Swiss peasant war

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Swiss peasant war
Overview of the theater of war
Overview of the theater of war
date January to June 1653
place Western Swiss Plateau
output Victory of the authorities
Peace treaty Peace of Mellingen
Parties to the conflict

Subject armies from Bern , Lucerne , Solothurn , Basel , Aargau

Government troops from Zurich with soldiers from Thurgau and Uri

Commander

Niklaus Leuenberger (Bern)
Christian Schybi (Lucerne)

Konrad Werdmüller (Zurich)
Sigmund von Erlach (Bern)
Sebastian Peregrin Zwyer (Lucerne)


The Swiss Peasants' War was a popular uprising in the Old Confederation in 1653. A devaluation of the Bernese currency led to widespread tax refusals in the Emmental in Bern and in the neighboring Entlebuch in Lucerne , which spread to Solothurn , Basel and Aargau . The rural population demanded tax relief from the urban authorities. When the demands were rejected, the subjects threatened to block the cities. After initial compromises negotiated by other federal locations failed, representatives of the rural regions in Huttwil formed a farmers' union. The movement radicalized and began to make further demands. The Huttwiler Bund saw itself as equal to the cities and took over sovereignty in the areas it controlled in the western Swiss Plateau .

The rebels besieged Bern and Lucerne , whereupon the cities signed a peace treaty with peasant leader Niklaus Leuenberger , the Murifeld Treaty. When the peasant army withdrew, the Diet dispatched an army from Zurich to finally put down the uprising. After the Battle of Wohlenschwil on June 3, 1653, the Huttwil Farmers' Union was dissolved in accordance with the Peace of Mellingen . The last nests of resistance in Entlebuch lasted until the end of June. The victorious cities took a hard hand against the rebels, Bern declared the Murifeld Treaty null and void. The authorities had numerous exponents of the uprising captured, tortured and severely punished. Although the ruling urban elites achieved complete military success, the Peasants' War demonstrated that they were dependent on their rural subjects. Soon after the war there were a number of reforms and tax cuts, with which the authorities accommodated the original fiscal demands of the insurgents. In the long term, the Swiss Peasants' War prevented an excessive interpretation of absolutism, such as in France .

Causes of the conflict

Basically, the Swiss Peasants 'War of 1653 is the result of rapidly changing economic conditions after the end of the Thirty Years' War . The territory of the Confederation had been spared any fighting. The Swiss rural population had generally benefited from the war economy because they were able to export food at higher prices than before. After the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, the economy in southern Germany recovered quickly. Swiss exports dwindled and the prices of agricultural products fell. Many Swiss farmers who had borrowed during the boom of the war years were now heavily indebted in times of post-war deflation.

Since the 1620s, the war caused high expenditures for the cities, which tried to protect themselves against possible attacks by foreign troops by building new defenses. An important source of income for the towns dried up: France and Spain no longer paid pensions for the provision of mercenaries, so-called travelers . The city authorities tried to compensate for the loss of income by increasing existing taxes and introducing new ones. Moreover, let them less valuable chunk of coins from copper coin, with the same nominal value as the previously embossed silver coins . The population began to hoard the silver coins and the cheap copper coins that remained in circulation continued to lose purchasing power . As early as 1623, Zurich , Basel and central Switzerland began to mint more valuable coins again. Instead, Bern , Solothurn and Freiburg set a legally required exchange rate between copper and silver coins, but this measure could not compensate for the loss in value. Therefore, at the end of the war, the population was confronted with both post-war depression and high inflation , as well as high taxes. This financial crisis resulted in a number of tax revolts in various parts of the Confederation, for example 1629–1636 in Lucerne, 1641 in Bern or 1645/46 in Zurich. The uprising of 1653 continued this series, but escalated the conflict to an unprecedented level.

In the course of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century, the cities restricted the admission of new citizens, that is, rear residents from the subject area and from abroad, until finally no new citizens were accepted. Within the cities themselves, power was concentrated in the hands of a few families capable of regimentation, who regarded their public offices as hereditary and who increasingly took an aristocratic-absolutist stance. Over time, an urban magistrate oligarchy was formed . This concentration of power on a small urban elite led to a social isolation in the city cantons, which excluded both the rural population and the lower urban social classes from any influence. The subjects had to submit to decrees that were passed without their consent, ignored their traditional freedoms and also restricted their social and cultural freedom.

Beginning of the uprising

Decree of the Bernese authorities to devalue the Batzens

On December 2, 1652, Bern devalued the copper lump by 50% in order to bring the face value into line with the actual value and thus fight inflation. The authorities set a deadline of only three days to exchange the copper coins at the old exchange rate for more stable gold or silver coins. Therefore, not many people have been able to take advantage of this exchange offer. Many subjects, especially in the country, lost half of their wealth in one fell swoop. Other places in the Confederation followed the Bernese example and also devalued. The worst was the situation in Lucerne's Entlebuch , where there were many Bernese chunks in circulation. The financial situation became untenable for many rural residents. Insider dealing by the ruling Lucerne magistrates increased the unrest among the population. The subjects of the Entlebuch sent a delegation to Lucerne, led by Hans Emmenegger from Schüpfheim and Christian Schybi from Escholzmatt , to demand countermeasures. But the city council refused to even hear the delegation. The angry subjects organized a rural community in Heiligkreuz near Hasle , although meetings of this kind were forbidden. The Landsgemeinde, which took place on February 15, 1653, following the Holy Mass , decided to suspend all tax payments until the Lucerne government met their demands. General tax cuts and the abolition of taxes on salt, cattle and horse trade were demanded.

The Lucerne authorities were not willing to give in to the demands of the population. But neither did she succeed in suppressing the riot. The vast majority of the rural offices took the side of the Entlebuch subjects and formed an alliance on February 26, 1653 in Wolhusen . At the beginning of March, the subjects from the Emmental , who brought similar complaints against the Bern authorities, joined their Entlebuch neighbors. Both cities turned to the uninvolved members of the Confederation to mediate in the conflict, but at the same time the Diet began to prepare for a military solution to the conflict. Schaffhauser and Basel troops were sent in the direction of the Aargau , but this measure immediately triggered armed resistance among the population, so that the troops had to withdraw.

On March 18, the mediating Catholic localities of Central Switzerland proposed a resolution in Lucerne that would meet most of the demands of the subjects, especially the fiscal ones. In Bern, a delegation from Zurich, led by Mayor Johann Heinrich Waser , proposed a similar compromise on April 4th. The Bernese Emmental and most of the Lucerne authorities agreed to these resolutions and their representatives swore new oaths of loyalty. The Entlebuchers did not accept the offer of the authorities because the uprising had been declared illegal and its leaders were to be punished. At a meeting in Signau on April 10th, the Entlebuch delegates convinced their Emmental neighbors; the meeting decided not to obey the oaths of loyalty made in Bern.

Huttwiler farmers' union

Contemporary engraving by Niklaus Leuenberger

The negotiations between the authorities and the subjects did not continue. The representatives of the authorities discussed at the meeting how to deal with the uprising. Meanwhile, the subjects sought to win the support of the rural population of other regions and to form a formal alliance. A delegation sent to Zurich was promptly rejected. The Zurich authorities, which had suppressed local uprisings on their territory as early as 1645 and 1646, recognized the danger of incitement. On April 23, representatives of the rural population of Lucerne, Bern, Basel and Solothurn met in Sumiswald and formed an alliance to support each other in achieving their goals. A week later they met again in Huttwil , where they renewed the alliance and elected Niklaus Leuenberger from Rüderswil as their leader.

Another Landsgemeinde took place in Huttwil on May 14th. She formalized the alliance by signing a written contract in the style of the old federal letters . The agreement declared the Huttwil farmers' alliance to be politically equal with and independent of the cities. The tax revolt had now become a movement for independence, ideologically based on the founding myths of Switzerland , in particular the legend of William Tell . Legally, the subjects justified their meetings and their alliance with traditional rights and in particular with the Stans Decree of 1481, one of the most important alliance agreements of the Confederation.

By this point the subjects had gained full sovereignty over the territory they controlled. They refused to recognize the jurisdiction of the city authorities and also ruled the area militarily. The Huttwiler Bauernbund openly declared its intention to expand until it included the rural population of the entire Swiss Confederation. The majority of the rural population supported the uprising, while the opposed minority were intimidated by threats and occasionally violence. The flow of information between the cities was interrupted, official envoys were stopped and boats on the rivers were hijacked. The subjects even sent a letter to the French ambassador in Solothurn, in which they assured the French King Louis XIV of their good intentions.

The denominational conflicts that dominated the relations between the ruling urban authorities were of secondary importance for the members of the Huttwil farmers' union. The alliance bridged the confessional division, it united Catholics from Entlebuch and Solothurn as well as Reformed people from the Emmental and Basel area. The Huttwil Agreement explicitly recognized biconfessionalism. During their negotiations, the cities remained in their respective denominational spheres. The Catholic Lucerne asked the Catholic towns in Central Switzerland for mediation and later military support, while the Reformed Bern turned to the Reformed Zurich. The mistrust between the authorities of the Catholic and Reformed places was so great that no place granted the troops of the other denomination the right to operate on its territory.

Military confrontation

Campaigns in the Swiss Peasants' War

Both sides began to openly prepare for armed conflict. The cities faced the problem that their armies were made up of militias recruited from the rural population of their subject areas, but the very rural population rose up against them. Bern began to pull together troops from the Vaud and the Oberland - two regions that had remained untouched by the uprising. The authorities of Bern and Lucerne received support from the other federal locations at the meeting. A “revolution” was mentioned for the first time in a Zurich dispatch. This message seems to contain the first documented use of the word revolution in the modern sense, which means a political upheaval and is not associated with a circular movement.

On May 18, the subjects presented the cities of Bern and Lucerne with an ultimatum. When Bern responded with a protest note, the 16,000-strong peasant army marched under the leadership of Leuenberger and arrived in front of the city on May 22nd. A second army, led by Emmenegger, besieged Lucerne. The authorities were unprepared for an armed conflict and immediately offered to negotiate. Peace agreements were negotiated within a few days. In the Murifeldfrieden (named after the Murifeld, where the peasant army camped), signed by Leuenberger and Schultheiss Niklaus Dachselhofer , the city council of Bern promised on May 28th to meet the fiscal demands of the rural residents; in return, the Huttwiler Bauernbund should be dissolved. In view of this development, the city of Lucerne and the besieging peasant army also came to an agreement. Leuenberger's army ended the siege and withdrew, but numerous insurgents refused to accept the conditions and to dissolve the Huttwiler Bauernbund.

Without knowledge of current events, Zurich assembled an army on May 30th, consisting of soldiers from Zurich's subject areas, from Thurgau and from Schaffhausen. Their mission was to finally break all armed resistance. Under the command of Konrad Werdmüller , around 8,000 men with 800 horses and 18 cannons marched towards Aargau. Three days later, Werdmüller's army controlled the important crossing over the Reuss in Mellingen . A peasant army of 24,000 men, led by Leuenberger and Schybi, gathered in the hills around the nearby villages of Wohlenschwil and Othmarsingen . A delegation of the insurgents tried to negotiate with Werdmüller and showed him the peace treaty signed on the Muri field. Werdmüller, who until then had no knowledge of it, refused to recognize the validity of the contract and demanded unconditional surrender. The peasant army attacked Werdmüller's army on June 3rd. Since it was poorly equipped and had no artillery whatsoever, it was decisively defeated in the Battle of Wohlenschwil . The subjects were forced to sign the Peace of Mellingen, which demanded the dissolution of the Huttwil farmers' union. The defeated peasant army withdrew, whereupon the authorities announced an amnesty, which, however, did not apply to the leaders of the uprising.

Bernese troops under the command of Sigmund von Erlach advanced into Aargau to connect with those from Zurich. Under this double pressure, the resistance of the subjects finally collapsed. Erlach's army consisted of 6,000 men and 19 cannons. The operation turned into a real punitive expedition : the troops plundered the villages on their way and even razed the fortifications of the little town of Wiedlisbach , which subsequently lost its town charter and was declared a village again. On June 7th, the Bernese army met around 2,000 men from Leuenberger's army who were on their way back from the Battle of Wohlenschwil. The rebels withdrew to Herzogenbuchsee , where they were beaten. The village went up in flames during the fighting. Niklaus Leuenberger fled and hid, but a neighbor betrayed him to the authorities. He was arrested on June 9th by Samuel Tribolet , Governor of Trachselwald .

The Entlebuch, where the uprising had started, resisted a little longer. Peasant troops under Schybis command tried in vain to take the Gisikon bridge on June 5 . Troops from the city of Lucerne and central Switzerland, under the command of Sebastian Peregrin Zwyer , successfully repulsed the attack. Over the next two weeks, Zwyer advanced slowly through the valley until his troops fully controlled it on June 20. Schybi was captured a few days later and imprisoned in Sursee .

consequences

Execution of seven leaders on July 24, 1653 near Basel

The authorities relentlessly punished the leaders of the Huttwil farmers' union. Bern revoked the amnesty conditions of the Peace of Mellingen and cracked down on the rural population. The subjects were punished with heavy fines and had to bear the costs of the military operations. The city council of Bern declared the Murifeld contract null and void. The rural population was disarmed; many exponents of the uprising were imprisoned, tortured, sentenced to death or galley , and exiled. Schybi was executed on July 9th in Sursee, Leuenberger was beheaded and quartered on September 6th in Bern . His head was nailed to the gallows, along with one of the four copies of the Huttwil Federal Letter. In Bern, 23 death sentences were imposed (not including various civil death sentences by Erlach's army), eight in Lucerne and seven in Basel. Johann Rudolf Wettstein was largely responsible for the seven leaders from the Basel region being publicly executed.

Although the authorities had achieved a total military victory, they refrained from further draconian measures against the population. The Peasants' War had clearly shown that cities needed the support of their rural subjects. The uprising could only be put down with great effort and only with the help of Zurich and Uri. Had the subjects succeeded in expanding the Huttwiler Bauernbund to include the Zurich area, the conflict might have taken a different turn. The authorities were aware of the happy outcome, which was reflected in their way of government in the following years. While they did take steps to disempower the rural population, they also met many of the subjects' original fiscal demands, thereby easing economic pressures. In the second half of the 17th century there were various tax reforms that, for example, reduced the tax burden in Lucerne as a whole.

Andreas Suter puts forward the thesis that the Swiss Peasants' War of 1653 thwarted the further advance of absolutism in Switzerland and prevented a development like in France after the Fronde . The authorities in the federal towns had to act much more cautiously and were forced to respect their rural subjects to a certain extent. For example, the Bernese instructed their bailiffs to appear far less pompous and authoritarian in order to reduce the potential for conflict. The council even initiated proceedings against individual bailiffs who had been accused by the population of corruption, incompetence and unjust enrichment. For example, Bailiff Samuel Tribolet, who had arrested Niklaus Leuenberger, was released, convicted and banished at the beginning of 1654 (however, since he had married into the influential von Graffenried family, he was allowed to return only two years later). Abraham Stanyan , British envoy in Bern, published the extensive treatise An account of Switzerland in 1714 , in which he described the rule of authority as extremely moderate. He explicitly mentioned the low tax burden compared to other European countries and justified this with the government's fear of possible uprisings. Until the collapse of the old system of rule in 1798, the towns and cities lacked the financial means to build armies and large civil servants following the example of neighboring countries. The frugal Swiss militia system in administration and the military (in some cases up to the 20th century) is seen as one of the consequences of the peasant war.

historiography

A selection of the weapons used by the insurgents
The drawing Schybi auf der Tortter , made by Martin Disteli in 1840, shows peasant leader Christian Schybi, who is tortured in Sursee - as an allegory of Christ crucified

In the decades after the Peasants' War, the city authorities tried to suppress the memory of the almost successful uprising. Resistance symbols such as flags or the weapons used by the subjects, especially the typical clubs with nails (the so-called clubs ), were forbidden, confiscated and destroyed by law. Documents like the federal letters from Huttwil disappeared into the vaults of the city archives. Any public commemoration was forbidden under the penalty of death, as were pilgrimages to the places of execution of the leaders and the singing of battle songs by the insurgents. Bern was particularly active in attempting to erase memories of the event and also strove to destroy portraits of the leaders. Historical texts that were written during the period of the Ancien Régime follow the official diction and mention the Peasants' War only briefly and with negative wording, if at all. Works with differing points of view were often banned. The censorship was not entirely successful: In private, the rural population kept up the memory of 1653 and in the German Empire various accounts of the events appeared.

In the 19th century the official view was increasingly questioned. The aristocratic Ancien Régime had been considerably weakened during the coalition wars when the Confederation was a French satellite state. During the short-lived Helvetic Republic , the population came into contact with democratic ideals. The restoration after the end of Napoleonic rule turned out to be only temporary. During the period of regeneration , liberal-minded editors interpreted the Peasants' War of 1653 as an allegory of the striving for a democratic state order, at the end of which was the final overthrow of the authoritarian regime and the establishment of the federal state in 1848. Well-known examples are the illustrations by Martin Disteli , who drew scenes of the peasant war in this way.

The official view initially remained ambivalent at best . When, for example, the peasants' war was to be portrayed in a theater production on the occasion of the 600th anniversary of the Swiss Confederation in 1891, the relevant scene was dropped at the request of the organizers. The first statues in honor of the rebels and their leaders were created on the occasion of the 250th anniversary. A memorial for Schybi and Emmenegger was unveiled on July 26, 1903 in Escholzmatt , in the same year a statue for Leuenberger in Rüderswil , and on September 25, 1904 an obelisk in Liestal in honor of the war victims, which is now in the garden in front of the barracks. Ironically, the statue in Rüderswil was donated by the Economic Society of Bern ; this association, founded in 1759, originally consisted only of members of the leading families in Bern. Further statues and memorial plaques followed in 1953 on the occasion of the 300th anniversary in various other locations.

The peasant war was also used ideologically in the 20th century. In the 1940s and 1950s, the historian Hans Mühlestein interpreted the events of 1653 as an early revolution of a progressive bourgeoisie , in keeping with the Marxist concept of class struggle . Many later historians found this view untenable. Modern historians generally agree that the Peasants' War is an important event in Swiss history, also when compared to other popular uprisings that occurred quite frequently in late medieval and early modern Europe. The Swiss Peasants' War of 1653 is remarkable for three reasons:

  1. The uprising quickly spread to the territory of other places, while previous uprisings in the Confederation were all local events.
  2. The subjects were well organized and could mobilize real armies against their rulers, which had never happened before. The leaders apparently learned lessons from previous unsuccessful uprisings in which they had been involved.
  3. For the first time, the demands of the subjects went beyond the restoration of traditional rights and tax relief; the Huttwiler Bauernbund radically questioned the previously undisputed claim to rule of the authorities.

In 2003, the city of Bern celebrated the 650th anniversary of joining the Swiss Confederation with numerous events, including a special exhibition lasting several months in the Historical Museum and the publication of the textbook Bern's courageous times . The simultaneous 350th anniversary of the Peasant War was only dealt with in a few newspaper articles in the city. The anniversary was celebrated extensively in the rural regions of the canton of Bern, with speeches, colloquiums and an ambitious and very successful open-air theater production in Eggiwil .

literature

literature used in the article
  • André Holenstein: The Peasants' War of 1653. Causes, course and consequences of a failed revolution . In: Jonas Römer (Ed.): Peasants, subjects and rebels . Orell Füssli, Zurich 2004, ISBN 3-280-06020-6 , p. 28-65 .
  • Jonas Römer: 1653: History, historiography and memory . In: Jonas Römer (Ed.): Peasants, subjects and rebels . Orell Füssli, Zurich 2004, ISBN 3-280-06020-6 , p. 8-27 .
  • Andreas Suter : Collective memories of historical events - opportunities and dangers. The peasant war as an example . In: Jonas Römer (Ed.): Peasants, subjects and rebels . Orell Füssli, Zurich 2004, ISBN 3-280-06020-6 , p. 143-163 .
  • Andreas Suter: The Swiss Peasant War of 1653. Political social history - social history of a political event . In: Early Modern Research . tape 3 . Biblioteca Academica, Tübingen 1997, ISBN 3-928471-13-9 .
  • Hermann Wahlen, Ernst Jäggi: The Swiss Peasants' War 1653 and the development of the peasant class since then . Verbandsdruckerei book publisher, Bern 1952.
further literature
  • Gottfried Guggenbühl , The Swiss Peasants' War of 1653 . Zurich 1913.
  • Hans Mühlestein , The great Swiss peasant war . Celerina 1942. Reprint: Unionsverlag, Zurich 1977, ISBN 3-293-00003-7
  • Urs Hostettler , The songs of the insurgents in the great Swiss peasant war . Switzerland. Archive for Folklore Basel 1983.
  • Urs Hostettler, The Rebel from Eggiwil. Emmental uprising in 1653. A report . Zytglogge Verlag Bern 1991, ISBN 3-7296-0298-5

Web links

Commons : Swiss Peasants' War  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Andreas Suter, Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz, 2002.
  2. ↑ Kurt Messmer / Swiss National Museum: Executions after the Peasants' War: “Der uf der blauwen dillen” has the last word! In: Watson on May 21, 2018
  3. ^ A b c Holenstein: The Peasants' War of 1653. Causes, course and consequences of a failed revolution. P. 33.
  4. ↑ Suter: The Swiss Peasants' War of 1653. P. 363.
  5. ^ A b Suter: Collective memories of historical events. P. 146.
  6. ^ Suter: The Swiss Peasants' War of 1653. P. 382, ​​390.
  7. ^ A b Holenstein: The Peasants' War of 1653. Causes, course and consequences of a failed revolution. P. 34.
  8. ^ Suter: The Swiss Peasants' War of 1653. S. 147.
  9. ↑ Holenstein: The Peasants' War of 1653. Causes, course and consequences of a failed revolution. P. 35.
  10. ^ Suter: The Swiss Peasant War of 1653. P. 122.
  11. ↑ Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despise gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! P. 21.
  12. ↑ Holenstein: The Peasants' War of 1653. Causes, course and consequences of a failed revolution. P. 37.
  13. ↑ a b Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despises gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! P. 39.
  14. ↑ Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despise gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! P. 28.
  15. ↑ Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despise gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! P. 37.
  16. ↑ Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despise gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! P. 39.
  17. ↑ Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despise gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! P. 43.
  18. ↑ a b Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despises gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! P. 44.
  19. ↑ Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despise gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! Pp. 39, 49.
  20. ↑ Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despise gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! P. 40.
  21. ↑ Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despise gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! P. 45.
  22. ↑ Holenstein: The Peasants' War of 1653. Causes, course and consequences of a failed revolution. P. 47.
  23. ^ Suter: The Swiss Peasants' War of 1653. P. 151.
  24. ↑ Holenstein: The Peasants' War of 1653. Causes, course and consequences of a failed revolution. P. 46.
  25. ^ Suter: The Swiss Peasants' War of 1653. p. 13.
  26. ↑ Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despise gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! Pp. 49-56.
  27. ↑ Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despise gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! P. 57.
  28. ^ Elections, Jäggi: The Swiss Peasants' War 1653 and the development of the peasant class since then. P. 69.
  29. ^ Elections, Jäggi: The Swiss Peasants' War 1653 and the development of the peasant class since then. P. 104.
  30. ↑ Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despise gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! P. 59.
  31. ^ Elections, Jäggi: The Swiss Peasants' War 1653 and the development of the peasant class since then. P. 72.
  32. ↑ Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despise gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! P. 62.
  33. ↑ Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despise gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! P. 66.
  34. ↑ a b Wahlen, Jäggi: The Swiss Peasant War 1653 and the development of the peasant class since then. P. 105.
  35. ↑ Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despise gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! P. 69.
  36. ^ A b Holenstein: The Peasants' War of 1653. Causes, course and consequences of a failed revolution. P. 51.
  37. ↑ Suter: The Swiss Peasants' War of 1653. P. 154.
  38. ↑ Suter: The Swiss Peasants' War of 1653. P. 162.
  39. ↑ Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despise gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! P. 374.
  40. ↑ Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despise gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! P. 68.
  41. ↑ Suter: The Swiss Peasant War of 1653. P. 148, 151.
  42. ↑ a b Stüssi-Lauterburg et al .: Despises gentlemen's antics! Scare away foreign guests! P. 73.
  43. ↑ Suter: The Swiss Peasants' War of 1653. P. 153.
  44. ^ Suter: The Swiss Peasants' War of 1653. P. 150.
  45. ^ Suter: The Swiss Peasants' War of 1653. P. 404.
  46. ^ Suter: The Swiss Peasant War of 1653. S. 152.
  47. ↑ Paul Widmer: Freedom from the mountains. Die Weltwoche , February 5, 2009, accessed on November 28, 2013 .
  48. ↑ Suter: The Swiss Peasants' War of 1653. P. 154.
  49. ↑ a b c d e Suter: The Swiss Peasants' War of 1653. P. 155.
  50. ↑ Manuscripts, prints and pictures on the Peasants' War 1653. (No longer available online.) Central and University Library Lucerne , 2003, archived from the original on October 23, 2004 ; Retrieved November 28, 2013 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.sondersammlungen.zhbluzern.ch
  51. ↑ Suter: The Swiss Peasants' War of 1653. P. 155.
  52. ↑ Holenstein: The Peasants' War of 1653. Causes, course and consequences of a failed revolution. P. 53.
  53. ^ Suter: The Swiss Peasants' War of 1653. P. 156.
  54. ↑ Römer: 1653: History, Historiography and Memory. P. 12.
  55. ↑ Suter: The Swiss Peasants' War of 1653. P. 53.
  56. ↑ Römer: 1653: History, Historiography and Memory. P. 13.
  57. ↑ Römer: 1653: History, Historiography and Memory. P. 23.
  58. ↑ Holenstein: The Peasants' War of 1653. Causes, course and consequences of a failed revolution. P. 52.
  59. ↑ Peasants' War 1653 - A winter night in Eggiwil. Website of the municipality of Eggiwil, April 14, 2003, accessed on November 28, 2013 .

Remarks

  1. ↑ All dates in this article according to the Gregorian calendar , which was then in use in the Catholic towns of the Confederation; the Reformed places still followed the Julian calendar .