Electricity industry in Austria
The Austrian electricity industry represents the electricity industry active in Austria . It has an annual production of around 69 terawatt hours and supplies industrial customers and businesses with electrical energy in addition to private end consumers . It has an estimated turnover of around 6.4 billion euros with around 21,000 employees. The advocacy is the Austrian electricity industry Austria Energy (formerly Association of Austrian Electricity Companies).
history
In the early 1880s, decentralized electricity generation began in factories and public buildings. In 1886 the age of the public power supply was heralded in the community of Scheibbs in Lower Austria. By the First World War, hundreds of municipal and private electrical works were built. Between 1920 and 1924, seven large electricity companies were founded with strong participation from federal states, provincial capitals, banks and private investors in Lower Austria, Upper Austria, Salzburg, Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Styria and Carinthia. The Viennese municipal electricity works were founded in 1899, and Burgenland has only had its own regional company since 1958.
By 1938, some of the private and municipal electricity supply companies (EVU) were incorporated into national companies. With the annexation to the German Reich, the German Energy Industry Act was also introduced in Austria (it was partly in force until 2009) and Alpenelektrowerke AG (AEW) was founded in March 1938 . From this point on, many large hydropower projects were started. Forced laborers, concentration camp prisoners, foreign workers and prisoners of war were also used.
Numerous systems were damaged in the course of the Second World War . After 1945, some power plants were dismantled and decommissioned. At the same time, the electricity needs of industry and households had increased significantly. The situation of the energy supply in the first post-war years was therefore very difficult, and there were numerous network breakdowns, which repeatedly resulted in production losses in the economy.
The second nationalization law of 1947 created a pioneering form of organization for the Austrian e-economy: the newly founded Verbundgesellschaft took over the Austrian transmission network and the administration of the federal majority of special power plant companies. Verbundgesellschaft and special companies took over the plants of the Alpen-Elektrowerke and individual power plants and lines from national companies. The regional companies and the five large municipal utilities in Graz , Klagenfurt , Linz , Salzburg and Innsbruck were given the task of operating the distribution networks and supplying end customers in the respective federal state . In addition, most of the private and municipal EVUs, with the exception of self-supply systems (industry, ÖBB ) and small producers, were nationalized. The nationalization had to take place in each case with a decision from the governor . Individual national companies have refrained from taking over EVUs in their federal state for good energy-related reasons.
Between 1948 and 1954, three billion schillings from the funds of the Marshall Plan flowed into the reconstruction of the e-economy. Then as now, electricity played a key role in economic development. The electricity promotion laws, which provided tax benefits for investments in power plants and line work, made a significant economic contribution to the development of the power supply system. The Glockner-Kaprun storage power plant , which opened in 1955, is a symbol of reconstruction and individual upswing . Other major projects of this time were the Ybbs-Persenbeug power plant , the Ottenstein pumped storage power plant and the Lünerseewerk , which was then the most powerful pumped storage power plant in the world. Because of the low oil and gas prices, the e-economy also relied on thermal power plants, such as the Zeltweg power plant that went into operation in 1962 . After all, the sustained economic upturn caused electricity consumption to rise faster and faster: While energy consumption increased by 250% between 1937 and 1959, domestic electricity production increased sevenfold in the same period. As a result, Austria became an electricity export country in the 1960s. The oil crises of the 1970s were the trigger for the increased expansion of nuclear energy in Europe . In France and Great Britain in particular, the expansion of nuclear power plants had already begun at this time . In Austria, the Electricity Promotion Act of 1969 even provided for the promotion of investments in nuclear power plants. The Zwentendorf nuclear power plant, the first domestic project, was completed, but the population decided against commissioning in the 1978 referendum . The Dürnrohr and Voitsberg III coal-fired power plants were built to replace them , and hydropower was also stepped up again.
With the growing importance of environmental protection, the discussion about alternative energy sources became increasingly intense in the early 1980s. Signs of this new, public awareness were in particular the occupation of the Hainburger Au and the prevention of the Danube power station Hainburg in 1984. When planning and implementing industrial projects, ecological aspects were also taken into account in the electricity industry. The use of sun, wind and biomass has increasingly become the focus of interest since the late 1990s. Increasing research and investments in wind energy , photovoltaic and biomass systems as well as in the use of geothermal energy were the result.
With the 1987 amendment to the 2nd Nationalization Act, partial privatizations of up to 49% of the share capital were possible. The then Österreichische Elektrizitätswirtschafts-AG (today Verbund AG ), Vorarlberger Kraftwerke AG (VKW) and Energieversorgung Niederösterreich (EVN) went public between 1988 and 1990, shares in other nationalized companies were sold directly. Another important milestone for the electricity industry was the liberalization of the electricity market. The basis for this was an EU directive from 1996, according to which national monopolies should fall and electricity should become a free commodity. The final liberalization of the entire Austrian electricity market took place - earlier than in other European countries - on October 1, 2001.
The 1996 Internal Electricity Market Directive obliged the EU member states, and thus Austria, to initially open up the respective national electricity market in several stages, but not yet completely. According to this concept, network access was made possible for industrial companies or municipalities from a certain size. For the time being, households and other small customers were denied the right to freely choose their suppliers.
The provisions of the Internal Electricity Market Directive 1996 were transposed into national law in Austria in 1998 with the Electricity Management and Organization Act (ElWOG). The incomplete market opening of the first liberalization package triggered a political discussion across Europe as to whether not all customers, including every household, should be granted free network access. This ultimately led to the adoption of the Internal Electricity Market Directive 2003 (second liberalization package) with the following priorities:
- full market opening (Europe-wide by July 1, 2007)
- Establishment of independent regulatory authorities
- (Corporate) legal, organizational and accounting unbundling of the networks of competitive activities (generation, sales) of the vertically integrated electricity companies (unbundling)
- Strengthening consumer rights
In Austria, most of the European requirements were anticipated at a very early stage with the Energy Liberalization Act 2000. In particular, full market opening based on the so-called Scandinavian balance group model was planned for October 1, 2001. The unbundling regulations were implemented in another ElWOG amendment in 2004. With the Energy Liberalization Act, the legal basis for the establishment of the regulatory authority Energie-Control Austria (E-Control) was created.
Another important amendment to the ElWOG took place in 2006 with the Energy Security of Supply Act, which created regulations to increase security of supply.
The EU Commission did not consider the results of the energy market opening based on the second liberalization package to be sufficient and in 2007 proposed a number of measures that were adopted in September 2009 after lengthy negotiations between the Commission, the Council and the EU Parliament of the Third Internal Market Package. The third package is characterized by the following focal points:
- Ownership unbundling or equivalent unbundling measures of the transmission system operators
- Strengthening and safeguarding consumer rights
- Strengthening the independence and powers of regulators
- Guaranteeing free market access for suppliers and producers and developing new generation capacities
- Effective unbundling of the distribution system operators
- Further rules on the organization of the regulatory authorities
With the ElWOG 2010, these EU requirements were fully implemented, which came into force in March 2011. The E-Control Act was passed for the reorganization of the regulatory authority, which is necessary due to EU requirements.
Electricity in Austria / electricity mix
Electricity generation in Austria amounted to 69.0 billion kWh in 2009. 69.7% of this comes from renewable energy sources.
Number of reportable power plants (including voluntary reports):
- 673 run-of- river power plants
- 107 storage power plants
- 1,809 unallocated hydropower plants
- 614 thermal power plants
Power generation
Hydropower
Hydropower (also: hydroenergy ) is an efficient and sustainable way of generating electricity. At 62.3%, hydropower represents by far the highest share of Austrian electricity generation.
Hydropower plants are divided into run-of-river power plants and (pump) storage power plants. Run-of-river power plants generate electricity around the clock - they are responsible for supplying the base load with electricity. Small hydropower plants are smaller power plants with an output of less than 10 MW. They too work emission-free and with minimal environmental impact. In order to enable fish to migrate, new and existing hydropower plants are gradually being equipped with fish ladders.
Storage power plants today offer the only economical way to indirectly store large amounts of electrical energy. They can be used flexibly and are particularly helpful in situations where electricity has to be fed into the grid quickly, e.g. B. If there is an increased demand for electricity during grid peaks, when there is no wind and the wind turbines can no longer generate electricity. If there is an excess of electricity, for example if the run-of-river and wind power plants generate more electricity than is consumed at night, pumped storage power plants are used. With this type of power plant, water is pumped back from storage basins into the reservoir at a higher level . If necessary, the dammed water is then used again and generates electricity again by driving turbines . In addition to their primary task - to generate electricity - many storage power plants and their reservoirs also serve as recreational areas and tourist attractions.
Small hydropower plants work on the same principle as large hydropower plants. They differ from the large power plants primarily in terms of their output class (output up to 10 MW ). Small hydropower plants have a share of 7.2% in domestic generation and thus contribute significantly to the total hydropower share of 62.3%.
Among the curious hydropower plants in Austria are the water pipeline power plants Gaming I and II which are used to reduce pressure in the Second Vienna High Spring Water Pipeline and generate electrical energy from Viennese drinking water.
Thermal power
Thermal power plants (thermal power plants, caloric power plants) use the combustion energy of natural gas , coal , oil or biomass (primary forms of energy) to generate electricity. They deliver both base load current and, to a limited extent, peak current .
Most of the thermal power plants in Austria are equipped with combined heat and power in order to make the best possible use of the primary energy used. The simultaneous delivery of electricity and heat results in a higher degree of utilization than with conventional thermal power plants. While the generated electricity is fed into the grid, the heat generated by combustion processes can either be fed into regional district heating networks, used as process heat for industrial use, or released into bodies of water as waste heat. Both district heating and process heat have the disadvantage that, due to transport losses, they can only be used economically within a few 10 km of the thermal power plant.
The Carnot process on which the thermal power plants are based sets physical limits to their electrical efficiency in the range of 35% to 45%, so that considerable losses, mainly as heat, are unavoidable during thermal energy conversion. Thermal power plants with combined heat and power generation achieve a total efficiency of 86%, provided that the district heating and process heat in the vicinity of the power plant can also be used economically. With the use of flue gas cleaning and other retention systems, the exhaust gases are cleaned in thermal systems before they exit.
The share of thermal power plants in energy generation in Austria was 33.9% in 2009. You thus make a significant contribution to electricity generation in Austria.
Additive renewable energies in power generation
Wind power, biomass, photovoltaic and geothermal systems are subsumed under additive renewable energy sources . They are specially promoted as green electricity in Austria - as in other European countries - because electricity is still produced in these systems in some cases much more expensive than it can be sold on the wholesale market. Due to the European and global requirements for increasing renewable energies and avoiding greenhouse gases , the expected long-term end of fossil fuels , the increasing demand for electricity and the (further) development of technologies - and the associated approach to generation costs that are customary in the market - is becoming important of additive renewable energy sources will increase in the future.
Wind turbines use the kinetic energy of the wind, which sets the rotor in motion. A generator converts this rotational energy into electrical energy. Wind turbines need enough wind to generate electricity. Since wind power plants can only generate electricity when the wind is blowing, so-called shadow power plants , for example in the form of pumped storage power plants or thermal power plants, have to be kept available and operated at a non-optimal efficiency level for fast response times in order to ensure the same quantity and quality of power supply at all times to ensure. The best conditions for wind turbines can be found in Austria in the northeast of the country. in particular Lower Austria and Burgenland .
Biomass plants generate electricity (and heat) by burning renewable, renewable raw materials such as B. wood or straw. Biogenic fuels are referred to as CO 2 -neutral because when they burn they only release the CO 2 absorbed during growth .
The generation of electrical energy in photovoltaics is done by converting solar energy using solar cells .
Geothermal systems use the heat stored in the accessible part of the earth's crust (e.g. hot water). This can either be used directly for heating or cooling, or converted into electricity with the help of combined heat and power.
The share of wind power, photovoltaics and geothermal energy in the total generation or supply is 2.9% (as of 2009).
power grid
In order for the electrical energy to reach the consumers from the power plants, there must be overhead lines , underground cables , substations , switching and transformer stations , which together form the power grid . The electricity network consists of transmission networks and distribution networks .
The Austrian power grid is over 200,000 km long. The Austrian electricity industry has invested an average of around 400 million euros annually in the network infrastructure in recent years. Further investments worth billions in the expansion of the network infrastructure are planned for the next ten years.
The transmission networks operated with high voltage of 110 kV and above are used to transport electricity across the region. There are two transmission system operators in Austria:
- Austrian Power Grid AG (100% subsidiary of Verbund AG , control area APG, control area manager for Austria)
- Vorarlberger Transmission Network GmbH (VÜN) (Vorarlberg control area, subordinate to the Austrian APG control area)
The main obligations of the transmission system operator are safe and reliable network operation, cooperation with other connected networks and the coordinated expansion of the network system. The requirements of environmental protection must be taken into account. The transmission system operators are subject to high cooperation requirements across Europe.
Another essential task of the transmission system operator is that a control area is established for each of the three transmission system areas and that each transmission system operator simultaneously exercises the function of control area manager. The main tasks of the control area managers are the provision of frequency and power control (system service) in accordance with the technical rules as well as the organization and use of balancing energy.
The approximately 130 Austrian distribution networks are used to transport electricity via the medium-voltage and low-voltage distribution networks to supply end consumers or suppliers who buy the electrical energy. In contrast to the electricity supplier, consumers cannot freely choose their network operator, but are obliged to connect to the distribution network in whose area the relevant consumption system is located. However, this network monopoly is also offset by the obligation of the distribution network operators to connect every customer facility located in their area to the network. Customers are not only consumers, but also producers who want to feed into the grid.
The fees that are paid by consumers for the transport of electrical energy via the network are the network tariffs (in Austria: system usage tariffs). For certain types of network tariffs, producers also have to pay network tariffs. The network tariffs used to finance the construction, operation and maintenance of the electricity networks are not subject to the forces of the free market, but are determined in Austria by the regulatory authority E-Control Commission. In the composition of the electricity price for household customers, the network share makes up around a third.
The network operators are very important for the functioning of the electricity market system, which has been open in Austria since 2001, as they must guarantee the right to free network access. This is understood to mean the right of a consumer to obtain electrical energy from a supplier of his choice via the network at general conditions approved by the regulatory authority and network tariffs set by the regulatory authority. This also means that producers and suppliers can supply customers under these conditions.
Since the network operators are usually connected with the generation and sale of electricity in the company organization, strict unbundling rules are provided on the basis of European legal provisions to separate network activities from other activities. The third EU liberalization package passed in 2009 significantly tightened these requirements, especially for the transmission system operators. The ownership unbundling of the transmission system operators from the other parts of the integrated electricity company (generation, electricity trading / distribution) is now planned or equivalent measures must be taken. The transmission networks can remain in the previous ownership or company, but in these cases the network owner or network operator must comply with extremely strict separation measures.
The EU liberalization package also provides for a European network of transmission system operators (ENTSO) to be founded. The main task of ENTSO is the development of European network codes and a 10-year Europe-wide network development plan. To support the cooperation of the national regulatory authorities, an EU body with Community-wide legal personality, an agency for the cooperation of the regulatory authorities, will be established.
Current network infrastructure projects at the high voltage level are the closure of the 380 kV high voltage ring through the construction of two north-south lines from Burgenland to Styria (opened in September 2009) and from Upper Austria to Salzburg . Construction of the 380 kV ring began in the mid-1970s, but it has not yet been closed. However, this project is particularly important for the seamless power supply in southern Austria: Due to the lack of generation capacities in this region, these have to be supplied by power plants in the north. There are already north-south connections in the Austrian 220 kV line network via the Ternitz , Ernsthofen and Tauern substations . However, these have not been built for the transport and transit of higher capacities and are already at the limit of their performance due to the use of phase shifting transformers .
The expansion of the 380 kV Salzburg line from Upper Austria to Salzburg began at the beginning of August 2009 and is expected to be completed by 2018.
Net electricity import
In Austria, 1.2% more electricity was used in 2009 than was generated this year (in 2009 electricity generation in Austria amounted to 69.0 billion kWh - with domestic electricity consumption including pumped storage of 69.8 billion kWh). Since 2001 Austria has been importing a small part of the electricity it consumes from abroad. The regulatory authority E-Control regularly publishes electricity labeling reports with statistical data. In 2009 around six percent of the electricity fed into the public grid in Austria came from foreign nuclear power plants.
The Energy Exchange Austria is the Austrian power exchange and focal point for the trade of CO 2 - emission allowances under the EU emissions trading scheme . As a result of Germany's nuclear phase-out (summer 2011), the strong expansion of renewable energies in Germany (“ Energiewende ”) and in other neighboring countries of Austria, as well as other factors (e.g. high oil prices ), the markets have changed significantly. In 2011, electricity imports from abroad rose sharply.
Energy efficiency
The Austrian e-industry supports the EU's energy efficiency goals . In March 2006 was EC Directive (RL) Energy efficiency and energy services of the European Commission decided. The National Action Plan adopted by Austria based on this contains numerous measures and projects, in particular for the areas of transport, space heating and thermal renovation. The declared goal of all member states: Each member state defines a general national energy saving benchmark of 9% for the ninth year of application of the directive, which is to be achieved on the basis of energy services and other energy efficiency measures. To this end, cost-effective, practicable and appropriate measures should be applied. In Austria, the guideline is implemented by means of a 15a agreement between the federal government and the federal states as well as voluntary agreements with interest groups from the electricity, gas and mineral oil sectors. In addition to Directive (EC) 2006/32 / EC , a European action plan for energy efficiency was published in October 2006. This action plan specifies measures and instruments for increasing energy efficiency from the said directive. In addition to Directive 2006/32 / EC, this action plan not only looks at final energy consumption, but also includes aspects of primary energy consumption with energy conversion.
Efficient generation
An important factor for efficient and resource-saving energy generation is the efficiency of power plants: This indicates what proportion of the energy content of the raw material (primary energy) can actually be converted into electricity and / or heat (secondary energy) and is limited by physical boundary conditions. As a result, this factor cannot be improved even with the use of newer technologies. The upper electrical efficiency of thermal power plants as a limit value is approx. 40% and results from the first law of thermodynamics .
In the case of thermal power plants, the overall efficiency can be improved to values of up to 86% through combined heat and power (CHP). However, CHP does not increase the electrical efficiency, but expresses that the waste heat that otherwise occurs as heat loss can be economically used as district heating or process heat in the immediate vicinity of the power plant.
In the area of hydropower plants, new turbine technologies are primarily used to increase efficiency. The significantly higher electrical efficiency of these power plants is around 80% to 90%.
Efficiency in energy consumption
Saving electricity does not necessarily mean having to forego comfort or quality of life. Since efficient energy saving is associated with a reduction in energy consumption and thus loss of income on the part of the energy supply companies, relevant "energy saving programs" by energy supply companies should be viewed critically due to the conflict of interests with regard to actual efficiency.
Electricity policy (legal basis)
Electricity law in the narrower sense is intended to guarantee a sufficient, safe and inexpensive electricity supply in the interests of the entire Austrian economy . Typical subjects of electricity law were and are regulations on concessions , the general connection and - up to the liberalization of the electricity market - supply obligation, licensing obligations for the construction of electricity generation plants, mandatory contracting on the basis of officially approved general conditions and general tariffs or, since liberalization, on based on system usage tariffs. In addition, Austrian electricity law is a typical “ cross-sectional matter ”. This means that in addition to the energy law regulations of the electricity sector, a number of other legal matters are of considerable relevance (e.g. water law, forest law, etc.). The Electricity Industry Act of 1975, which was slightly amended in 1979, formed the legal core of the electricity industry law in Austria until it was completely revised by the Electricity Industry and Organization Act (EIWOG) in 1998.
The 2nd Nationalization Act has formed the organizational basis of the e-economy in Austria since 1947. This law provided for the transfer of businesses and electricity generation and distribution systems to public ownership. The owned electricity companies were entrusted with the performance of various tasks:
- Verbundgesellschaft: Supraregional and network economic tasks
- National companies and municipal companies: general supply
- Special companies: construction and operation of large power plants
The 2nd Nationalization Act was changed in 1987 by the privatization amendment, with which the property law provisions were relaxed. Today in Austria there are not only listed companies but also companies in which domestic and foreign energy companies hold shares.
Electricity market
The Austrian electricity market has been liberalized since 2001 . Since then, every electricity customer has been able to freely choose his electricity supplier. The state of Austria has an energy agency or regulatory authority called E-Control (Energie-Control Austria for the regulation of the electricity and natural gas industries).
The first step into the liberalized electricity market in Austria took place on October 1, 2001. With the 100% market opening in the electrical energy sector - which took place in Austria six years before the date stipulated by the EU - every customer now has the right to to obtain the electrical energy he needs from an electricity provider of his choice with network access . The network operators are legally obliged to grant network access to every person entitled to network access (customers and producers) under officially approved general conditions and at officially determined system usage tariffs ( transmission fee ).
The transmission system operators in particular are subject to high cooperation requirements in order to be able to guarantee network stability throughout Europe in the European network . The third EU liberalization package adopted in 2009 made these requirements even more stringent. One of the main contents of this package concerns the independence of the transmission system operators from generation and trading. In the EU's view, this independence from network operators and generation or trading is an essential prerequisite for the desired EU-wide liberalized internal electricity market.
Electricity price
The electricity price is made up of three parts: network price, energy price and statutory surcharges, i.e. taxes and levies. In private households, the network price and the energy price each make up about a third, plus the above-mentioned statutory surcharges. The tax share of 28.0% (2nd half of 2010) in the total price for household customers is only exceeded in three other countries in an EU comparison.
While the energy price is determined by market economy mechanisms, the network tariffs in Austria are set by the authorities. Such a regulation is necessary because, in contrast to the energy supplier, the network provider is specified by the supply region and cannot be freely selected by the customer.
In Austria, the electricity prices for industry as well as for households are in the middle of Europe. Across Europe, however, the price of electricity has risen sharply since 2004. In contrast, the Austrian electricity prices have been characterized by high price stability in recent years.
Electricity trading
Since the electricity market was liberalized, electricity has been traded and auctioned across borders by European electricity companies. The price-forming hubs for this electricity trading are the electricity exchanges, such as the Leipzig energy exchange EEX (European Energy Exchange) and the Austrian electricity exchange EXAA (Energy Exchange Austria). Both are the most important trading centers for the Austrian market. In addition to electricity, emission certificates for the greenhouse gas CO 2 , coal and, shortly, natural gas, are also traded there. 185 (as of 2009) traders from around 20 countries are currently active on this exchange. In addition to the Leipzig and Austrian energy exchanges, there are currently exchanges in France, the Netherlands, Belgium, the Iberian region, Scandinavia and Great Britain , Italy, Slovenia, Romania, Poland and the Czech Republic.
In the industrial customer segment, due to the high volumes of electricity purchased, it is quite common for companies to negotiate their purchase prices directly with electricity suppliers. Thus, they bear the risk of fluctuating electricity prices on the wholesale market themselves, but can also benefit from possibly falling wholesale prices. When purchasing electricity for household customers, the suppliers plan for longer periods of time in order to spread the risk. Therefore, for example, the wholesale prices of the past two to three years are relevant for the currently applicable household customer prices.
The European electricity market also enables unexpected problems, such as power plant failures or consumption peaks, to be overcome with the help of reserves in other countries. However, the cross-border network infrastructure is currently a weak point in the European internal electricity market. The existing line connections were originally not designed for the cross-border transport of large amounts of electricity - bottlenecks are therefore still the logical consequence.
literature
- Walter Starik. Light years. 100 years of public power supply in Austria . Association of Electricity Companies in Austria, 1973
- VEÖ: Activity report . 2008 ( online )
Individual evidence
- ^ E-Economy in Austria ( Memento from December 30, 2006 in the Internet Archive ). Website of the Association of Austrian Electricity Companies. Retrieved January 28, 2010.
- ^ First Federal Law Cleansing Act , In force: January 1, 2000
- ↑ Walter Starik. Light years. 100 years of public power supply in Austria . Association of Electricity Companies in Austria, 1973
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i VEÖ. Electricity in Austria, 2008. ( Memento of the original from June 21, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Significance of the networks ( memento of the original dated August 30, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . Website of the Association of Austrian Electricity Companies. Retrieved January 28, 2010.
- ↑ Phase shifting transformers in APG , ew - magazine for the energy industry, volume 106, 2007, issue 11
- ↑ derstandard.at
- ↑ ORF: Electricity imports increased sharply in 2011
- ↑ Directive 2006/32 / EC , accessed on May 26, 2014
- ↑ a b Austrian Electricity Law. Federal Law - Laws ( Memento of the original dated August 23, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . Website of the Association of Austrian Electricity Companies. Retrieved January 28, 2010.
- ↑ Electricity trading . Website of the Austrian e-business. Retrieved January 28, 2010.
