ; the distribution of goods (spears, leather , ostrich eggs as water vessels, etc.) takes place through gifts within the group and outside during mutual visits or other encounters. Anthropologically well studied is the Hxaro-exchange system of !Kung .

hunt

The San hunt with javelins and bows and arrows , whereby the arrows with which they z. B. hunt antelopes poisoned with the brown liquid from the body of Diamphidia larvae. Hunting bows are often used in a double function as musical bows . Pitfalls, claws, gravity traps and snares are also used.

The San count 55 species of mammals, birds, reptiles and insects among the huntable animals. In the course of a year they cover up to 4,000 kilometers on their hunting expeditions. The prey ranges from termites to giraffes. During the hunt, they often chew on pieces of hoodia ; this suppresses the feeling of hunger and thirst. Little is eaten during the hunt. However, the San hunters occasionally resort to ostrich eggs that have been previously buried in the hunting area and filled with water . The water is also obtained by skimming off the morning dew or from the water-storing tubers of plants.

An original form of human hunting - endurance hunting

The oldest form of human hunting is endurance hunting. This is based on the endurance of humans when running, which is superior to almost all mammals. Fast hunters such as cheetahs , which reach speeds of over 100 km / h for a short time, can only maintain this speed for a few minutes, because otherwise they would die of heat stroke. You have to reach the game in one go, otherwise it will escape. Lions and wild dogs can only survive high speeds for a short time. They make do with sneaking up, cutting off paths and circling, i.e. working together in a pack. On the other hand, people who are well-built for fast running due to their long, relatively strong legs and upright gait can effectively cool their bodies with around two million sweat glands with weak hair and therefore walk for hours. The San still kill fast ungulates such as zebras , ibexes and antelopes without using long-range weapons. They run after the animals until they collapse, exhausted. Also Aborigines in Australia chasing in this traditional way kangaroos . For initiation into the adult world, a boy must chase a larger animal to death. This happens around the age of 15.

It takes up to 40 hours to chase a large kudu before it is exhausted. This hunt is called "The Great Dance". According to their feeling, the hunters become one with the kudu, anticipate its ways and finally kill it from a short distance with the spear. The meat strips dried from the prey ensure the protein supply for many weeks.

Collect

San-Mann collecting the African devil's claw (2017)

The gathering of nuts, roots and berries contributes the largest part (60–80% for the Zu / ́hoãsi) to the diet.

In the northeast of Namibia in the area of ​​the village Hoansi in the Kalahari desert z. B. the San collect 85 edible plant species. These include the tsamma melon ( Citrullus lanatus ), a nutritious, potato-like tasting plant whose fruits ripen in May, morama beans and Mongongo fruits of the manketti tree , the hard kernels of which contain oil. These Mongongo nuts are extremely rich in energy and protein, so consuming just 300 nuts a day covers the entire daily requirement. The supply of nuts is usually so large that thousands of pounds remain unused.

The offer is richer in more fertile areas. The !Kung -Women of Dobe know about 200 plant species, of which 115 are edible. The Ko, another group, know 192 plants, while the Gwi and Ganna only know 79 edible plants. But even the San of the driest areas always have enough food available, with the exception of a few extreme drought years, that the livelihood of disabled, sick and old group members is guaranteed.

Bushman pearls

“Bushman pearls” are among the oldest traditional means of payment in Africa. Slices are cut out of the shells of ostrich eggs, ground round, perforated in the middle and then pulled on strings. Excavations in East Africa show that it has existed since at least 7000 BC. Are in use and thus longer than cowrie money , the oldest finds of which date back to 2000 BC. To date. As hunters, the San only used this "money" in cultural exchanges with other ethnic groups.

Family structure and children

Bushman children

Patrilinear or matrilineal family structures do not exist.

Births take place outside of the hut settlement. Only when they return to the huts is a newborn child accepted into the community. The American ethnologist Marjorie Shostak reported that infanticide directly after birth (outside of the settlement area) is rare, but - for example because of a short birth order - does occur.

Natural birth intervals of four years (without targeted contraceptive methods ) are explained with a three to four year period of breastfeeding and a scarce diet, which together delay a new conception in women.

The diet and lifestyle of the San also explain the comparatively late onset of menstruation at an average age of 16.5 years. From this point onwards, a San girl is traditionally regarded as an adult and therefore marriageable woman.

Mythology, Religion and Medicine

“The sun used to be human. She was a man, a Bushman. His armpit was the light, and when he raised his arm it became bright and warm on the earth. If he took it down, it was night and cold. […] After a long time the man grew old and weak. […] The people became restless and […] persuaded the children to catch the old sun man with raised arms while it was warm and bright. "Grab him, throw him in the air and summon him to stay there forever and ever." [...] But there was something else that had also been a Bushman earlier. That was the moon. But the moon wasn't good. Although people prayed to him, they didn't look at him because he was cold and they were afraid of him. [...] "

- Excerpts from a myth of the San

The San distinguish between the real world and an alternative reality that is worshiped in myths and rituals , but which has no influence on everyday life. This world is based on a "primeval time" in which animals and other natural phenomena were human. The sun, moon and stars play a special role in this. The power of this time manifests itself in holy places (springs, northern slopes, etc.) (compare also: dream time of the Australian Aborigines) .

The San ethnic religion is called animistic because living beings and other objects are considered to be the abode of ghosts . There is a whole host of bush and hunting gods. People fear the dead and ghosts, so they weigh down graves with stones and avoid the places of the dead. The idea of ​​a “lord of the animals” , a deity who protects the animals and decides whether an animal may be preyed, is typical of hunter cultures .

Like all Khoisan peoples, the San also know a high god (called ǃXu, Tsui'goab, G ≠ kao, Kaoha and others), who is presented as the omnipresent, wise, powerful creator god who created everything. As with most ethnic religions, their beliefs are extremely heterogeneous among the various groups and can change over time. According to the oldest records from the early 18th century, urinating played a central role in all rituals, while later it was no longer mentioned. Also, in the ethnographies of the first half of the 20th century,! Xu does not appear as the creator, but Cagn, one of the tricksters of mythology, who primarily appears in the form of the praying mantis and who always plays an important role.

Because of this great variability and the fact that earlier ethnologists often misunderstood and translated indigenous terms and ideas against the background of Christian faith, the High God was equated with the Christian idea of ​​God for a long time. As we know today, however, these concepts of God must by no means be equated.

! Xu is considered a benefactor of people, although he can also bring bad luck. The actually destructive god, however, is Gaunab, who is represented by the moon and whose worship plays a central role. Tricksters - like the aforementioned Cagn or Heitsi-Eibib, the hero of the hunter culture - are also very important. However, their meaning is extremely variable and therefore cannot be clearly defined.

The belief in magic is expressed, for example, in an oracle in which pieces of clay are questioned before a hunt. Diseases are attributed to the moon god Gaunab or other spirits. The healers of the San have great traditional knowledge in plant medicine, but also work with the help of the spirit world by the laying on of hands .

The central healing ritual is the nocturnal, long-lasting medicine trance dance , in which the supernatural power is awakened, the diseases are healed and the group is supported. There are ritual specialists , but trance experiences are allowed to all group members. Trance serves as a general means of the San to experience the reality of belief. During the trance dance, the healers dance in front of the clapping audience until they fall into a trance. Any group member who has additional spiritual abilities can be a spiritual healer (mostly older women) .

The San are also familiar with the healing properties of many plants, seeds and roots and are used specifically to treat diseases.

To this day, the San religion exists among the small local groups largely unaffected by the Christian mission.

gallery

The following photos show a San producing arrow poison using the innards of Diamphidia nigroornata and roasted seeds of Bobgunnia madagascariensis (= Swartzia m. ) On the border between Namibia and Botswana:

  • Expressing the innards of the beetle larvae on a joint socket

  • Grinding and mixing the seeds

  • Stroke the arrows

Movies

Others

In Otherland by Tad Williams of San plays !Xabbu an important role. The tetralogy contains many references to the old sagas and the culture of the San. Williams admits that the character is purely fictional and apologizes in advance for possibly putting the San in a wrong light.

annotation


literature

  • Richard Borshay Lee, Irven DeVore: Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers ; London, Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN 1-58348-125-7
  • Richard Borshay Lee: The ǃKung San: Men, Women and Work in a Foraging Society. New York 1979
  • Robert K. Hitchcock, Kazunobu Ikeya, Megan Biesele, Richard B. Lee (Eds.): Updating the San: Image and Reality of an African People in the 21st Century. (Senri Ethnological Studies (SES) No. 70) National Museum of Ethnology (Minpaku), Osaka 2006 ( content )
  • Ute Dieckmann, Maarit Thiem, Erik Dirkx et al: Scrapping the Pot, San in Namibia Two Decades After Independence. Legal Assistance Center / Desert Research Foundation of Namibia, Windhoek 2014, ISBN 978-99945-61-52-0 . ( PDF; 26.3 MB )
  • Giselher W. Hoffmann : The firstborn. Unionsverlag, Zurich 2002, ISBN 3-293-20229-2
  • Marjorie Shostak: Nisa tells. The life of a nomad woman in Africa ; Rowohlt, Reinbek 2001, ISBN 3-499-26492-7 (Original: Nisa: The Life and Words of a ǃKung Woman , 1981)
  • Noel Smith: San Visions and Values. An Interpretation of the Prehistoric Rock Art of southern Africa. East Bridgeford, Nottingham (Great Britain) 2001, ISBN 0-9540860-0-7
  • James Suzman: Regional assessment of the status of the San in southern Africa. 4: an assessment of the status of the San in Namibia. Legal Assistance Center, Windhoek 2001, ISBN 9991676511 . ( PDF; 2.58 MB )
  • Jiro Tanaka: The San, Hunter-Gatherers of the Kalahari. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo 1980, ISBN 0-86008-276-8
  • Keyan G. Tomaselli (Ed.): Cultural Tourism and Identity. Rethinking Indigeneity. ( Africa Study Center Series, Volume 24) Brill, Leiden 2012
  • Sherwood L. Washburn : Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers: Studies of the ǃKung San and Their Neighbors. iUniverse, 1999, ISBN 1-58348-125-7

Web links

Commons : San  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ^ R. Elphick: Khoikhoi and the Founding of White South Africa. Yale University Press, 1975, pp. 24, 27.
  2. ↑ Alice Mogwe: Who was (T) here First. Botswana Christian Council, 1992, p. 4.
  3. ↑ Bartholomew Dean, Jerome M. Levi (Eds.): At the Risk of Being Heard Identity, Indigenous Rights, and Postcolonial States . University of Michigan Press, 2003, p. 85
  4. ↑ Statement by delegates of the Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa (WIMSA) and the South African San Institute attending the 2003 Africa Human Genome Initiative conference held in Stellenbosch . Carina Schlebusch: Issues raised by use of ethnic-group names in genome study . In: Nature . 464, No. 7288, March 25, 2010, p. 487. doi : 10.1038 / 464487a . PMID 20336115 .
  5. ↑ YS Chen, A. Olckers, TG Schurr, AM Kogelnik, K. Huoponen, DC Wallace: mtDNA variation in the South African Kung and Khwe-and their genetic relationships to other African populations. In: American Journal of Human Genetics . Volume 66, Number 4, April 2000, pp. 1362-1383, doi: 10.1086 / 302848 , PMID 10739760 , PMC 1288201 (free full text).
  6. ↑ Sarah A. Tishkoff et al .: History of click-Speaking Populations of Africa inferred from mtDNA and Y chromosome Genetic variation . ( Memento from April 20, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) africandna.com, 2007
  7. ^ Martin Pabst: South Africa. 2nd completely revised and expanded edition. Verlag CH Beck, Munich 2008.
  8. ↑ Genographic Project "MATERNAL AND paternal haplogroups: L0, E, A" . Retrieved November 7, 2013.
  9. ↑ The Khoi-San - The oldest people in the world . Die Welt online from September 20, 2012.
  10. ^ Steve Connor: World's most ancient race traced in DNA study . In: The Independent , May 1, 2009. Retrieved January 19, 2014. 
  11. ↑ Gill, Victoria: Africa's genetic secrets unlocked (online edition). In: BBC World News , British Broadcasting Corporation , May 1, 2009. Archived from the original on July 1, 2009. Retrieved September 3, 2009. 
  12. ↑ SA Tishkoff, FA Reed, FR Friedlaender, C. Ehret, A. Ranciaro, A. Froment, JB Hirbo, AA Awomoyi, J. -M. Bodo, O. Doumbo, M. Ibrahim, AT Juma, MJ Kotze, G. Lema, JH Moore, H. Mortensen, TB Nyambo, SA Omar, K. Powell, GS Pretorius, MW Smith, MA Thera, C. Wambebe, JL Weber, SM Williams: The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans . In: Science . 324, No. 5930, 2009, pp. 1035-44. doi : 10.1126 / science.1172257 . PMID 19407144 . PMC 2947357 (free full text).
  13. ↑ Erika Check Hayden: African genes tracked back. In: Nature , August 27, 2013
  14. ↑ Doron M. Behar et al .: The Dawn of Human Matrilineal Diversity . In: American Journal of Human Genetics , Vol. 82, 2008, pp. 1130-1140.
  15. ↑ Gary Stix: How did humanity expand? In: Spectrum of Science. Spektrumverlag, Heidelberg September 2009.
  16. ↑ Erika Check Hayden: African genes tracked back. In: Nature , August 27, 2013
  17. ^ Isaac Shapera : Government and politics in tribal societies. London: Watts 1956, p. 128 f.
  18. ↑ The Khoikhoi. South African History Online. ( Memento of July 10, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Retrieved July 17, 2017.
  19. ^ A b J. Taylor Hamilton, Kenneth G. Hamilton: The renewed Unitas Fratrum 1722–1957. History of the Moravian Brethren. Volume 1: 1722-1857 . Translation by Joachim Haarmann, Herrnhuter Verlag, Herrnhut 2001, pp. 360–363 ISBN 3-931956-09-1
  20. ↑ Nelson Mandela : Address by President Nelson Mandela to the Provincial Synod of the Moravian Church in South Africa, Port Elizabeth . on www.mandela.gov.za (english, afrikaans, isiXhosa)
  21. ↑ UN special envoy condemns treatment of Bushmen in Botswana
  22. ↑ Avgeropoulos cites a total of 55,000 and the traditionally living a maximum of 2500.
  23. ↑ San in Botswana wins historic court victory, Roy Sesana
  24. ↑ Current situation of the San Botswanas
  25. ↑ Documentation about the San today in southern Africa
  26. ↑ survivalinternational.de about San . Retrieved August 15, 2013.
  27. ↑ Article of the TAZ - Expulsion from the Kalahari Desert illegal . Retrieved August 15, 2013.
  28. ↑ Reinhard Friedrich: Ombili Foundation annual report ( memento from September 26, 2007 in the Internet archive ) of the chairman Reinhard Friedrich. In March 1999, Ombili turned ten years old.
  29. ↑ San received Farm Hedwigslust ( Memento of 28 September 2007 at the Internet Archive ) Allgemeine Zeitung, June 16, 2003 accessed October 4, 2015.
  30. ↑ Interview with Bernd Heinrich in Spiegel special: Beer at the Marathon , No. 4/2006, p. 33
  31. ↑ Marion Benz: The Neolithization in the Middle East . Ex oriente, second, hardly changed edition, Berlin 2008. ISBN 3-9804241-6-2 . pdf version , p. 124.
  32. ↑ a b Klaus E. Müller: The better and the worse half. Ethnology of the gender conflict. Campus, Frankfurt a. M. / New York 1984, ISBN 3-593-33360-0 . P. 34.
  33. ↑ Namibia / Botswana, ostrich egg with a necklace made of ostrich egg slices (Bushman pearls). Money Museum, accessed June 7, 2020 .
  34. ↑ Klemens Ludwig: Whisper to the rock. Herder, Freiburg 1993, ISBN 3-451-04195-2 . Pp. 28-29.
  35. ↑ a b c d David Chidester et al .: African Traditional Religion in South Africa: An Annotated Bibliography. Greenwood Press, Westport (USA) 1997, ISBN 978-0-313-30474-3 , pp. 68-72.
  36. ↑ Hartmut Motz: Languages ​​and Peoples of the Earth - Linguistic-Ethnographic Lexicon. 1st edition, Volume 1, Projekt-Verlag Cornelius, Halle 2007, ISBN 978-3-86634-368-9 . P. 177.
  37. ^ Walter Hirschberg (founder), Wolfgang Müller (editor): Dictionary of Ethnology. New edition, 2nd edition, Reimer, Berlin 2005. p. 171 (keyword: master of the animals).
  38. ^ Walter Hirschberg (founder), Wolfgang Müller (editor): Dictionary of Ethnology. New edition, 2nd edition, Reimer, Berlin 2005. pp. 177, 268.
  39. ↑ Marc Seifert: "The one who created himself ..." - Investigations of motifs on heroic tales from northern Namibia and southern Angola . ( Memento of March 4, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Dissertation, INSTITUTE FOR AFRICANISTICS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF COLOGNE, 2009, p. 373, accessed on October 5, 2015.
  40. ^ A b David Maybury-Lewis (ed.): National Geographic Atlas of the Peoples - Cultures, Traditions, Everyday Life. American original edition: Peoples of the World. , National Geographic Germany, Hamburg 2002, ISBN 3-934385-85-0 . P. 230.