Mosquito Control

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Female mosquito incidence without control ( taboo zone Kühkopf , 11,200 mosquitoes) and with control (Au am Rhein, 151 mosquitoes) measured by so-called carbon dioxide night traps on September
14, 2005 by the KABS

The mosquito control (also mosquito control ) can be directed against the water-bound larvae and pupae of the mosquitoes as well as against the adult animals. The methods used include changing the breeding habitat, the use of chemical and biological insecticides and, increasingly, the use of attractant traps. They are often used in combination.

reasons

Mosquitoes are important carriers of disease . They transmit malaria , parasitic worms ( filariasis ), viruses (e.g. yellow fever , dengue fever , West Nile fever , chikungunya fever , Rift Valley fever ) or bacteria ( tularemia ). The diseases that can be transmitted from mosquitoes to animals include Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis , myxomatosis and rabbit plague, or the worms Dirofilaria repens and Dirofilaria immitis , which parasitize domestic dogs .

Mosquitoes can also significantly impair the quality of life of humans and animals if they occur in large numbers, as it is no longer possible to stay outdoors. This can lead to economic damage in the tourism sector or in farm animal husbandry .

In Central Europe, the so-called flood mosquitoes are particularly significant because of their massive occurrence as a plague (especially Aedimorphus vexans and Ochlerotatus sticticus ). Locally, the common mosquito or the ring mosquito can become so annoying that they are controlled. Particular attention is also paid to invasive species such as the Asian tiger mosquito , the Asian bush mosquito and the native Anopheles plumbeus , as all three are possible carriers of the disease.

The aim of the control is mostly to achieve a balance of interests between nature conservation to preserve biodiversity and the desire of the people to contain the mosquito plague. Biological and ecological as well as epidemiological, economic, social and political aspects are incorporated.

Valerio: It's a nice thing about nature, but it's not as beautiful as if there weren't any gnats ...

(Georg Buechner)

The Rhine islands were often a destination of our water trips. There we took the cool inhabitants of the clear Rhine without mercy into the cauldron, on the grate, in the boiling fat, and if we had settled here, in the cozy fishermen's huts, perhaps more than cheaply, had the terrible Rhine snakes hadn't returned after a few hours driven away. Over this unbearable disturbance of one of the most beautiful pleasure parties, where everything else was successful, where the inclination of the lovers only seemed to grow with the good success of the company, I really broke when we got home too early, awkward and inconvenient, in the presence of the good spiritual father, in blasphemous speeches and assured that these gnats alone could dissuade me from the thought that a good and wise God had created the world.

Goethe's signature

(Johann Wolfgang von Goethe)

history

The recent history of mosquito control since the Second World War is closely connected to the discovery of the insecticidal effects of DDT and the establishment of the World Health Organization in 1948. In the years after its establishment, it was hoped that large-scale use of DDT would exterminate mosquitoes in many malarial areas. At the end of the 1960s, this policy had to be declared a failure after concerns about the long-term effects of DDT emerged in many mosquito species.

In 1982 the WHO published a strategy paper on environmental management for mosquito control, which contained a fundamental reorientation of the control of mosquitoes, taking into account entomological , ecological , economic and other aspects and which can still be seen as the basis for the further development of mosquito control and control to this day.

Global mosquito control research is coordinated by the World Mosquito Control Association .

Personal prophylaxis

Measures for personal and domestic prevention complement mosquito control and control. This includes mosquito-proof clothing, the use of repellants , insect sprays, mosquito coils and similar products, mosquito nets , the installation of fly screens or the control of possible breeding places in the living area.

Various vegetable essential oils have traditionally been used in the affected regions and appear to offer limited protection. Vinegar appears to have moderate defense effects. Other home remedies have proven ineffective, such as: B. Vitamin B and Garlic . Devices that are supposed to drive away the mosquitoes by ultrasound or electromagnetic waves are also of no use. Electric insect killers almost exclusively kill harmless insects and are therefore prohibited outside.

Basics

Drainage of a lake in the southern United States to fight malaria mosquitoes

In order to achieve sustainable mosquito control that is as environmentally friendly as possible, adapted to local conditions, different and as specific as possible methods are used and combined with one another. One speaks therefore of an integrated mosquito control (in the English-speaking area Integrated Mosquito Management ).

Different factors must be understood, monitored and documented that have an impact on population development. Important basics are:

  • Understanding the way of life, life cycle and population dynamics of the mosquito species causing the plague
  • Biotope mapping, for example with the help of geographic information systems
  • Documentation of hydrological data
  • Monitoring climatic conditions that have an impact on population development
  • Analysis of the possibility of promoting natural predators or using predators by changing the habitat
  • Evaluation of possibilities for influencing breeding grounds through water regulation
  • Documentation of the range of methods used in combating
  • Continuous monitoring of the populations in the larval and adult stage
  • Regular examination for possible resistance of mosquitoes against pesticides
  • Documentation of the effects on the ecosystem

Much data has to be continuously collected in everyday life in order to be able to make effective decisions within the framework of the implementation concept.

→ See also flies control on the Upper Rhine and European Mosquito Control Association

Control methods

The nomenclature and terminology for the linguistic classification of the methods is not clear. In the specialist literature, the methods classified here under biological can be found under chemical, just as natural can be classified under biological.

Spraying of mosquito breeding sites with Saprol in a forest near Hamburg. (Photo of Mühlens)

Natural or near-natural control and environmental management

The natural control methods include, in particular, the preservation or reproduction of natural predators, among other insect species such as dragonflies (Odonata), back swimmers (Notonectidae), the swimming beetles (Dytiscidae), some water friends (Hydrophilidae) and water fleas (Cyclopidae) or amphibians . These measures flow in an environmental management one, which also includes the conversion of floodplains in permanent waters with concomitant fish stocking, for example mosquitofish , Mittelmeerkärpflinge and grass carp heard. Hydraulic engineering measures, such as connecting floodplains with permanent water or improving drainage ditches for earlier drainage, can also be part of measures to expose larvae and pupae to predators or to interrupt the mosquito development cycle. In Florida, for example, this includes controlled flooding and drainage of salt marshes . In the habitat of many mosquito species such as the common mosquito, prophylactic measures such as emptying or covering rain barrels and other water collection sites can also be an effective means of limiting mosquito populations. Combined methods consisting of natural control with natural predators with the accompanying use of larvicides are currently being tested worldwide.

Furthermore, the draining of wetlands, for example by lowering the groundwater level, has been one of the measures since ancient times, which often primarily had other goals, such as the reclamation of arable land and settlement areas. One example is the straightening of the upper reaches of the Rhine by Johann Gottfried Tulla , whose secondary aim was to reduce marsh fever, the German term for malaria. In many countries today, drainage is mostly ruled out in view of the ecologically valuable function of many wetlands, especially if they are protected as wetlands.

Chemical control

Chemical control is used against both flying mosquitoes and larvae. Historically, agents such as the Floria insecticide and especially DDT are significant. Today, however, DDT can only be used in exceptional cases and outside of Europe in accordance with the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants and is mainly used for spraying house walls, since mosquitoes settle on walls between blood meals. In Germany, the insecticide fenethcarb was used for a short time . In addition, the use of the organophosphate Temefos was considered. The class of organophosphates also includes products based on malathion , which, among other products, are used in the fight against mosquitoes on Fire Island .

Many chemical active ingredients also generate resistances , which require higher active ingredient application or new active ingredients whose development is costly and time-consuming. The greatest disadvantage of many chemical control agents, however, is their lack of species-specific sensitivity , so they can damage other species to a not inconsiderable extent and, in some cases, through pollutant enrichment (POP), lead to unforeseeable long-term consequences for humans.

In addition to the active ingredients already mentioned, juvenile hormones such as methoprene , pyriproxyfen and fenoxycarb are used today , which prevent the growth steps of the larvae and pupae into the imago by counteracting the molting hormone.

Surface films on breeding waters

The application of a thin film of oil on the surface of the breeding waters can prevent larvae and pupae from breathing and thus kill them. In addition, such oil films can hinder the laying of eggs. Mineral oils were used for this very early on. An ecologically more compatible variant in the form of Liparol , a biodegradable phospholipid (here soy lecithin with paraffin added as a film agent) was used between 1976 and the early 1980s to replace the ecologically unacceptable chemical control. Another possibility is the application of monomolecular surface films, which reduce the surface tension so that mosquito larvae and pupae find it more difficult to anchor themselves to the water surface and drown just like hatching adults.

Falling

Originally, traps were used to monitor adult mosquitoes in order to determine population sizes and species spectra, to detect pathogens and to monitor the success of control campaigns. Either traps and attractants for host-seeking female mosquitoes are used, or pregnant females are detected or killed who seek out artificial egg-laying containers.

Advances in trap design and the development of attractants are increasingly leading to the massive trapping of mosquitoes as a method of control. Between 2002 and 2004, 21 to 22 mosquito traps were set up on an island of around 9 hectares in the Florida Keys, surrounded by salt marshes , which emitted carbon dioxide, warm water vapor and octenol as attractants and thus lure mosquitos looking for hosts. The population of the large salt marsh mosquitoes there has been reduced by 80 to 90%. Studies in Brazil, Peru, Thailand and Australia have shown that the widespread use of deadly egg-laying traps in yellow fever mosquitoes can lead to decreasing population densities. In Manaus, Brazil, the use of traps that released an attractant that mimicked the scent of human skin has significantly reduced the population density of yellow fever mosquitoes. In a study in Italy, the frequency of bites by the Asian tiger mosquito at locations where attractant traps were set up was between 64 and 87% lower than in comparison locations without traps.

Biological control

Biological control means the use of products based on killed bacteria, with the israelensis variant of Bacillus thuringiensis , Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) , being used worldwide . This has a largely species-specific effect on larvae ( larvicide ) of all types of mosquitoes and black flies , which is particularly important in Africa in the control of the nematode Onchocerca volvulus . In addition, Bacillus sphaericus has also been shown to have limited effectiveness on some mosquito larvae, including the Culex and some Aedes and Anopheles species .

Resistance of mosquito larvae to preparations based on Bacillus sphaericus has been known since 2000, and in Syracuse , in the state of New York, resistance of Culex pipiens to Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis was detected. Since then, resistance management has been investigating how resistance can be prevented or bypassed using genetically modified bacteria that produce a combination of toxic protein crystals in order to keep one of the historically most successful methods of mosquito control effective.

The preparations only work in the digestive tract of the larvae. A crystalline protein body present in the preparation is converted by the larva’s own digestive enzyme and the resulting degradation products decompose the digestive tract of the larva itself, see also pore-forming toxins , Bt toxins . Only in interaction with the metabolism of the larva itself does the poisonous, deadly effect unfold. Since the introduction of protein-enzymatic active ingredients, the accompanying research has repeatedly dealt with possible negative ecological effects, in particular the entomopathogenic effect on other insect species; both in the laboratory and in the field. Case studies outside of entomology , such as the impact on fish and amphibians, are still sparse. In particular, there is a lack of long-term studies on the effects of control measures on food chains , a problem that arises intrinsically with the question of the justification for combating plagues, regardless of the method, and thus also touches on ethical questions in the sense of weighing up interests .

With Spinosad , a new agent for combating insects was approved in the United States in 2011, which is also used against mosquitoes, particularly in the case of resistance problems. Israeli scientists report a successful use against adult mosquitoes, a spinosad-based adulticide which is ingested by mosquitoes through natural ingestion with the plant nectar .

Genetic control

Ideas for indirect genetic or reproductive control emerged as an alternative to chemical control in the mid-1970s. At that time, thought was given to the release of hormones in order to make the male mosquitoes sterile and prevent them from reproducing. In this sense, the sterile insect technique is also used, in which male individuals are rendered sterile by radiation or other methods and then released into the wild. As research advances, methods of direct genetic manipulation are being explored today. In addition to research on infertility, research is also being carried out on genetic immunity to pathogens, since the transmission of many pathogens by mosquitoes presupposes that the pathogen is self-infected and that the pathogen is reproduced in the mosquito as a host. The aim of this research is to make the mosquitoes themselves resistant to the pathogens, but not to impair their reproduction itself in order to minimize the ecological interference. Research in this area is closely related to human vaccine development against pathogens such as plasmodia in the case of malaria. In 2002 the genome sequences of Plasmodium falciparum and Anopheles gambiae were presented. In practice, however, only natural, chemical and biological control methods play a role, often a combination of different measures at the same time, since genetic methods have not yet reached the experimental stage.

Control and Combat Areas (selection)

literature

  • Malaria Fact Sheet . World Health Organization. 2010.
  • N. Becker, D. Petric, M. Zgomba, C. Boase, M. Madon, C. Dahl, A. Kaiser: Mosquitos and Their Control. 2nd edition, Springer, Berlin / London 2010, ISBN 978-3-540-92873-7 .
  • DE Impoinvil, S. Ahmad, A. Troyo, et al .: Comparison of mosquito control programs in seven urban sites in Africa, the Middle East, and the Americas. In: Health Policy. October 2007, Vol. 82, No. 2-3, pp. 196-212. PMC 2048658 (free full text)
  • LA Lacey: Bacillus thuringiensis serovariety israelensis and Bacillus sphaericus for mosquito control. In: Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association. (J Am Mosq Assoc) Vol. 23, Supplement 2, 2007, pp. 133-163.
  • LA Lacey, RW Merrit: The Safety of Bacterial Microbial Agents used for Black Fly and Mosquito Control Lacey. In: Heikki MT Hokkanen, Ann E. Hajek (Ed.): Assessment of Environmental Safety of Biological Insecticides. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht NL / Boston 2003, ISBN 1-4020-0813-9 .
  • G. Patterson: The Mosquito Wars: A History of Mosquito Control in Florida . University Press of Florida, Gainesville FL 2004, ISBN 0-8130-2720-9 .
  • Kathleen Walker: A Review of Control Methods for African Malaria Vectors. (= EHP Activity Report 108 ). Washington DC 2002 ( PDF file ).
  • George Whitaker Ware: The Pesticide Book. 4th edition, Thomson Publications, Fresno CAL 1994, ISBN 978-0-913702-58-1 .
  • N. Becker, P. Glaser, H. Magin: Biological mosquito control on the Upper Rhine. Festschrift. 20 years of municipal action group to combat the mosquito plague. 1996, ISBN 3-00-000584-6 .
  • MK Dalitz: Autochthonous malaria in central Germany. Dissertation. Martin Luther University, Halle-Wittenberg 2005.
  • U. Fillinger: Faunistic and ecotoxicological studies with Bti on dipteras of the northern Upper Rhine floodplain with special consideration of the distribution and phenology of native mosquito species (Chironomidae). Dissertation. Univ. Heidelberg, 1999.
  • J. Lange: On the history of water protection on the Upper and High Rhine. A case study on environmental and biology history. Dissertation. Freiburg 2002.
  • R. Leiner: Recording and modeling of the spatial and temporal flood surface dynamics in floodplains using the example of the northern Upper Rhine. Dissertation. Heidelberg 2002.

Web links

English

German

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Signature campaign against the Kühkopf taboo zone ( Memento from April 7, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) In: Internet edition Darmstädter Echo . November 12, 2010.
  2. ^ Georg Büchner: Leonce and Lena. Second act, fourth scene.
  3. ↑ Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: Poetry and Truth. Eleventh book.
  4. ^ The World Health Report 1999: Making a difference. WHO, 1999, ISBN 92-4-156194-7 , pp. 53f.
  5. ↑ Manual on Environmental Management for Mosquito Control with special emphasis on malaria vectors. WHO, Geneva 1982, ISBN 92-4-170066-1 .
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  13. ^ CR Connelly, DB Carlson (ed.): Florida Mosquito Control: The state of the mission as defined by mosquito controllers, regulators, and environmental managers. (Florida Coordinating Council on Mosquito Control) University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory, Vero Beach (FL) 2009, p. 20 ( full text as PDF file; 1.3 MB ( Memento from 19. January 2012 in the Internet Archive )).
  14. ^ CR Connelly, DB Carlson (ed.): Florida Mosquito Control: The state of the mission as defined by mosquito controllers, regulators, and environmental managers. Vero Beach (FL) 2009.
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  21. ↑ EU patent
  22. ^ MeSH Descriptor Data
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  35. ↑ WHO Onchocerciasis Control Program in West Africa (OCP)
  36. ↑ LA Lacey, RW Merrit: The Safety of Bacterial Microbial Agents used for Black Fly and Mosquito Control Lacey. In: H. Hokkanen, A. Hajek (Ed.): Assessment of Environmental Safety of Biological Insecticides. Dordrecht, Netherlands 2003, p. 2.
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  40. ↑ LA Lacey, RW Merrit: The Safety of Bacterial Microbial Agents used for Black Fly and Mosquito Control Lacey. In: H. Hokkanen and A. Hajek (Eds.): Assessment of Environmental Safety of Biological Insecticides. Dordrecht, Netherlands 2003.
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