Autonomous driving
Under autonomous driving (sometimes automatic driving , automated driving or pilotiertes driving period) is the movement of vehicles , mobile robots and driverless transport systems to understand the largely autonomous behavior. From the origin of the word here is automobile always autonomous: The term " automobile " says himself that a vehicle, without pushing or of animals to be taken, such as moves by itself. Since microprocessor systems , sensors and actuators have been working together in vehicles , the concept of autonomy has been more precisely defined: the vehicle does not make the driver autonomous, but drives independently.
Basic concepts
Autonomous driving is commonly associated with vehicles that behave similarly to aircraft in autopilot mode , that is, they perform steering, blinking, acceleration and braking maneuvers along and across the lane without human intervention. As early as the second half of the fifties of the last century, AA Kucher, at the time the chief engineer at the American Ford works, postulated the demand for the development of a species as a means to counter the dwindling crude oil reserves, to relieve the traffic arteries and above all to reduce the increasing number of accidents electronic freeway for electrically powered cars: “In the 'automobiles' of tomorrow, there will no longer be any dependency on human responsiveness. The vehicles will be guided by a foolproof electronic control system. ”A pioneer in this area was Ernst Dickmanns , who began in the early 1980s with experiments on motorway sections that were not yet open to traffic. His “test vehicle for autonomous mobility and computer vision” VaMoRs (English VaMP) drove long, busy stretches from 1986 onwards, partly autonomously, but still with strong interventions by the driver. Audi presented the first near-series autonomous vehicles in January 2015 at the CES in Las Vegas under the heading of “piloted driving”. They drove several hundred kilometers of freeway through the Nevada desert without any intervention from the person behind the wheel.
The first application of driverless autonomous driving, which has been tried and tested since around 2010 and is about to go into series production in 2015, is fully autonomous parking. This process is based on the valet parking and autonomous valet called. The driver no longer sits in the vehicle himself, but activates the automatic parking system from outside. Driverless driving got a strong boost in 2004 from the DARPA competition in the USA, where German automobile manufacturers also won prizes.
The example of another type of vehicle that moved without occupants, especially without a driver, was the Soviet Martian robot Prop-M from 1971 (see Mars (space probe) ) (which never landed on Mars ). The “mobile robot” we are talking about here means a mobile machine whose task is to relieve people of mechanical work and which can act and move independently in its environment. Mobile robots are often referred to as autonomous when the software / electronics / hardware that controls them is "on board". The robot is then autonomous as long as its energy supply allows it. Giving the robot instructions on how or what task to do at this or that point in time does not affect its autonomy. A robot is only considered fully autonomous when it is self-sufficient in terms of its energy supply.
Vehicles that are intended for transportation and that do not require a driver are widely used in the industry. With the help of sensors and software for localization, navigation and path planning, these mobile transport robots find their way independently in a clearly defined area.
Some universities organize competitions with small model vehicles that autonomously drive along predetermined routes with obstacles.
Visions
Autonomous locomotion is an ancient vision of humanity. In 1880 Wiktor Wasnezow painted a carpet that was guided by a person but essentially flew autonomously .
According to a study by management consultancy Oliver Wyman, partially and fully automated vehicles could account for between 20 and 35 percent of global vehicle production in 2035. In a study commissioned by the Federal Ministry of Economics in November 2015, the Fraunhofer Institute IAO predicted that autonomous driving would “achieve technical maturity before 2025” and that “added value in Germany would amount to 8.8 billion euros”.
In December 2016, the German Academy of Science and Engineering (acatech) presented the Federal Ministry of Transport with a study in which acatech does not anticipate autonomous vehicles before 2030. At the same time, since October 2016, all Tesla vehicles have been delivered with hardware that will allow the vehicles to run fully autonomously in the future. H. drive according to SAE level 5 . Tesla's forecast that autonomous driving will already be possible with Tesla vehicles in 2017 did not come true. In 2019, the Tesla website said that the system should enable autonomous operation “under almost all circumstances”.
Autonomy levels (level)
In Europe (including the Federal Highway Research Institute ) and the USA (e.g. SAE J3016 ), the classification of autonomous driving is carried out in six stages:
- Autonomy level 0 : self-propelled ("Driver only"), the driver drives himself (steers, accelerates, brakes, etc.)
- Autonomy level 1 : driver assistance. Certain assistance systems help to operate the vehicle, for example adaptive cruise control (ACC) .
- Autonomy level 2 : partial automation. Functions such as automatic parking , lane keeping , general longitudinal guidance, acceleration, braking are taken over by the assistance systems, e.g. B. from the traffic jam assistant .
- Autonomy level 3 : conditional automation. The driver does not have to constantly monitor the system. The vehicle independently performs functions such as activating the indicator , changing lanes and keeping in lane. The driver can do other things, but if necessary, the system prompts him to take the lead within a warning period. The legislator is working towards allowing level 3 vehicles.
- Autonomy level 4 : high automation. The system is permanently in charge of the vehicle. If the system can no longer handle the driving tasks, the driver can be asked to take the lead.
- Autonomy level 5 : full automation. No driver required. No human intervention is required other than setting the destination and starting the system. The vehicle manages without a steering wheel and pedals.
SAE (J3016)
The SAE defines Driving Mode as a scenario with a type of driving scenario with characteristic dynamic driving task requirements (e.g. expressway mixing, high speed driving, low speed traffic jam, operation on closed campus, etc.). The dynamic driving task comprises the operational processes (steering, braking, accelerating, monitoring the vehicle and the roadway) and tactical driving task aspects (reacting to events, determining when it is necessary to change lanes, turning, use of signals, etc.), but not the strategic driving task aspect ( Determination of destinations and waypoints). The system's request is for the automated driving system to notify a human driver that he should immediately start or resume performing the dynamic driving task.
| SAE autonomy level | Surname | definition | who controls, accelerates / brakes | Monitoring of the driving environment | Reserve system for dynamic driving task | Driving mode |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Human driver controls the environment: | ||||||
| 0 | no automation | Consistent execution of all aspects of the dynamic driving task by the human driver, even if supporting warning or intervention systems are used. | human | human | human | N / A |
| 1 | Driving assistance | Driver assistance that performs driving mode-specific tasks such as steering assistance or acceleration / braking assistance thanks to the use of driving and environmental information and with the expectation that the human driver performs all remaining aspects of the dynamic driving task | Human / system | human | human | some driving modes |
| 2 | Partial automation | Driving mode-specific execution of steering and acceleration / braking processes by one or more driver assistance systems using information about the driving environment and with the expectation that the human driver carries out all remaining aspects of the dynamic driving task | system | human | human | some driving modes |
| The system controls the environment: | ||||||
| 3 | conditional automation | Driving mode-specific execution of all aspects of the dynamic driving task by an automated driving system with the expectation that the human driver will react appropriately to the system's request | system | system | human | some driving modes |
| 4th | high automation | Driving mode-specific execution of all aspects of the dynamic driving task by an automated driving system, even if the human driver does not react appropriately to the system's request | system | system | system | some driving modes |
| 5 | full automation | continuous execution of all aspects of the dynamic driving task by an automated driving system under all driving and environmental conditions that can be mastered by a human driver | system | system | system | all driving modes |
Technical development
Technically, autonomous driving has evolved from driver assistance systems. The earliest (1958) was from Chrysler and called himself Cruise Control ( Cruise Control ). It regulated the longitudinal acceleration automatically, but without knowledge of the surrounding vehicles. The fully automatic longitudinal guidance ( Adaptive Cruise Control , ACC ) takes traffic into account and represents a form of semi-autonomous driving.
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Autonomous driving is seen as a paradigm shift , but technically it is an evolutionary process. The prerequisite is the presence of sensors (radar, video, laser) and actuators (in the engine control, the steering, the brakes) in the vehicle. The autonomy itself is provided by computers in the car that merge the sensor data, form an image of the environment from it, make automatic driving decisions and pass them on to the actuators. To cope with the large amounts of data, for example when recognizing traffic signs, machine learning is often used before implementation in the vehicles . Media theorists are calling for a broader social dialogue about the effects of autonomous driving, especially in dilemma situations where the on-board computer can no longer avoid damage, but has to weigh damage - basically ethical decisions.
In legal terms, autonomous driving is opposed to the internationally adopted Vienna Convention on Road Traffic of 1968, which in Art. 8 (5) explicitly stipulates that the vehicle driver must be in constant control of the vehicle. Since 2015, the “Vienna World Agreement” has been modified to allow semi-autonomous systems. Autonomous driving is currently only possible for test purposes with a special permit. For example, Daimler has received a license for road traffic in the US state of Nevada for two of its Freightliner Inspiration Trucks with the Highway Pilot System.
In December 2011 it was announced that after several years of development , Google had been granted a US patent for the technology for operating autonomous vehicles. According to the company, the test fleet had already covered approx. 257,000 km (160,000 miles) under limited driver influence and more than 1,600 km (1000 miles) without driver involvement. In May 2012, Google received the first approval of an autonomous vehicle for testing on the Nevada state road in the United States . However, the condition was that there was someone behind the wheel who could intervene if necessary. The Google robot car is said to have been driving safer than a human driver as early as December 2013. For a long time, Google tried to find a suitable car manufacturer for its technology package Google Driverless Car, which was constantly being purchased for this purpose, on models from Toyota , Honda , Audi , Lexus and VW and favored Tesla Motors for this . Later, however, Google began to build 100 in-house electric test vehicles and to test the first prototypes of this new type of vehicle without a steering wheel, brake or accelerator pedal with physically needy and other interested people. In May 2014, Google presented its robot car for the first time to a group of journalists who could no longer determine any difference in driving behavior between a human driver and a self-driving system. However, Google stated that driving in rain and snow still poses problems. The robot system is based on independent learning and independent detection and interpretation of the environment. As a start for the mass market, Google co-founder Sergey Brin specified 2017 as the destination for the USA in May 2014. However, this point in time could not be kept.
In July 2014, a prototype from Daimler AG (Future Truck 2025) drove completely independently in Germany on the section of the motorway (BAB A14 north of Magdeburg), which was not yet opened at the time, especially in convoy traffic, but without autonomously changing lanes. On October 2, 2015, a near-series truck with semi-autonomy (exemption under Section 70 StVZO) drove on a public road for the first time, namely the A8 motorway in Baden-Württemberg .
As of 2016, there will be experimental use of autonomous minibuses in local public transport , in particular with autonomous shuttle buses of the Navya brand in Sion / Switzerland and in Lyon / France. Since October 2016, all Tesla vehicles have been delivered with hardware that will allow the vehicles to be fully autonomous in the future, i.e. H. drive to SAE Level 5 . For the time being, the system will run in a "shadow mode", i. H. without intervening in the driving operation and send the collected data back to Tesla in order to gradually improve the capabilities of the system until the system is ready for approval by means of an over-the-air upgrade. Tesla estimated that completely autonomous driving would be possible by the end of 2017. Then there should be a demonstration drive from San Francisco to New York, in which a vehicle should cover the distance without a driver. The schedule for autonomous driving could not be kept and the test drive was therefore not carried out.
As of January 2017, the automotive supplier Delphi Automotive will test an autonomously driving demonstration vehicle. The vehicle, developed together with Mobileye , is intended to cope with everyday traffic situations such as freeway entrances and exits, tunnel passages and dense inner-city traffic on an approximately 10-kilometer test route in public transport in Las Vegas.
In April 2017, Bosch and Daimler announced a cooperation. Autonomous vehicles for the urban environment are to be developed together. These should master fully automated ( SAE level 4 ) and driverless ( SAE level 5 ) driving. A smartphone app should then make it possible to order a self-driving taxi or a car-sharing car that drives to the customer independently. By using autonomous vehicles, the cooperation partners hope to improve the flow of traffic in cities, increase traffic safety and make car sharing more attractive.
In August 2017, Audi presented the fourth generation of the Audi A8 at the IAA, the first production vehicle with functions of automation level 3. These include the highly automated guidance of the vehicle on motorways at speeds below 60 km / h and in traffic jams. The entire responsibility for the vehicle is transferred to the traffic jam pilot and the driver is not obliged to check. In April 2020, Audi announced that it would no longer enable the traffic jam pilot in this vehicle generation due to the lack of ECE approval.
In July 2019, BMW announced that a data center was to be built in the eastern Chinese port city of Tianjin together with the Chinese IT company Tencent . "With it, BMW can develop solutions for autonomous driving that better suit the specific driving conditions in China," said BMW's China boss Jochen Goller.
Law
German Traffic Court Day
Autonomous driving raises difficult questions of liability law that have to be answered ethically and in terms of legal philosophy .
The topic has been discussed several times by the German Traffic Court Conference. The permanent commission of the 53rd German Traffic Court Conference assumed in January 2015 that the technology could make a significant contribution to improving the safety and ease of road traffic. A complete and permanent introduction of the system would not be possible given the current legal possibilities. In addition, it was required that the driver himself could decide how to use the system (switch-off) and be informed about the degree of automation at any time. The highly automated driving operation would then have to exempt the driver from sanctions and driver liability.
The 54th German Traffic Court Conference in January 2016 ended with a dispute about autonomous driving. The main focus of the discussion was the ethical aspect (how should the algorithm react in “dilemma situations”) and social acceptance. The dilemma situations are made more difficult by the fact that internationally different understandings of law and values collide and it may not be possible to agree on a common ethic.
Legislation in the United States
The California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV ) ruled in December 2015 that autonomous vehicles in the US state must be equipped with steering wheels and pedals. The driver of the vehicle must be a roadworthy occupant with a driver's license who can take over the wheel at any time and intervene in the journey. Google was “very disappointed” with this decision because it misunderstood the technical possibilities of vehicles and hindered the market for self-driving cars. It also limits the mobility of people who cannot drive a car.
In contrast, the state of Arizona relies on legislation that is particularly liberal compared to other states when it comes to regulating self-driving cars in order to be attractive to technology companies in the competition for locations. In the fall of 2017, Waymo in Arizona introduced the first self-driving vehicles to be completely free of human supervision. The driver's seat can remain unoccupied. However, these vehicles have so far only been used in a sparsely populated suburb of Phoenix , which has rather low demands on the car in terms of the complexity of the traffic situation.
Legislation in Germany
In May 2015, the Federal Council called on the Federal Government to swiftly allow further stretches for autonomous driving tests in addition to a section of the southern A9 motorway .
The Federal Ministry of Transport has been working on a draft law on automated driving since summer 2016 . A key point of the draft related to the driving duties of the vehicle driver. He should be allowed to turn away while driving, as long as he remains “ready” at all times. He would have to take over the steering wheel again immediately after being prompted by the automatic drive. Another key point was the new regulation of the liability risk. It was unclear whether the vehicle driver would act negligently if he relied entirely on the technology installed in the car. Critics described the bill as political activism. So far there is a lack of substance and many relevant aspects, e.g. B. with regard to driving license training, but also data protection has not been regulated. An ethics committee based in the ministry, in which representatives of the automotive industry and the ADAC as well as consumer advocates should participate, chaired by the former Federal Constitutional Judge Udo Di Fabio , has developed guidelines for the programming of automated driving systems and summarized this in a report.
On January 25, 2017, the federal government passed a draft law that would allow autonomous driving on the country's roads under certain conditions. The draft came about at the urging of Daimler AG . The law amending the Road Traffic Act was passed in the Bundestag on March 30, 2017. According to this, the driver of an appropriately equipped vehicle is allowed to turn away from the traffic situation and the vehicle control while driving "using highly or fully automated driving functions"; He has to remain so alert that he can do his duty ... at any time. ”There will be a black box in the vehicle that will record all relevant data, save it for six months and then delete it, unless the vehicle is involved in a traffic accident been involved; in this case the data for determining the course of events were retained. Critics pointed out that not only did the new law leave many questions unanswered, it also failed to solve the core problems. For the consumer there is still too much legal uncertainty. The data retention of the vehicle data is also not in the interests of the consumer and should not be accepted.
Ethical issues
Since there can also be situations with autonomous / self-driving road vehicles in which accidents with personal injury are unavoidable, it must be decided in advance which maxims their behavior should follow in such situations. A human driver would react instinctively in a sudden situation, for example when a child walks onto the street, without even being aware of all relevant factors (such as the people on the sidewalk). He will not be able to consider what action is morally justifiable. However, this is not the case with autonomous / self-driving cars. The decision on how the vehicle should behave in which situation is made long before a possible accident. This fact has considerable consequences for the assessment of an accident involving an autonomous car. For example, the following questions arise:
- Can a machine assess the situation correctly at all, for example differentiate between a doll's pram and a real pram?
- Would an accounting of human life (utilitarian) represent an unreasonable instrumentalization of the "sacrificed"?
- Would the alternative of sacrificing the autonomous vehicle itself and its occupants reduce the acceptance of the technology?
- If offsetting would make sense, how should this be organized, i.e. which criteria play a role (e.g. number of people or age)?
The latter question in particular is the subject of current research. The stronger the practical relevance of a possible programming (in moral questions) of a machine, the more problems arise.
A research team from the Max Planck Institute for Human Development , the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the University of Exeter asked almost 5,000 people who was to blame for an accident if both humans and humans while driving a semi-autonomous vehicle and intelligent technology made mistakes. Result: In scenarios in which man and machine shared control of the vehicle and both made a mistake, respondents were more likely to blame the accident on the person - regardless of whether he was the first or second driver. Why people tend to blame other people and not autonomous vehicles is an open question, according to the researchers. In general, people tended to ascribe the causes of events to other people rather than chance or the environment. A vehicle controlled by artificial intelligence is in the minds of people - so far - not an independent actor who can act and freely decide. This is why people tended to absolve machines of guilt.
safety
| Manufacturer | Total distance in km | Interventions | Distance km per intervention |
| Waymo | 567,366 | 63 | 9006 |
| GM Cruise | 211,912 | 105 | 2018 |
| Nissan | 8,058 | 24 | 335 |
| Zoox | 3,611 | 14th | 257 |
| Drive_ai | 9,680 | 92 | 105 |
| Baidu | 3.137 | 43 | 73 |
| Telenav | 2,544 | 52 | 49 |
| Aptiv | 2,915 | 81 | 36 |
| Nvidia | 813 | 109 | 7.5 |
| Valeo | 888 | 212 | 4.2 |
| Bosch | 3,285 | 1,196 | 2.7 |
| Mercedes Benz | 1,751 | 843 | 2.1 |
The US is a pioneer in testing autonomous vehicles. In 2015, 48 such cars were registered for public transport in California . The California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV), the state vehicle registration office, grants driving permits and oversees testing of autonomous vehicles. As part of the regulation, companies that have been granted permits to operate autonomous vehicles must submit annual reports on breakdowns and accidents, which are then published by the DMV.
Google's fully autonomous cars have been involved in several accidents, mostly within towns. In one of the known cases, the autonomous algorithm caused the accident.
On May 7, 2016, a Tesla Model S vehicle had a fatal accident . How far the autonomy of this vehicle actually went has since been investigated. The Tesla driver died in a collision with an oncoming semi-trailer truck turning left without the “autopilot” or the driver having initiated braking. The driver assistance system is said to have mistaken the semi-trailer for a sign hanging up high. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration formally opened an investigation.
A large number of cases in which the driver of Tesla cars can take over the so-called autopilot while the driver goes to sleep is currently critical . This behavior does not meet the specifications of the vehicle or the guidelines of the manufacturer.
See also
- Automobile (Section: Autonomous Driving)
Others
The term self-propelled (self-driving special vehicle) refers to a transport platform on wheels that does not necessarily have to be pulled like a truck trailer, but is also equipped with a drive motor itself. Such a vehicle can be rigidly coupled to others of the same system or only coupled to another via cargo. These self-propelled vehicles are typically controlled by remote control by an operator walking next to them. Various maneuvers such as turning while standing or moving to the side can be called up using automated processes.
Mobile cranes sometimes have assistance systems that stop picking up loads that are too heavy, which could cause the crane arm to buckle or tilt the crane, or to unload a load that has already been lifted too far.
The route recording for a special transport with large dimensions and / or great weight was previously measured at obstacles, bottlenecks and curves and the transport was driven manually by experienced people under close observation with steering feeling. Today it is possible to record routes geometrically precisely in the course of driving ahead using a 3D laser scan and to simulate a drive through with the known geometry of the load.
Autonomous driving is also being developed for railways . Since 1985/1986, the Dorfbahn Serfaus in Tyrol has been commuting in a tunnel as a rope-drawn air-cushion railway between four stations, completely autonomously, especially with skiers. A section of the Pinkatalbahn , which is closed for passenger traffic, is intended to be used for the development of autonomous rail vehicles. Different subway lines run autonomously, typical are partition walls along the platform with doors that open in front of each car door. In Vienna , at least one line is operated largely autonomously, but a person sits in the driver's cab to monitor the platform.
Literature / sources
- Markus Maurer; J. Christian Gerdes; Barbara Lenz; Hermann Winner (Ed.): Autonomes Fahrt , Springer Open 2015. (Note from the publisher “The book is published with open acces at SpringerLink.com”); ISBN 978-3-662-45853-2
- Gereon Meyer, Sven Beiker (Eds.): Road Vehicle Automation , Springer International Publishing 2014, ISBN 978-3-319-05990-7 , and subsequent volumes: Road Vehicle Automation 2 (2015), Road Vehicle Automation 3 (2016), Road Vehicle Automation 4 (2017), Road Vehicle Automation 5 (2018).
- Marco Becker and Kamal Vaid: The car is itself - automated and autonomous driving. The future of mobility , Diplomica Verlag, Hamburg 2018, ISBN 978-3-96146-584-2
Web links
- Marc Weber: Where to? A history of autonomous vehicles. In: computerhistory.org . May 8, 2014 (English).
Individual evidence
- ↑ Ancient Greek αὐτονομία, autonomía , "autonomy, independence", from αὐτός, autós , "self" and νόμος, nómos , "law"
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- ↑ The Federal Highway Research Institute (BASt) has divided the working group “Legal Consequences of Increasing Vehicle Automation” into 5 levels, whereby the level of autonomy 5 (driverless driving) is not included. See legal consequences of increasing vehicle automation. In: bast.de. 2012, accessed September 16, 2019 .
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- ↑ First autonomous truck trip: Mercedes-Benz Future Truck 2025. Hands off the steering wheel. (No longer available online.) In: gb2014.daimler.com/. Archived from the original on July 3, 2016 ; Retrieved July 3, 2016 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Michael Gerster: Autonomous driving - Daimler presents self-driving trucks. In: stuttgarter-nachrichten.de. July 3, 2014, accessed April 28, 2020 .
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- ↑ Les navettes autonomes de Navya débarquent à Lyon. www.itespresso.fr, September 3, 2016, accessed on January 20, 2014 (French).
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- ↑ Autopilot: Tesla equips all new cars with fully autonomous driving technology . gruenderszene.de. Retrieved October 26, 2016.
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- ↑ Daniel Sokolov: Tesla: announced autonomous drive has failed. In: heise.de . January 2018, accessed November 15, 2019 .
- ↑ CES 2017: Delphi and Mobileye present highly automated demo vehicle. In: automotive-technology.de. December 28, 2016, accessed January 29, 2019 .
- ↑ Joern Ebberg: Bosch and Daimler are cooperating on fully automated and driverless driving. In: bosch-presse.de. Robert Bosch GmbH, April 4, 2017, accessed November 20, 2019 .
- ↑ Mobility of the future: Bosch and Daimler are cooperating on fully automated and driverless driving. In: media.daimler.com. Daimler AG, April 4, 2017, accessed on December 3, 2019 .
- ↑ Autonomous driving - Audi does without the autopilot on the A8. April 29, 2020, accessed August 28, 2020 .
- ↑ BMW builds data center for autonomous driving in China with Tencent. In: businessinsider.de. July 19, 2019, accessed December 7, 2019 .
- ↑ Autonomous driving: BMW finds partners in China. In: dw.com. July 19, 2019, accessed December 15, 2019 .
- ^ German Traffic Court Day : Recommendations. Working group II. Automated driving . January 28th to 30th, 2015 in Goslar. (PDF; 105 KB) Retrieved March 14, 2015.
- ↑ Alec Pein: "Automated Death" - To conclude, a regional debate today. Retrieved June 9, 2016
- ↑ Which decisions do we want to leave to machines? (No longer available online.) In: dvr.de. June 21, 2016, archived from the original on September 18, 2018 ; accessed on March 15, 2020 .
- ↑ Andreas Wilkens: California: New rules for autonomous cars - and Google is "very disappointed". In: heise online. December 17, 2015, accessed December 17, 2015 .
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- ↑ Alexander Hevelke, Julian Nida-Rümelin: Self-driving cars and trolley problems: To add up human lives in the event of inevitable accidents De Gruyter, 2015, ISSN 1613-1142 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
- ↑ Using Virtual Reality to Assess Ethical Decisions in Road Traffic Scenarios: Applicability of Value-of-Life-Based Models and Influences of Time Pressure . In: Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience . August. doi : 10.3389 / fnbeh.2017.00122 .
- ↑ Forced-choice decision-making in modified trolley dilemma situations: a virtual reality and eye tracking study . In: Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience . August. doi : 10.3389 / fnbeh.2014.00426 .
- ^ Jean-François Bonnefon, Azim Shariff, Iyad Rahwan: The social dilemma of autonomous vehicles. In: arXiv . October 12, 2015, accessed on August 18, 2020 .
- ↑ Artur Krutsch: Semi- autonomous driving: Shared control, shared responsibility? Press release from the Max Planck Institute for Human Development. In: idw-online.de . November 1, 2019, accessed April 14, 2020.
- ↑ Awad, E., Levine, S., Kleiman-Weiner, M., Dsouza, S., Tenenbaum, JB, Shariff, A., ... Rahwan, I. (2019). Drivers are blamed more than their automated cars when both make mistakes. Nature Human Behavior. (Original publication)
- ↑ David Fickling: Don't Break Things - Self-Driving Cars Need to Slow Down After Uber Crash. In: bloomberg.com. March 20, 2018, accessed February 19, 2019 .
- ^ Testing of Autonomous Vehicles with a Driver. In: dmv.ca.gov. Retrieved November 3, 2019 .
- ↑ Chris Urmson: The view from the front seat of the Google self-driving car. In: Medium. May 11, 2015, accessed on May 17, 2015 (English, quoted from: Florian Rötzer: Google: “The autonomous vehicle was not the cause of any accident”. In: Telepolis, May 12, 2015).
- ↑ Jürgen Kuri (with material from dpa): It wasn't the computer: Eleven minor accidents with Google's self-driving cars. In: Heise online. May 12, 2015, accessed May 17, 2015 .
- ↑ Google driverless car hits bus in California. Retrieved March 1, 2017 .
- ↑ Tesla classified the vehicle as autonomy level (level) 2 , Mark Fields assumes an autonomy level (level) 3 vehicle . See Volvo autonomous car engineer calls Tesla's Autopilot a 'wannabe'
- ↑ teslamotors.com
- ↑ sueddeutsche.de Tesla: Autopilot held truck trailer for high sign (accessed on July 8, 2016)
- ↑ nytimes.com Self-Driving Tesla Was Involved in Fatal Crash, US Says (accessed July 8, 2016)
- ↑ Lora Kolodny, Michael Wayland: Watch Tesla drivers apparently asleep at the wheel, renewing Autopilot safety questions. September 9, 2019, accessed September 10, 2019 .
