Role of women in Judaism

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Anselm Feuerbach : Miriam
James Tissot : Abraham advises Sarai not to pose as his wife, but as his sister

The role of women in Judaism is determined by the Hebrew Bible , rabbinic literature , common law, and non-religious cultural influences. Although the Bible and rabbinical literature describe different female role models, including those according to which women are equal to or even superior to men, women are treated fundamentally differently than men in certain situations according to religious law .

The gender has an influence on the kinship line: In traditional Judaism, membership of Judaism is passed on to the following generations via the Jewish mother, even if the name of the father is used in the Torah to name sons and daughters, for example "Dinah, daughter Jacobs ”.

In the 20th century, and especially since the 1970s, women began to take on more tasks in public, initially in liberal communities , and later also in the conservative and orthodox environment.

Biblical time

Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld : Ruth in gleaning in the field of Boaz
Gustave Doré : Michal lets David escape through the window

Few women are mentioned by name and social role in the Bible. This indicates that they were hardly in the foreground of public life. There are exceptions to this rule, which include the patriarchs Sarah , Rebekah , Rachel and Leah , the prophets Mirjam and Huldah , the judge Deborah , Abigail , who married David , Rahab and Queen Esther . According to the Bible, the relatively few public appearances by these women met with no resistance.

According to Jewish tradition, a covenant was made on Mount Sinai between the God of Abraham , Isaac and Jacob and the Israelites . The Torah states that men and women were present. However, the covenant was formulated in such a way that it obliged men to do so and required them to ensure that it was observed and observed by household members, i.e. women, children and slaves. In this sense, the federal government also included women, albeit indirectly.

Marriage and family law preferred men in biblical times. For example, a husband could divorce his wife if he wanted, but a woman, conversely, could not do so without his consent. The practice of levirate marriage applied to widows of husbands who had died without children, but not to widowers of wives who died childless; however, if one of them did not agree, a different ceremony, the Chalitza, took place. Laws regarding the loss of virginity have no male counterpart. These and other gender differences in the Torah suggest that women were subordinate to men. In addition, continuity of family tradition, property and family unity were considered to be of higher priority in society. However, the Torah also identifies specific obligations that men have towards their wives, including their provision of food, clothing and intercourse.

Women also played a role in the religious rites. They had just as men make an annual pilgrimage to the Temple in Jerusalem and the Passover - sacrifice offer. This also happened on occasions such as the toda ("offering of gratitude") after the birth of a child. Women thus played a religiously significant role in many of the important public events like non-Levitic men, albeit less often and generally in a more reserved manner.

Women were economically dependent on men. They generally had no property, except in the event that they inherited land from their father when he had no sons. Also "in these cases the woman was obliged to marry within her tribe so that the land holdings of the tribe would not be reduced". This goes back to the story of the five daughters of Zelofhad mentioned by name in the Bible . After the death of their father, the five daughters of Moses ask the right to inherit the portion of the Promised Land that should go to their father, so that their father's name may be preserved, although there are no male descendants. To do this, they demand a divine judgment at the entrance to the meeting tent . This decides in their favor ( Num 27.1-11  EU ). The Gileadites argue against women's inheritance law, claiming that a tribe's land ownership could be lost through marriage. It is therefore stipulated that the daughters of Zelofhad may only marry within their tribe ( Num 6  EU ). In Jos 17.1-6  EU they are actually allocated land.

According to the Anglican theologian John Bowker, women and men pray separately according to tradition. This goes back to ancient times when women were only allowed to enter the second courtyard of the temple.

Two out of five megillots are named after women, and their talk is still part of the liturgy of certain Jewish holidays to this day . The book of Esther is read on Purim , and the book of Ruth is part of the liturgy of the Shavuot festival .

Talmudic time

Classical rabbinical literature, including the sayings of the fathers , contains passages that praise or condemn women. The Talmud states:

  • Righteous women are paid more than righteous men
  • The world was given ten units of measure of speech, of which the women took nine for themselves
  • Women are “light minded with rough knowledge” ie they have more intuition.
  • A man without a wife lives without joy, without blessings and without goodness. A man should love a woman as he does himself and respect himself above himself.
  • When Rav Yosef b. Hiyya heard his mother's footsteps, he used to say: Before the coming of the presence of God, make me stand up.
  • Israel was saved from Egypt because of the virtue of righteous women.
  • A man must be careful never to speak disparagingly to his wife, as women are prone to tears and are very sensitive to wrongdoing.
  • Women have stronger beliefs than men.
  • Women are more astute and insightful than men.
  • Women are especially sensitive and compassionate.

Few women are named in rabbinical literature. Neither wrote rabbinic works. But those named are portrayed as women who have a strong influence on their husbands. Occasionally these were public figures. Examples are Bruriah , wife of Tanna Rabbi Meir ; Rachel, wife of Rabbi Akiva ; and Yalta, wife of Rabbi Nachman . Rabbi Elazar's wife advised her husband when he took over the leadership of the Sanhedrin . When Rabbi Elazar ben Azarya was supposed to take over the role of Nasi ("Prince" = President of the Sanhedrin), he replied that he had to consult with his wife first, which he did.

middle Ages

Because Jews were viewed as second class citizens in both the Christian and Muslim world, it was all the more difficult for women to secure their status. The Israeli historian Avraham Grossman, in his book Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe , shows that three factors determine how women are perceived by the society around them: "the biblical and talmudic heritage, the situation in non-Jewish society, where the Jews lived and worked, and the economic status of the Jews, including the role of women in maintaining the family. ”Grossman argues that all three factors increased the status of women during this period.

During the Middle Ages there was a conflict between Judaism's high expectations of women and social reality, which is also true of Christian women of the same time. This prompted the Kabbalistic work Sefer Hakanah to demand that women should fulfill the mitzvot in a manner that is equivalent to men.

Religious life

Religious developments in the Middle Ages led to a weakening of the prohibition of teaching the Torah by women and to the creation of prayer groups for women. Since the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 70 , synagogues have become a place of public participation in the practices of Jewish life. The women probably also learned to read the liturgy in Hebrew. There is evidence that in the 15th century, in some Ashkenazi communities, the rabbi's wife wore the zizit just like her husband.

In most synagogues women were given their own space, most likely a gallery; some synagogues had a separate building. Separation from men was established by the rabbis in the Mishnah and the Talmud . The rationale behind the halachah was that a woman could use her body to distract men and give them impure thoughts during prayer. Because of this rabbinical interpretation, scholars have considered the role of women in the synagogue to be limited or nonexistent. However, recent studies have shown that women actually played a bigger role in the synagogue and community. For example, women entered the synagogues on the Sabbath and on public holidays . Depending on where they were in the synagogue, they either participated in the same acts of worship as the men or performed their own. Depending on the size of the synagogues, there was sometimes a woman who could follow the cantor and repeat the prayers aloud for the women. Women had always attended the Sabbath and public holiday worship, but since the 11th century women have been more involved in the rites of the synagogue. Women sitting apart from men became the norm in the early 13th century. However, women not only prayed in the synagogue, but also decorated the building. There are curtains for the Torah shrine and Torah blankets that were sewn by women and have survived to this day. The synagogue was a communal space for men and women where worship, study, and community activities took place.

The rise and popularity of Kabbalah , which emphasized the Shekhina and feminine aspects of divine omnipresence and the divine-human relationship, had a major impact on the position of women. Marriage was seen as a sacred covenant rather than a civil contract between the spouses. Kabbalists explained menstruation as an expression of the sinful or demonic character of the menstruating woman. These changes were accompanied by increased religious constrictions, which included stricter rules on modesty, for example, clothing and stricter rules for the time around the period . At the same time there was an increasing number of philosophical and midrash interpretations that showed women in a negative light. The duality of spirit and matter was emphasized, with femininity negatively linked to matter and attachment to the earthly. Pagan society was seen as a source of harmful influences on the Jewish community. It seems that Jews tested the reluctance of their non-Jewish neighbors before officially moving to a new environment, knowing that their children would be influenced by the local non-Jews.

At the time of the Crusades , Jewish women often suffered martyrdoms with their families. Christian female martyrs, on the other hand, were often members of convents or religious orders.

After the expulsion of the Jews from Spain (1492) women became almost the only source of Jewish rituals and traditions on the now purely Catholic Iberian peninsula, where the phenomenon of so-called crypto - Judaism gained in importance. The women of the so-called Marranos slaughtered their animals themselves and made sure that as many dietary regulations and rules of daily life were observed as possible without arousing suspicion. Sometimes these women were persecuted by the Inquisition if they made themselves suspicious, for example, by lighting the Sabbath candles or refusing the pork that was offered to them. The Inquisition targeted women at least as much as men because women were presumed to have passed on the Jewish tradition, while men only allowed their wives and daughters to do the household chores.

Domestic life

Marriage, domestic violence and divorce are dealt with by the Jewish Chachamim of the Middle Ages. Marriage was considered an important institution and is extensively portrayed by the scholars of the time.

Rabbeinu Gershom issued a rabbinical decree ( Takkanah ), which for the first time forbade polygamy among Ashkenazi Jews. The rabbis instituted legal proceedings to allow women to apply for divorce. Maimonides ruled that a woman who found her husband “repulsive” could force a divorce “because she is not like a prisoner forced into intercourse with someone who reveals her disgust.” Divorce was not an option for Christian women. From the 10th century onwards, Christianity viewed marriage as an indissoluble sacrament . (Compare divorce ).

The rabbis also established stricter rules regarding domestic violence. Rabbi Peretz ben Elijah decided, “The call of the daughters of our people over the sons of Israel who lift their hands to strike their wives has been heard. But who gave a husband the right to beat his wife? ”Rabbi Meir von Rothenburg decided that“ because it is the way of Gentiles to behave like this, Heaven forbids any Jew to behave like this. Anyone who beats his wife should be excommunicated, banned and beaten. ”Meir von Rothenburg also decided that a beaten woman could petition a rabbinical court to force her husband to consent to the divorce. He had to pay a fine in addition to the ordinary ketubah . These decisions were made in the midst of societies where beating one's wife was commonplace and legal.

education

Jewish women only had a limited education. They learned to read, write, and run a household. They also received some training in religious law that was relevant to their everyday life, such as dietary laws . Christian and Jewish girls were tutored in the house. But while Christian girls could have a male or female teacher, for most Jewish girls he was female. Higher education was unusual for both of them. Christian women could join a convention for this purpose. Education of Jewish women is better documented in the Muslim environment. The Jewish community in the Middle East had a large number of highly educated women. The Cairo Geniza is full of correspondence between family members and wives. Many of the letters are pious and poetic, and express a desire to be closer to the distant family member. Wills and other documents, as well as petitions in cases of abuse or other family conflicts, were drawn up or dictated by women.

Many women gained enough education to help their husbands in their businesses or even to start their own businesses. Jewish women also seem to have lent money to Christian women across Europe. They were also active as copyists , midwives , spinners and weavers .

Opinions on the question of women's education

From some contexts of the Mishnah and the Talmud it can be concluded that women should not study the Mishnah. There were women in the Tannaitic period who were educated under religious law, such as Rabbi Meir's wife, Rabbi Meir's daughter and the daughter of Haninyah ben Teradyon . Haninyah's daughter is also mentioned as a scholar in the non-Talmudic text of the 3rd century tract Semahot verse 12:13. Rabbi Meir's wife is credited with explaining some of Isaiah's verses to him . In the Mishnah there is also a reference to certain women who explain the Torah to men hidden behind a curtain so that no man should feel hurt.

A Yeshiva or Talmud school is considered an exclusively male environment, since women are not involved in the study of the Talmud.

Beruryah

Beruryah (a common Jewish maiden name meaning “the clarity of God”) is mentioned by name in the Talmud as a female tanna . Originally, she was believed to be either Rabbi Meir's aforementioned wife or Rabbi Chaninyah's aforementioned daughter. However, for the past three centuries, rabbinical scholars have found that these cases do not match Beruryah's verdicts and dates of life because of the timing. Hence, today she is addressed simply as Beruryah with no known lineage.

Their legal decisions were minor, but fundamental to modern Jewish women. It is mentioned at least four times in the discussion of the Babylonian Talmud: Berachot 10a, Tosefta Pesahim 62b, Eruvin 53b – 54a, and Avoda sara 18b. In one case she decided on the religious meaning of "klaustra", a rare Greek word that in the Talmud probably denotes a door bolt. Rabbi Yehudah Hanassi rejected the idea that women were capable of religious interpretation, with the Tanna Rabbi Jesse the Galilean he meant that one should not talk too much with women, and attributed the interpretation to Rabbi Joshua , who was possibly her father.

Beruryah was given the greatest respect in the Talmud. She is hailed as a genius for studying three hundred halachoths from three hundred scholars in a single day (Pesachim 62b). This clearly contradicted common beliefs about women studying the Torah.

Rashi's daughters

Rashi had no sons and therefore taught his three daughters the Mishnah and the Talmud until they knew them by heart, as Jewish tradition requires. They then passed on their knowledge of the original Mishnah Commentaries to the next generation of Ashkenazi men. According to unconfirmed records, Rashi's daughters are said to have also laid tefillin .

Haim Yosef David Azulai, aka "Chida"

Chida wrote (Tuv Ayin, No. 4) that a woman should not study the Mishnah if she does not want: “You cannot force women to study like boys.” However, if she wants to learn, then she should not just do this independently but men can teach them, after which they can teach other women if they choose. In Chida's view, the prohibition on teaching women does not apply to girls or women who show interest. Other Mishnah rabbis questioned this interpretation of Chida.

He replied to the critics that there was indeed a ban on teaching the Mishnah, but that this would apply to all students, male and female, if they were not prepared and interested. He was referring to talmid she-eino hagun ( Shulhan Arukh , Yoreh De'ah 246: 7). The Babylonian Talmud, Berakhos 28a, states that Rabban Gamliel proclaimed that any disciple who was not pure enough so that his "outer self was equal to the inner self" was not allowed to enter the classroom. This claim to complete purity was rejected by other ancient rabbis: "Whoever is not for the name of God will become for the name of God". A medium claim was accepted as the norm by the Jews. Only if one knows that a student of the Mishna (Mishnayot = individual statements of the Mishnah) is really bad, he may not be taught. However, Chida noted that a higher standard seemed to apply to women: they must show interest in order to be allowed to study. This was his answer to the tradition of Mizrahi .

Israel Meir Kagan

One of the most important Ashkenazi rabbis of his day, Israel Meir Kagan , known as "Chofetz Chaim", advocated teaching girls in order to curb the influence of the French "etiquette schools" that were prevalent for the girls of the bourgeoisie in his day.

“It seems that all (discriminatory laws) were for earlier generations when everyone took their place in the family and the tradition was so strong that everyone followed the paths of their forefathers. Given these conditions, we could argue that women do not study the Mishnah and rely on their parents for their religious orientation. In the present, however, the tradition has been weakened because of the myriad of our sins, and it has become common for people not to live near their families, especially the women who devote themselves to learning the vernacular. Hence, it has now become a great Mitzvah to teach them the scriptures and moral teachings of our scholars, such as Pirkei Avos , Menoras Ha-Ma'or, and others, so that they may internalize our sacred faith. If we do not do this, they will be inclined to leave the path of God and violate all the principles of our faith. "

Joseph Ber Soloveitchik

Rabbi Joseph Ber Soloveitchik added the teaching of Hafetz Haim . Rabbi Solovetchik taught that all religious Ashkenazi Jews, with the exception of the radical Hasidim , should or should, if interested, instruct their daughters and boys in the Gemara . Together with others, he institutionalized the teaching of the Mishnah and Talmud to girls, as an autobiography by Rabbi Mayor Twersky makes clear: A Glimpse of the Rav in R. Menachem Genack ed. From Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik: Man of Halacha, Man of Faith, p. 113: “The halacha prohibitions of Torah study for women are not comprehensive and without distinction. There is full agreement on the question that women are obliged to study the Halakhot to the Mitsvot that apply to them ... The prohibition ... refers to the further possible study. If the circumstances dictate that the study of the Torah is necessary for a firm foundation of faith, then this study will become a duty, beyond all limits of prohibition. "

present

Orthodox Judaism

A girl lights the Sabbath candles

The Orthodox Judaism assumes that there are different roles for men and women in religious life. There are different opinions among Orthodox Jews about these differences. Most believe that men and women have complementary but different roles, giving rise to different religious duties.

Others believe in cultural, social, and historical causes rather than the effects of religious laws. In education, women have always been exempt from studying religious scriptures, except for the practical aspects of the Torah and the household rules women had to learn.

Until the 20th century, women were often deterred from studying the Talmud and other advanced literature. In the past hundred years, women's education in Orthodox Judaism has developed significantly.

Orthodox women have contributed to transforming religious life in several fields. In the past twenty years, the study of women and the award of scholarships, ritual participation in the synagogue, leadership functions in community life and in the synagogue have been promoted. This change was often enforced against the rabbis' sharp verbal defenses. Some rabbis try to discredit the changes by assuming social rather than “real” religious motives. Orthodox, Haredic, and Hasidic rabbis discourage women from wearing kippah , tallit, or tefillin .

In most Orthodox synagogues, women still do not give D'var Torah (a short lecture covering a week's portion of the Torah) after or during services. Some modern Orthodox synagogues also have a mechiza that divides the right and left sides of the interior (unlike the usual division into a front area and a rear area for women).

Rules of modesty

Modesty in matters of dress and behavior is particularly emphasized in the Orthodox Jewish community. Many women don't wear pants, just skirts. Many married Orthodox Jewish women cover their hair with a headscarf (called "Tichel" or "Mitpachat"), a turban, a bonnet, a hairnet, a hat, a cap or a wig ("Sheitel").

Rules of purity for the family

In accordance with religious law, women avoid contact with their husbands during menstruation and for a seven-day period after menstruation or childbirth. The Israeli rabbinate has allowed women to act as yoatzot , halachic advisors on sensitive issues such as family purity.

Modern Orthodox Judaism

Rabbi Joseph Ber Soloveitchik, a religious leader with great influence in US Orthodoxy, has advised women not to act as heads of parishes or other offices or to obey the mitzvot (commandments) traditionally performed by men, such as wearing tallit or tefillin . Soloveitchik wrote that women do not lack the ability to do so, but that there is no mesorah (Jewish tradition) to permit practice. In his decision he referred to the oral tradition, including the Mishnah in Chulin 2a and Josef Karo , which state that a woman can only perform certain community services for herself, but not for others.

With the emergence of the modern feminist movement, women's issues also gained increasing interest in Judaism. Both Orthodox women and rabbis seek stronger and more comprehensive religious education for women. Since most Orthodox women attend high schools and graduate degrees in many fields, modern Orthodox communities generally promote secular education for women. A few synagogues also have female officials, such as Gilah Kletenik in the Kehilath Jeshurun ​​Congregation. In 2013, Yeshivat Maharat became the first Orthodox institution in the United States to ordain a female official. The graduates of the Yeshivat Maharat did not call themselves rabbis, but received the title "Maharat". In 2015, however, Yaffa Epstein was introduced into office as "Rabba" of the Yeshivat Maharat. In 2015, Lila Kagedan was hired by the same institution as the first graduate under the title of Rabbi.

In 2014 the world's first book of halachic decisions by women was published. The two women and Poskot , Idit Bartov and Anat Novoselsky, had been ordained by Efrat's chief rabbi, Rabbi Shlomo Riskin .

In 2016 it was announced that the British Chief Rabbi Ephraim Mirvis had created the position of Ma'ayan , which allows women to work as advisors on Jewish legal issues in the area of ​​family purity and as adult educators in Orthodox synagogues after an 18-month part-time course become. It is the first course of its kind in the UK.

Prayer groups of women

Torah reading by Women of the Wall at the location of the Herodian Temple called Robinson's Arch
Member of Women of the Wall , with Tallit and Tefillin, at prayer

Prayer groups by and for women were a recognized institution in Germany as early as the Middle Ages. The book Kol Bo , a collection of halachic prescriptions (first edition Naples 1490), presents the following provisions in the laws for Tisha B'Av : “They recite funeral chants during a quarter of the night, the men in their synagogue, the women in hers. Similarly, the men recite mourning chants for themselves during the day, while the women recite for themselves until about a third of the day has passed. "

In the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation , female prayer groups were led by female cantors in the 12th and 13th centuries. Rabbi Eliezar von Worms praised his wife in the “Elegy for my wife Dulca” for teaching other women to pray and for embellishing prayer with music. The tombstone of Urania von Worms, who died in 1275, shows the inscription "... which Piyyutim sang for the women with a musical voice." In the Nuremberg Memorial, a woman named Richenza was noted with the title "Head of the women's prayer."

Orthodox women have recently organized tefila (prayer) groups from the 1970s. Although all Orthodox legal authorities oppose the formation of a minyan for regular worship, the women in these groups read the prayers and study the Torah. Some Orthodox leaders from all walks of life in Orthodox Judaism have commented on this, but with very little influence on Haredic and Sephardic Judaism . This new phenomenon has drawn modern Orthodox Judaism into a discussion that continues to this day. There are three schools of thought on this subject:

  • absolute prohibition by the Halacha (Jewish law).
  • partial permission, especially parts of the worship service such as the Devarim she-bi-kdusha are forbidden. The service must be based on spiritual motives alone. Representatives include Rabbi Avraham Elkana Shapiro, the former British Chief Rabbi Immanuel Jakobovits and Rabbi Avi Weiss.
  • Limited and conditional permission, as far as mixed services or parts of the service without minyan.

2013 allowed the Israeli Orthodox organization Beit Hillel in a halachic decision the first time reciting the kaddish in memory of the deceased parents.

Women as witnesses

Women are traditionally excluded from the right to witness before the Beth Din , although for some time they have been allowed to work as toanot (advisors) in these courts of justice.

The case of Rabbi Mordecai Tendler, who became the first rabbi to be expelled from America's rabbinical council after being accused of sexual harassment, highlighted the importance of clarifying orthodox halacha in this area. Rabbi Tendler argued that the traditional exclusion of women from witnessing should have led the RCA to reject the allegations. In a judgment that is important for the question of testimony, the Haredic Rabbi Benzion Wosner decided on behalf of Shevet Levi Beth Din of Monsey, New York, that sexual harassment was an exception. Women and children not only have the right but also the duty to testify and can be recognized as valid witnesses by a rabbinical court:

In Choshen Mishpat (§ 35, 14) the Ramah stipulates that in a case where only women gather or where only women could give testimony (in the present case the alleged harassment occurred behind closed doors), the opportunity to give testimony is given have to be. (Terumat Hadeschen, § 353, and Agudah Perek 10, Yochasin). This regulation can also be found with Maharik, Radvaz and the Mahar "i von Minz. Even rabbinical authorities , who normally would not admit witnesses, would certainly agree that in our case ... where the violation of Torah regulations by this rabbi is sufficiently proven is, even children or women would be allowed to testify, as the Chatam Sofer stated in his monograph (Orach Chaim T'shuvah 11).

The Rabbinical Council of America, after initial investigations of its own, relied on the halachic decision of the Haredi body.

Orthodox view of change

Haredi leaders have so far been in stubborn opposition to a change in the role of women. They see the religious and social constraints of traditional Jewish texts as timeless and independent of social change. Many also argue that transferring male role expectations to women would prevent both men and women from living truly fulfilling lives. Haredim have already interpreted the justifications for liberalization as a general rejection of the religious law and the Jewish faith. The preservation of the faith requires resistance to worldly and “non-Jewish” ideas.

Modern Orthodox Judaism, especially in its somewhat more liberal variants, tends to view the proposed changes as specific case decisions. The religious and legal role of every prayer, every ritual and every act is individually considered and justified. The research focuses on individual cases, while the discussions focus on cases in which the Talmud and other traditional sources express multiple or liberal views, especially when the role of women in the past was much broader than in the more recent present. Feminist proponents of Orthodoxy tended to stay within the traditional argumentation framework of Jewish law, going step by step, and avoiding sweeping arguments against tradition as such. Even so, the growing orthodox feminist movement is trying to fight gender inequality.

Agunot

An aguna (literally “chained woman”) is a woman who does not receive written consent to a divorce from her husband because he refuses it or because he is missing. In Orthodox Judaism, only the husband can issue such a "get". This problem arose repeatedly with the women of soldiers of the Israeli armed forces who were abducted and presumably dead by terrorist groups . Rabbi Shlomo Riskin pushed through the Israeli Supreme Court in 1991 so that women could be appointed advisory members at religious courts . As a result, he organized a corresponding training course for women, the graduates of which are particularly committed to Agunot. Riskin advocates ruling out an abusive refusal of the "get" in the Ketubba .

Conservative Judaism

Rabbis reading the Torah

Although the attitude of conservative Judaism originally hardly differed from that of Orthodox, in the recent past the legal and ritual differences between men and women have steadily decreased. The Rabbinical Assembly's Committee on Jewish Law and Standards (CJLS) has recognized a number of decisions and information on this subject. These allow women to participate in the following areas:

  • Public reading of the Torah (ba'al kriah)
  • Belonging to a minyan
  • Call for a reading of the Torah
  • Cantor service ( Shaliach tzibbur )
  • Service as rabbi and halachic decision maker ( Posek - arbitrator in religious legal questions)
  • Wearing tallit and tefillin

A rabbi can decide to what extent he wants to adopt special regulations in his congregation. Some value equality more than others. However, differences remain in certain areas:

  • Matrilineal descent: the child of a Jewish mother is Jewish by birth. The child of a Jewish father is only Jew, even if the mother is Jewish or the child rite has converted.
  • Pidjon Ha-Bat (see: Pidjon ha-Ben ), a celebration based on the redemption of the firstborn son. The CJLS has determined that this particular ceremony should not be performed. Others, such as the Simchat Bat (greeting a newborn daughter), should instead be performed to highlight the birth of a daughter.

A conservative ketubah contains a clause that puts husband and wife on an equal footing when it comes to marriage and divorce according to the Halacha.

The CJLS confirmed the obligation of women to obey the Niddah, i.e. to observe sexual abstinence during and after menstruation, as well as the mikvah (ritual bath) after menstruation, whereby some liberal details were introduced. However, these practices are rarely followed.

Changes in Conservative Attitude

Before 1973, the conservative image of women was still determined by many restrictions, similar to modern orthodoxy. There were changes with regard to the seating arrangement in the service, the joint management of the synagogue and the possibility for women to be called to the Torah. In 1973 the CJLS advocated the rabbinical assembly without giving a reason that women could participate in a minyan. There was a special commission set up by the Conservative Movement to examine the issue of ordaining women. Between 1977 and 1978 the 12 men and three women of the commission met. The women were Marian Siner Gordon, a lawyer, Rivkah Harris, an Assyriologist, and Francine Klagsbrun, a writer. In 1983, the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (JTSA) advocated the ordination of women as rabbis and cantors, also without expressing any opinion. Paula Hyman participated in this vote as a member of the JTS faculty.

In 2002, the CJLS accepted a modified legal advice (Responsum) from Rabbi David Fine, Women and the Minyan, which is an official legal basis for women in a Minyan. It explains the current position of the Conservatives on the question of women's prayer. The Responsum takes the view that, from the point of view of tradition, Jewish women do not have the same duties as men, but have accepted them voluntarily and jointly. In the opinion of the Responsum, this collective acceptance justifies the fact that women should be eligible for election as representatives and decision-makers for others. The responsum grants traditionally minded communities and individuals the right to leave the community without being viewed as sinners. By adopting the responsum, the CJLS took on the position of legalizing its egalitarian view without having to rely on possibly unconvincing arguments, weakening the religious community and religious officials, harassing women with intrusive questions, and condemning the halachic tradition or calling traditional women sinners.

In 2006 the CJLS took over three reports (Responsa) for the Nidda . These confirmed the previous duties of women, but liberalized the deadlines and the prohibition of contact between the sexes outside of sexual intercourse. Conditions for abstinence have been relaxed.

In all cases the orthodox view was maintained as a permissible option. The individual rabbi and individual synagogues are not required to follow all changes, and a few have not adopted a single change.

The conservative attitude towards change

Before 1973, changes were generally only made in small steps and on a case-by-case basis, taking into account the specifics of the individual case. Between 1973 and 2002 the conservative movement adopted changes through its individual organs without commenting in detail. Since 2002 the movement has focused on an overall concept of the women’s issue regarding Jewish law.

In 1973, 1983 and 1993 the reports (Responsa) by Blumenthal, Rabinowitz and Roth followed and the article by Hauptmann appeared. This expression of opinion aimed at a comprehensive reversal of the role of women in public by means of a single legal justification. In most cases, the point of view was put forward on the grounds that Jewish women have always had the legal obligation, or through development, to carry out the same mitzvot as the men and in the same way as them.

The first opinion of Rabbi Phillip Sigal and the Responsa Blumenthal was seen by the CJLS in 1973 as part of its decision for the role of prayer. It has been argued that women have always had the same obligations as men. The first responsum was based on the general obligation of prayer in the Talmud and on examples in which traditionally women were required to recite special prayers. This led to a general duty. The Blumenthal report (Responsum) generalized the minority opinion that a Minyan could be formed from a woman and nine men in an emergency. The CJLS rejected both responsa. Rabbi Siegel reported to the rabbinical meeting that many members of the CJLS had agreed with the results even though they had not found the arguments convincing.

Reform Judaism

The Reform Judaism goes since the 1970s based on the equality of men and women.

Liberal prayer books increasingly try to supplement male expressions and pronouns to denote God with female terms or to formulate them in a gender-neutral language. If Jewish patriarchs are always mentioned (Abraham, Isaac and Jacob), then the matriarchs (Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel and Leah.) Are not missing. In 2015, as a supplement to Mishkan T'filah , a Siddur of Reform Judaism, the Machsor Mishkan HaNefesh for the High Holidays published.

Reconstructionist Judaism

Billboard at the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College in Wyncote, Pennsylvania

The equality of men and women is a central point of the program of Reconstructionist Judaism . From the beginning, the ritual of this branch of modern Judaism allowed men and women to pray together, which was a decision based on the idea of ​​equality. Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan called for full equality in spite of the obvious differences with traditional Jewish practice. Ordination of women has been common since the movement was founded. In 1968 women were admitted to the Rabbinical College of Reconstructivists, which was slipped by Ira Eisenstein . The first official rabbi, Sandy Eisenberg Sasso , served in the Manhattan Reconstructionist Congregation in 1976 and took over the pulpit in the Beth El Zedeck congregation in Indianapolis in 1977. Sandy Eisenberg Sasso's ordination was accepted without any discussion. In 2005, 24 out of 106 reconstructivist synagogues in the United States had women as chief or auxiliary rabbis. In 2013, Rabbi Deborah Waxman was elected President of the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College . She is believed to be the first lesbian woman to hold a leadership position in a Jewish religious association and a Jewish rabbinical seminary.

Jewish Renewal

Jewish Renewal is a recent trend in Judaism that attempts to combine modern Judaism with elements of the Kabbalistic and Hasidic traditions as well as musical and meditative practices. She describes herself as a "worldwide, non-denominational movement that is rooted in the mystical and prophetic traditions of Judaism". Initially, leadership and ritual privileges were limited to men, as in orthodox practice, but soon women were fully integrated into the movement in the wake of feminism of the 1960s and are now ordained rabbis and cantors like men. Lynn Gottlieb became the first female rabbi of the Renewal Movement in 1981, Avitall Gerstetter , who lives in Germany, became the first female cantor in Germany in 2002. In 2009 and 2012 the OHALAH (Association of Rabbis for Jewish Renewal) published a board memo and resolution supporting the organization Women of the Wall . The OHALAH Code of Principles states that local churches “embody the values ​​of equality and inclusion that are manifested in a variety of governance and decision-making structures. This is to ensure that women and men are full and equal partners in every aspect of our Jewish community life ”. In 2014, OHALAH issued a Board of Directors statement stating that “It is therefore resolved that OHALAH will promote the observance of Women's History Month , International Women's Day, and Women's Equality Day ; OHALAH condemns all forms of sexism; OHALAH is committed to gender equality, now and for all future generations. OHALAH supports equal rights for everyone regardless of their gender. ”In 2014, ALEPH also published an identical declaration that“ we are all formed in the same way in the divine image ”.

Humanistic Judaism

Humanistic Judaism is a movement that, instead of believing in a supernatural God , places the emphasis of Jewish identity on Jewish culture and history. Women and men are ordained equally. The first person in the office of Rabin was a woman, Tamara Kolton (1999). The first person to serve as cantor was also a woman, Deborah Davis (2001). Since then, however, no female cantors have been ordained. The Society for Humanistic Judaism issued a statement in 1996 that “We emphasize that women have the moral and should also have the legal right to terminate a pregnancy according to their own ethical standards. Because such a decision has grave and irreversible consequences, it should be made with great concern and attention for its psychological, emotional and social implications. ”In 2011, a section of the“ No Taxpayer Funding for Abortion Act ”of the House of Representatives was condemned which they called "a direct attack on women's freedom of choice". In 2012, they opposed the “conscience clause” that allows religious institutions to exempt themselves from reproductive health interventions. In 2013 they stated in a resolution that August 26th would be supported as Women's Day to remind women of the right to vote. Gender discrimination is condemned in all respects.

Rabbis, Torah writers and biblical scholars

Regina Jonas from Berlin was ordained a rabbi in 1935 as the world's first woman. She then worked mainly as a religion teacher. In 1944 she was murdered in Auschwitz , her work was forgotten for decades.

Only since the 1970s have women increasingly been found as rabbis in different branches of Judaism. In 1972, for the first time in the USA, a representative of Reform Judaism received the Smicha . In 1974 a representative of reconstructionism followed, in 1975 the first female rabbi was ordained in England, in 1985 a graduate of conservative Judaism for the first time, and finally in 2009 a representative of Orthodox Judaism. To date, however, resistance to the employment of female rabbis has mainly been found in large communities. In 2010 Alina Treiger was ordained as the first female rabbi in Germany. She is the second female rabbi to have been trained in Germany. Bea Wyler , Elisa Klapheck and Gesa Ederberg should be mentioned as other rabbis in German-speaking countries . Laura Janner-Klausner has been Chief Rabbi of Reform Judaism in the United Kingdom since 2011.

A Sofer , Sopher or Sofer STaM (Hebrew: "scribe (of cultic objects)", סופר סת״ם) can (and may) write Torah scrolls, tefillin, mezzot and other religious scriptures by hand. (סת״ם, pronunciation STaM, is an abbreviation for Sifrei-Torah, Tefillin and Mezuzot. The plural of sofer (masculine) is "soferim", סופרים.) The starting point for discussing whether women can take on the task is the mixed natractic Gittin 45b states: "Sifrei-Torah, Tefillin and Mezuzot, which are written down by heretics, star worshipers, a slave, a woman, a minor, a Kutean or an apostate , are unsuitable for ritual use." The decisions regarding mezuzah and tefillin are in principle undisputed among adherents of the Talmudic law . Since Arba'ah Turim does not name women among those who are not allowed to copy a Torah scroll, some interpreters see this as evidence that women are certainly allowed to copy a Torah scroll. Actually all Orthodox authorities, be they ultra-Orthodox or modern, deny the permission of women to write a Sefer Torah today . In contrast, they have the right Ketubot (marriage contracts) to write and Stam that are not intended for ritual use, and other religious writings. In 2003 the Canadian Aviel Barclay became the first traditionally trained Sofer writer. In 2007, Jen Taylor Friedman , a British woman, became the first woman to write a Sefer Torah. In 2010 the first copy of the Sefer Torah was completed by a group of six women from Brazil, Canada, Israel and the USA. This project became known as the Women's Torah Project . By 2014 there were around 50 Torah writers worldwide. The Hebrew name for it is Soferet .

Nechama Leibowitz , professor at Tel Aviv University , is one of the leading biblical scholars of the 20th century. Their "pages" of questions about the weekly Torah section became known nationwide in Israel.

See also

Literature and Sources

  • Rachel Biale: Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Women's Issue's in Halakhic Sources. Shocken Books, 1984.
  • Judith Hauptman: Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice Westview Press, 1998.
  • Mayer E. Rabbinowitz: On the Ordination of Women: An Advocate's Halakhic Response In: Simon Greenberg (Ed.): The Ordination of Women as Rabbis. Studies and Responsa. Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988.
  • Judith Hauptman: Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies. In: Judaism 42, 1993, pp .: 94-103.
  • Simon Greenberg (Ed.): The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa. Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988, ISBN 0-87334-041-8 .
  • Charlotte Fonrobert: Menstrual Purity: Rabbinic and Christian Reconstructions of Biblical Gender. Stanford University Press, 2000.
  • Devorah Heshelis: The Moon's Lost Light. A Torah Perspective on Women from the Fall of Eve to the Full Redemption. Targum Press, 2006, ISBN 1-56871-377-0 .
  • Pamela S. Nadell: Women Who Would Be Rabbis. A History of Women's Ordination, 1889–1985. In: Jewish Women's Life. Review in: American Jewish History, 2000.
  • Rabbi Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, Siddur Kol HaNoar: The Voices of Children.
  • Sabine Hank, Uwe Hank: Jewish women in the First World War . Hentrich & Hentrich 2017. ISBN 978-3-95565-173-2 .

middle Ages

  • Howard Adelman: Italian Jewish Women at Prayer. In: Lawrence Fine (Ed.): Judaism in Practice: from the Middle Ages through the Early Modern Period. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ 2001, ISBN 0-691-05786-9 , pp. 52-60.
  • Judith R. Baskin: Jewish Women in the Middle Ages. In: Judith R. Baskin: Jewish Women in Historical Perspective. Wayne State University Press, Detroit 1991, ISBN 0-8143-2092-9 , 94-114.
  • Judith R. Baskin: Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women . In: Jewish History . Vol. 5, No. 1 , 1991, p. 41-51 , doi : 10.1007 / bf01679792 , JSTOR : 20101094 .
  • Rachel Biale: Women and Jewish Law: The Essential Texts. Their History, and Their Relevance for Today. Schocken Books, New York 1995, ISBN 0-8052-1049-0 .
  • Mark R. Cohen: Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages. Princeton University Press, Princeton 2008, ISBN 978-0-691-13931-9 .
  • Avraham Grossman: Pious and Rebellious. Jewish Women in Medieval Europe. Translated from Hebrew into English by Jonathan Chapman. Brandeis University Press, Waltham, Mass 2004, ISBN 1-58465-392-2 .
  • Ivan G Marcus: Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe . In: Conservative Judaism . 38, No. 3, Spring 1986, pp. 34-45.
  • Renee Levine Melammed: Women in Medieval Jewish Societies. In: Frederick E. Greenspahn (Ed.): Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship. New York University Press, New York 2009, ISBN 978-0-8147-3219-9 , pp. 105-111.
  • Theodore L. Steinberg: Jews and Judaism in the Middle Ages . Praeger Publishers, Westport, Conn 2008, ISBN 978-0-275-98588-2 .
  • Emily Taitz, Sondra Henry, Cheryl Tallan: The JPS guide to Jewish women. 600 BCEto 1900 CE . Jewish Publication Society, Philadelphia 2003, ISBN 0-8276-0752-0 .

Orthodox Judaism and women

  • On Women and Judaism: A View from Tradition Blu Greenberg, Jewish Publication Society.
  • Saul J. Berman: Orthodoxy Responds to Feminist Ferment. In: Response. 40, 1981, 5:17.
  • David Harry Ellenson: Gender, Halakhaha and Women's Suffrage: Responsa of the First Three Chief Rabbis on the Public Role of Women in the Jewish State. In: Gender Issues in Jewish Law. 58-81, 2001.
  • Levi M. Reisman: Feminism - A Force That Will Split Orthodoxy? In: The Jewish Observer. 31: 5, 1998, pp. 37-47.
  • Tamar Ross: Can the Demand for Change In the Status of Women Be Halakhically Legitimated? In: Judaism. 42: 4, 1993, pp. 478-491.
  • Simcha Fishbane: In Case There Tamar Are No Sinful Thoughts: The Role and Status of Women in Jewish Law As Expressed in the Aruch Hashulhan. In: Judaism. 42: 4, 1993, pp. 492-503.
  • Tamar Ross: Halakha and its Relationship to Human and Social Reality, Case Study: Women's Roles in the Modern Period.
  • Sharon Shenhav: Human Rights, Jewish Women and Jewish Law. In: Justice. 21, 1999, pp. 28-31.
  • Marc D. Stern: On Egalitarianism & Halakha. In: Tradition. 36: 2, 2002, pp. 1-30.
  • Joel B. Wolowelsky: Women, Jewish Law and Modernity. Ktav, 1997.
  • Tamar Ross: Expanding the Palace of Torah: Orthodoxy and Feminism Brandeis University Press, 2004, ISBN 1-58465-390-6 .
  • Avi Weiss: Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis of Women's Prayer Groups. Ktav publishers, January 2003, ISBN 0-88125-719-2 .
  • Tova Hartman: Feminism Encounters Traditional Judaism: Resistance and Accommodation. Brandeis University Press, 2007, ISBN 978-1-58465-658-6 .
  • Beth S. Wenger: The Politics of Women's Ordination. Jewish Law, Institutional Power and the Debate over Women in the Rabbinate, 1997.

Web links

General

Magazines

Single topics

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Rev John Trigilio Jr, Rev Kenneth Brighenti: Women in the Bible For Dummies . John Wiley & Sons, 2011, ISBN 978-1-118-07011-6 ( limited preview in Google Book Search).
  2. ^ Herbert Lockyer: All the Women of the Bible . Zondervan, 1967, ISBN 0-310-28151-2 ( limited preview in Google Book Search).
  3. ^ John Baldock: Women in the Bible . Arcturus Publishing, 2012, ISBN 978-1-78212-047-6 ( limited preview in Google Book Search).
  4. ↑ John Bowker: World Religions. The Great Faiths Explored & Explained. Dorling Kindersley Limited, London 1997, ISBN 0-7894-1439-2 , pp. 121, 131.
  5. ↑ a b c Judith Hauptman: Women. In: David L. Lieber (Ed.): Etz Hayim: Torah and Commentary. The Jewish Publication Society, 2001, pp. 1356-1359.
  6. ↑ Joseph Telushkin: Biblical Literacy. The Most Important People, Events, and Ideas of the Hebrew Bible. William Morrow and Company, New York 1997, p. 403.
  7. ↑ John Bowker: World Religions. The Great Faiths Explored & Explained. Dorling Kindersley Limited, London 1997, ISBN 0-7894-1439-2 , p. 119.
  8. ↑ Berakhot 17a (Talmud).
  9. ↑ Kiddushin 49b (Nashim).
  10. ↑ Shabbat 33b (Talmud).
  11. ↑ Yebamot 62b.
  12. ↑ Kiddushin 31b (Nashim).
  13. ↑ Sotah 11b.
  14. ↑ Baba Metzia 59a.
  15. ^ Sifre , 133.
  16. ^ Niddah 45b.
  17. ↑ Megillah 14b.
  18. ↑ Babylonian Talmud, Brachoth 27b.
  19. ^ A b Avraham Grossman: Pious and Rebellious. Jewish Women in Medieval Europe.
  20. ^ Avraham Grossman: Pious and Rebellious. Jewish Women in Medieval Europe. P. 3.
  21. ^ Judith R. Baskin: Jewish Women in the Middle Ages.
  22. ↑ a b H. H. Ben-Sasson: Spiritual and Social Creativity.
  23. ^ Theodore L. Steinberg: Jews and Judaism in the Middle Ages. Pp. 157-158.
  24. ^ A b Judith R. Baskin: Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women . In: Jewish History . 5, No. 1, 1991, p. 42. doi : 10.1007 / bf01679792 . Retrieved November 21, 2011.
  25. ^ A b Avraham Grossman: Pious and Rebellious. Jewish Women in Medieval Europe. P. 181.
  26. ↑ Talmud , Sukkah 51a-52b
  27. ^ Howard Adelman: Italian Jewish Women at Prayer.
  28. ^ Theodore L. Steinberg: Jews and Judaism in the Middle Ages. P. 157.
  29. ^ Emily Taitz, Sondra Henry, Cheryl Tallan: The JPS Guide to Jewish Women. 600 BCE – 1900 CE Jewish Publication Society, Philadelphia 2003, p. 128.
  30. ^ Sharon Faye Koren: The Menstruant as "Other" "in Medieval Judaism and Christianity . In: Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women's Studies & Gender Issues . Volume 17 , no. 1 , 2009, ISSN  1565-5288 ( jhu.edu ).
  31. ^ Avraham Grossman: Pious and Rebellious. Jewish Women in Medieval Europe. Pp. 277-278.
  32. ^ Avraham Grossman: Pious and Rebellious. Jewish Women in Medieval Europe. P. 2.
  33. ^ A b Theodore L. Steinberg: Jews and Judaism in the Middle Ages. P. 160.
  34. ^ A b Ivan G. Marcus: Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe . In: Conservative Judaism . 38, No. 3, Spring 1986, p. 38.
  35. ↑ Renee Levine Melammed: Women in Medieval Jewish Societies.
  36. ^ Rachel Biale: Women and Jewish Law. The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today. Schocken Books, New York 1995, p. 81.
  37. ↑ Mishne Torah , Hilkhot Ishut 14: 8
  38. ^ Rachel Biale: Women and Jewish Law. The Essential Texts, Their History, and Their Relevance for Today. Schocken Books, New York 1995, p. 91.
  39. ^ Avraham Grossman: Pious and Rebellious. Jewish Women in Medieval Europe. P. 224.
  40. ^ Avraham Grossman: Pious and Rebellious. Jewish Women in Medieval Europe. P. 226.
  41. ^ Avraham Grossman: Pious and Rebellious. Jewish Women in Medieval Europe. P. 222.
  42. ^ Avraham Grossman: Pious and Rebellious. Jewish Women in Medieval Europe. P. 230.
  43. ^ Judith R. Baskin: Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women . In: Jewish History . 5, No. 1, 1991, p. 43. doi : 10.1007 / bf01679792 . Retrieved November 21, 2011.
  44. ^ Judith R. Baskin: Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women . In: Jewish History . 5, No. 1, 1991, p. 46. doi : 10.1007 / bf01679792 . Retrieved November 21, 2011.
  45. ↑ Renee Levine Melammed: Women in Medieval Jewish Societies. Pp. 91-100.
  46. ^ Ivan G. Marcus: Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe. P. 39.
  47. ↑ Medrish on Proverbs 31:10
  48. ↑ Talmud Babylonia Kelim Bava Kamma 4:17 separately in Sifre Deuteronomy 307 in both she is personally left unnamed and referred to as just, 'and we have learned from the daughter of Haninyah ben Terradyon', a sign of the prevailing attitude towards women ( as property of their fathers).
  49. ^ Dov Zlotnick: The tractate "Mourning" (Śmăhot): (regulations relating to death, burial, and mourning) , Yale University Press, New Haven 1966. ISBN 978-0-300-01069-5 (English)
  50. ↑ Babylonian Talmud, Berachot 10a
  51. ↑ John Bowker: World Religions. The Great Faiths Explored & Explained. Dorling Kindersley Limited, London 1997, ISBN 0-7894-1439-2 , p. 123.
  52. ↑ Mishnah Keylim 11: 4
  53. ↑ Rashi's Daughters
  54. ↑ Handelman, Susan.
  55. ↑ How Does She Do It? . October 6, 2014. Retrieved November 17, 2014. 
  56. ↑ Kress, Michael.
  57. ^ Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed members . January 29, 2014. Retrieved October 29, 2014. 
  58. ^ Hebrew Institute of Riverdale. ( Memento of April 2, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF).
  59. ↑ Joseph Sherman: Sisters Revolutionize Fashion . FYI Magazine. Retrieved January 5, 2016.
  60. ^ Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis Of Womens Prayer Groups. ( limited preview in Google Book search).
  61. ↑ Aharon Ziegler: Halakhic Positions of Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik. Volume II, p. 81.
  62. ^ Jewish Daily Forward Podcast.
  63. ^ Class of 2015 . In: Yeshivat Maharat . Archived from the original on December 5, 2015. Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved May 9, 2016. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.yeshivatmaharat.org
  64. ↑ Rabbi Lila Kagedan: Why Orthodox Judaism needs female rabbis . In: The Canadian Jewish News . November 25, 2015.
  65. ^ A b First Halacha Sefer By Women Makes Waves in Israeli Orthodox World. ( Memento of the original from March 25, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. on JP Updates. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / jpupdates.com
  66. ↑ a b Chief Rabbi Mirvis launches new qualification for female educators .
  67. ^ Avraham Grossman: Pious and Rebellious. Jewish Women in Medieval Europe. Pp. 180-182.
  68. ↑ Israel's late Ashkenazic Grand Rabbi Schlomo Goren may have ruled in 1974 that while women do not constitute a minyan , they may still carry out full prayer services.
  69. ↑ edah.org (PDF; 972 kB).
  70. ↑ edah.org (PDF; 78.1 kB).
  71. ↑ Halachic ruling: Women may say Kaddish - Israel Jewish Scene, Ynetnews . Ynetnews.com. Retrieved July 19, 2015.
  72. ↑ Part Four of Arba'a Turim
  73. ↑ Major work by Israel Isserlein
  74. ↑ 1420-1480
  75. ↑ around 1479–1573
  76. ↑ around 1405–1508
  77. ^ The Awareness Center: Case of Rabbi Mordecai Tendler. (English summary).
  78. ^ Tefillingate: Orthodoxy must not reject its most committed women . In: Haaretz , January 28, 2014. Retrieved June 30, 2014. 
  79. ↑ e women extorted by ex-husbands , Ynetnews. July 7, 2013. Retrieved October 29, 2014. 
  80. ^ John D. Rayner: Jewish religious law: a progressive perspective , p. 176
  81. ^ A b Marc Lee Raphael: Profiles in American Judaism. The Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and Reconstructionist Traditions in Historical Perspective. Harper & Row, Publishers, San Francisco 1984, p. 110.
  82. ↑ Francine Klagsbrun | Jewish Women's Archive . Jwa.org. Retrieved September 7, 2015.
  83. ↑ rabbinicalassembly.org ( Memento from February 25, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 194 kB).
  84. ↑ Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz: Mikveh and the Sanctity of Family Relations. Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006.
  85. ↑ Rabbi Susan Grossman: Mikveh AND THE SANCTITY OF BEING CREATED HUMAN. (PDF) Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006.
  86. ↑ Rabbi Avram Reisner: OBSERVING NIDDAH IN OUR DAY: AN INQUIRY ON THE STATUS OF PURITY AND THE PROHIBITION OF SEXUAL ACTIVITY WITH A MENSTRUANT. (PDF) Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006.
  87. ↑ Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz: Reshaping the LAWS OF FAMILY PURITY FOR THE MODERN WORLD ,. (PDF) Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006.
  88. ↑ This section summarizes the CLJS's 2002 Fine Women and the Minyan , rabbinicalassembly.org ( Memento of February 25, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 194 kB) Responsum's review and critique of prior CJLS efforts to adopt an authoritative responsum.
  89. ↑ The slimline siddur with a touch of Bob Dylan The Jewish Chronicle
  90. ↑ Siddur Lev Chadash ( Memento of the original from July 5, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.bwpjc.org
  91. ↑ Laurie Goodstein: In New Prayer Book, Signs of Broad Change . In: The New York Times , September 3, 2007. 
  92. ^ 'Gates of Repentance' replacement advances Reform trends . Jweekly.com. March 26, 2015. Retrieved April 14, 2015.
  93. ↑ Who is a Reconstructionist Jew ?, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/reconstruction.html Jewish Virtuel Library, 2001.
  94. ↑ Nadell, Pamela. Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination 1889–1985 . editor Jewish Women's Life, Beacon Press, 1998. pages 187-188
  95. ↑ Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0017_0_16542.html Jewish Virtual Library. 2001.
  96. ↑ Sandy Sasso ordained as first female reconstructionist rabbi, This Week in History. Jewish Women's Archive. http://jwa.org/thisweek/may/19/1974/sandy-sasso
  97. ^ In Reconstructionist Judaism in the United States, Jewish Women's Archive, http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/reconstructionist-judaism-in-united-states
  98. ^ A b Reconstructionists Pick First Woman, Lesbian As Denominational Leader The Jewish Week
  99. ^ Trailblazing Reconstructionist Deborah Waxman Relishes Challenges of Judaism - Jewish Daily Forward
  100. ↑ Archived copy ( memento of the original from September 24, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.rrc.edu
  101. ↑ About Jewish Renewal ( Memento of the original from October 7, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.aleph.org
  102. ↑ Lynn Gottlieb . Jwa.org. September 11, 2003. Retrieved November 19, 2010.
  103. ↑ 2009 Board Statement on Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah
  104. ↑ 2012 Statement of Support for Women of the Wall | OhalahOhalah
  105. ↑ Aleph Statement of Principles | OhalahOhalah
  106. ^ Board Resolution on Gender Equality | OhalahOhalah
  107. ↑ Statement On Gender Equality | Col ALEPH
  108. ^ Society for Humanistic Judaism - Rabbis and Leadership . Shj.org. Archived from the original on September 28, 2013. Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved March 12, 2012. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.shj.org
  109. ^ Contributions of Jewish Women to Music and Women to Jewish Music . JMWC. Archived from the original on May 12, 2016. Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved July 9, 2012. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.jmwc.org
  110. ^ Contributions of Jewish Women to Music and Women to Jewish Music . JMWC. Archived from the original on May 12, 2016. Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved July 9, 2012. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.jmwc.org
  111. ^ Society for Humanistic Judaism - Reproductive Choice Abortion ( Memento of the original from March 5, 2004 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.shj.org
  112. ↑ Society for Humanistic Judaism condemns limit on Choice ( Memento of the original December 28, 2013 Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link is automatically inserted and not yet tested. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.shj.org
  113. ↑ shj.org ( Memento from July 25, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
  114. ↑ shj.org ( Memento from September 28, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
  115. ↑ The Story of the Rabbis, Der Tagesspiegel , July 28, 2014
  116. ↑ Alina Treiger, The Shy Rabbi . Süddeutsche Zeitung, November 4, 2010
  117. ↑ "Women and Safrut" on hasofret.com ( Memento from September 17, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
  118. ↑ Tur, Orah Hayyim 271 .
  119. ↑ A Female Scribe's Trailblazing Effort - Forward.com
  120. ↑ Simchat Torah with a Soferet's Torah | Jewish Women's Archive
  121. ^ As New Year Dawns, Jewish Women Mark Milestones - Forward.com
  122. ↑ Women's Torah dedicated in Seattle | Jewish Telegraphic Agency
  123. ↑ Julie Seltzer, a female Torah scribe from San Francisco, contributed to the first Torah scroll to be written by a group of women. | j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern Calif ...
  124. ↑ Jeff Kunerth, Orlando Sentinel: Female Jewish scribe helps keep tradition alive - The Portland Press Herald / Maine Sunday Telegram . Pressherald.com. August 23, 2014. Retrieved July 19, 2015.