History of Sports Didactics

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The history of sports didactics includes the changes and developments in meaning, objectives, communication techniques and control mechanisms in the field of physical education since the first systematic study of the special field of physical fitness in ancient Greece. At the same time, it presents itself as a history of the subject's self-discovery, as revealed, for example, in the historical struggle for the appropriate naming of the field of education.

Greek antiquity

Conceptually, the history of sports didactics has its origins in ancient Greece. Based on the basic term ancient Greek διδάσκειν didáskein = 'to teach', a rich word field arose in ancient Greece, which already marks a more intensive systematic preoccupation with the problem area of ​​teaching and learning. Terms such as “didáskalos” for “teacher”, “didaskaleion” for “school”, “didaskalía” for “teaching”, “didaskálion” for “learned” or “didaktikós” for “teaching activity” developed. From this word field, the compound known today as “didactics” was formed in ancient Greek διδακτική τέχνη ( didaktikè téchnē) with the meaning “technology”, “art”, “science” of teaching and learning and, since the 1960s, the task field “didactics of physical exercises "And the compound" Sportdidaktik ".

The specialist responsible for the orientation of physical education was in the classical era of the "gymnastikós", the sports teacher who, according to the teachings of the gymnastic art, the "gymnastiké téchne", in the "gymnásion", the "sports facility", according to certain rules had to teach. An elementary teaching and learning subject was the so-called “ pentathlon ”, a pentathlon consisting of long jump, short distance run, discus throw, javelin throw and wrestling, which should represent a broad spectrum of physical abilities. The systematic physical formation of young people, which, according to the ancient historian Flavius ​​Philostratos (gymnastics, chapter 14), was associated with hygienic and dietetic teachings, was accorded a high priority in the philosophical schools alongside spiritual orientation .

In the early days, the didactics, which acted in the service of a holistic educational mandate, was geared towards the principle of maximum performance according to a principle of Homer . It became the educational guideline of the aristocratic upper class and had to prove itself in the form of soldier qualities in the wars: With the words: αἰὲν ἀριστεύειν καὶ ὑπείροχον ἔμμεναι ἄλλων : " Always be the first and outdo all others in the Hippolochos." Iliad his son Glaucus in the Trojan War . As the highest didactic maxim, this principle was still important in the classical democratic era, when the efforts in the long training phases were geared towards the Olympic Games with their attractive prizes for the winners, which are due every four years . It was still about the mutual outperformance of the athletes and about the glory for themselves and the polis . Since the Swiss cultural historian Jacob Burckhardt , one speaks accordingly of the so-called agonal principle of the epoch.

But even in the classical period, differences can be made out between the ideas of sport didactics of the individual city-states: For example, in the warrior society of Sparta the "art of war" and a corresponding focus of gymnastic training on the development of the basic properties of strength and endurance as well as training in weapons technology were part of it Gun barrels and the handling of military equipment in the foreground. The ancient historians Pausanias (VIII, 26) and Lukian of Samosata (Anacharsis chap. 38) mention the so-called "Platanistas", a game of battle and war about the possession of a small river island. In contrast to this, Athens' upbringing, which was influenced by the philosophical schools, favored an education in the sense of the ideal of Kalokagathia . The term "beauty and goodness" describes physical, moral and spiritual perfection. It was propagated as a holistic ideal of education primarily by the philosopher and educator Socrates , prepared didactically and vividly handed down to our time in Plato's dialogues . In his “ Politeia ” Plato formulated his ideal of the educated person in the sense of the Kalokagathia as follows: “ Whoever combines intellectual education and physical efficiency in the most beautiful way and makes them serviceable to the soul to the right degree is, in our opinion, the perfectly educated and harmoniously composed Human ",

Roman antiquity

Human education in Roman antiquity continues for a long time in the tradition of the Greek educational system and its didactics due to the Greek teachers used by the wealthy upper class to educate their descendants. In Roman education, too, in addition to the disciplined military training on the Martian field outside the gates of Rome and the appropriate development of appropriate skills in physical fitness and weapon technology, the so-called "exercitia", ideas of a holistically educated humanity occupy a large space: In connection with The Roman satirist Juvenal wrote a sentence about the birth of a child, mostly quoted in abbreviated form, which addresses the connection between physical and mental health, which is not to be understood as a given but as a wishful imagination, and for the realization of which it is necessary to pray: [... ] orandum est, ut sit mens sana in corpore sano. ( One should pray that a healthy mind will combine with a healthy body ) (Satire 10,356). In the Latin “ut sit” the satirist hides the potential for interpretation that this desired connection should also be understood as a didactic task.

middle Ages

The early Middle Ages marked a gap in educational ideas between monastic scholarship, as presented in the " Artes liberales " (the seven liberal arts), and the knightly ideals of an upper class geared towards combat, weapons technology and physical abilities. In his verse novel “ Gregorius ” , the poet Hartmann von Aue (around 1186) expresses the knight's class- conscious, contemptuous look down on the “book-making” of scholars : “ Anyone who has stayed in school - as long as he is expelled from it - the twelfth of equestrianism Year, - that must truly forever - then live like the priests . "(Gregorius v. 1377) The knighthood endeavors through intensive training by specialized teachers, through regular training and the demonstration of knightly competencies in tournaments , feuds and wars, to assert itself as the highest class in the order of estates and to justify its superiority. Physical fitness in riding, fencing, crossbow shooting, tournaments and other physical skills such as running, trench jumping, javelin throwing or stone throwing also creates a ranking among the knights themselves and a corresponding social reputation. In his verse novel “Tristrant”, the poet Eilhart von Oberge reports that the legendary King Marke became aware of Tristan because of his outstanding achievements in a fighting game and brought him to his court. The “Ritterspiegel” (Le livre de Chevalerie) of the knight Geoffroy de Charny (1300–1356) and Johannes Rothe (around 1410) list, in contrast to the seven scholastic arts, seven “agility” that the high medieval knight should be able to master : Riding, swimming, shooting, climbing, tournaments and jousting , wrestling and fencing and courting. Some of them have already been didactically prepared in special textbooks. Riding lessons, fencing books, tournament lessons and in 1538 the first swimming textbook by university teacher Nikolaus Wynmann with the title “Columbetes sive de arte natandi”, which already deals with the technique of breaststroke swimming , were created .

Early modern age

Under the dominance of monastic and monastic upbringing, the time of humanism still shows an ambivalent picture with regard to the assessment of play and physical fitness: On the one hand, while studying antiquity, scholars admired the Greek " gymnastics " with its high appreciation of the balanced ideal of physical and mental education the Kalokagathia, which can be seen in the conversation of Master Joachim Camerarius (“dialogus de gymnasiis”) from 1544. In his satirical novel “Gargantua and Pantagruel”, the doctor François Rabelais (1483–1553) paints a picture of a comprehensive, playful physical and mental education. Hieronymus Mercurialis wrote the laudatory work “De arte gymnastica” in Venice in 1573. And the reformers Martin Luther (in his “Tischreden”) and the Swiss Zwingli (in his “Lehrbüchlein”, Basel 1523) advocated popular exercises such as running, jumping, stone throwing, wrestling and fencing as “sensible entertainment and relaxation”. On the other hand, in the post-Lutheran period, for example in the “Gotha School Regulations” of 1654, an anti-corporal prohibition mentality prevailed, which saw offensive behavior in “snowballs”, ice skating, swimming and “violent games”.

With the publication of Didactica magna by the philosopher and pedagogue Johann Amos Comenius , the ancient Greek term didactics was rediscovered in 1657 and reintroduced into the educational system. The educational repertoire of Comenius already included physical exercises and movement games. He placed his all-encompassing, systematically laid out didactics under the motto “teach all all encompassing” (“omnes omnia omnino excoli”) (Didactica magna, chap. 11, column 49). Its didactic principles such as clarity, action orientation or structure formation in teaching are still valid in all subject didactics today. His main work, the Pampaedia (= "allergy"). also shows its pedagogical orientation, which does not aim at a branch training in the sense of a subdivision of subjects, but at the education of the human being as a whole.

With the philanthropists (= "human friends" ). Representatives of a reform pedagogical movement of the time of the Enlightenment , the systematically organized school sport began. Friedrich Eberhard von Rochow founded a country school in 1773. He was followed by Johann Bernhard Basedow's Philanthropinum Dessau in 1774 and Christian Gotthilf Salzmann's educational institution in Schnepfenthal in 1784 . Compulsory lessons in "gymnastics" or "gymnastics" took place in the soon over 60 philanthropists in Germany, Switzerland, France and Russia. A new didactic was developed for this purpose. According to the Viennese professor Hans Groll, the “systematization of physical exercises” began with the philanthropists . She enriched the teaching with further principles, such as the prohibition of corporal punishment, the consideration of age and child-appropriate teaching or the principle of playful learning. The most important representatives of this reform direction, such as Joachim Heinrich Campe (1746–1818), Ernst Christian Trapp (1745–1818), Christian Gotthilf Salzmann (1744–1811) and Johann Christoph Friedrich GutsMuths (1759–1839), disseminated their tried and tested knowledge and objectives in Lehr - and workbooks that already made a clear connection between theory and practice by combining target programs and methodical implementation. The subtitle of GutsMuth's main work "Gymnastics for the Young" ("A contribution to the necessary improvement of physical education") marks the didactic focus on physical training. But free play and the promotion of sociability also found their place in this didactic concept. He also wrote a “textbook on the art of swimming” (1798) and offered an arsenal of teaching and learning aids.

The German gymnastics movement , whose most important representative was the pedagogue Johann Friedrich Ludwig Christoph Jahn (1778–1852), known as the “gymnastics father” , continued to build on the ideas of the philanthropists . Under Jahn, the gymnastics movement took on a ideological character in view of the Napoleonic foreign rule, and his appropriately designed "patriotic gymnastics" assumed a defensive character. As elementary educational goals he formulates: " War exercises, even if without a rifle, namely build decency, awaken and invigorate the sense of order, get used to obedience and attention, teach the individual to be part of a larger whole ." (Jahn / Eiselen, German gymnastics 1816, XVII).

Such didactic objectives led to the fact that Jahn's "German gymnastics" was reanimated in the National Socialist physical education and "physical discipline" and experienced a new bloom. Jahn understood his "gymnastics" as the totality of all physical physical exercises, from equipment exercises to swimming, fencing, games to hiking. Didactically they were aimed at training for a patriotic war of liberation . He enriched the “German Art of Gymnastics” he developed for this purpose, above all, by inventing new forms of play, gymnastics equipment and by inventing terminology with which gymnastics teachers and gymnasts could express themselves and communicate with one another in a subject-specific manner. Jahn's vocabulary was used well beyond the middle of the 20th century, ranging from the technical term "gymnastics" in Germany, Austria and Switzerland to the gymnastics teacher, the gym, the gym, the gym, the gym shoe, the gym shorts or the gym equipment , in use and was only then increasingly replaced by the term “sport”. Crucial for this was the endeavor to break away from the national and patriotic ideas of gymnasts in the direction of a new, cosmopolitan sport culture. A very differentiated technical vocabulary for the sport of apparatus gymnastics has remained to this day . With his motto "Frisch-Fromm-Fröhlich-Frei" , which became the gymnast's motto in life, and which he had attached to the gable of his house in Freyburg an der Unstrut , Jahn already documented a didactic concept that was geared towards a fully human upbringing .

The Bohemian art historian and co-founder of the Turner movement Sokol , Miroslav Tyrš , represented similar ideas of physical education as Jahn in the comparable fight for the freedom of the Czech people, but explicitly linked them with the ancient ideal of Kalokagathy.

Modern times

The scientific self-discovery phase

The beginning of modern sports didactics can be set with the maturation and state recognition of the subject as a full scientific discipline with university research and teaching assignments, specifically with the appointment of the first full professors for the subject and the establishment of the first chairs in Germany and Austria in the 1960s.

Until the mid-1960s, the subject was still widely understood as a pure “movement subject” that counterbalanced the “seating subjects” and had to develop motor skills. It was oriented accordingly to the requirements of practical sports teaching and designed suitable methodologies for the individual disciplines, such as swimming, gymnastics or athletics. The primary objectives in school and competitive sport were the objective of “performance optimization in the physical and technical areas” and the health aspect. Other alternatives were only questioned sporadically.

A systematic examination of questions relating to sports didactics on a scientific level only began when the Hamburg sports lecturer Konrad Paschen was ministerially commissioned in 1961 to design a didactic for the new subject of physical education in schools as part of the redesign of physical exercise. Paschen was based on the conceptual model of the didactic triangle designed by the educationalist Wolfgang Klafki , which depicted the teaching process in the geometric shape of a triangle in which the three exponents students, the material to be taught and the teacher were assigned to each other. The circle surrounding them represented the social system within which education had to take place, which accordingly provided the relevant norms. The following decades were dominated by a heated debate about which of the Poles should be assigned a didactic priority. Paschen had in his proposal of "factual orientation", i. H. Priority has been given to conveying the “cultural values” created in the course of sport development, namely the types of sport. Wolfgang Söll also followed the same line of thinking of handing down the grown cultural assets. His ideas, which came from sports practice, were primarily based on the "motor dimension". As so-called "sports didactics", they should dominate the discussion for a long time. It was opposed to efforts by the educators Hartmut von Hentig and Jürgen Funke, who, in contrast to Coubertin's guideline of " Citius, altius, fortius ", advocated the "abandonment of school sports" and instead forms of activity such as trimming, yoga, sauna visits and autogenic training as well as suggested dispensing with grading.

Critics such as Josef N. Schmitz or Ommo Grupe wanted their didactic drafts to be based on the needs of children and young people and to prioritize their interests. In contrast to the “object-related”, they propagated a so-called “anthropological curriculum”. As a third parliamentary group with the 1968 generation, the politically oriented so-called " New Left " tried to structure the curricula based on social change through sport. Guided by the ideas of the left-wing intellectuals Theodor W. Adorno , Max Horkheimer and Ernst Bloch , she tried to gain influence in the new curricula through her co-determination rights in the committees and through her own publications of the slogan “ March through the institutions ” coined by Rudi Dutschke . In addition, the so-called "black didactics" was also practiced in everyday school life, according to which the objectives and design of the lessons were determined by the preferences and skills of the respective sports teacher regardless of the curriculum specifications. The sports scientist Annemarie Seybold collected the “principles” according to which the new subject didactics should be based. Stefan Grössing wrote the first textbook on "Sports Didactics", which reflected the state of research of the time and was intended to serve the new training of sports teachers.

With the establishment of the first chairs for “Theory of Physical Education” and “Sports Pedagogy” in the Federal Republic of Germany and Austria (Fetz, Frankfurt 1968 - Groll, Vienna 1969 - Grupe, Tübingen 1970), the possibility, but also the compulsion, arose To intensify didactic research in the sense of a holistic human education, to scientifically substantiate it and to bring it on a consensus course. Friedrich Fetz did this primarily in the field of methodology. Hans Groll and Ommo Grupe were the pioneers in researching the meaning and the resulting objectives for the newly established educational field of sport. With the gradual abandonment of the term “physical education” in the 1970s and the move towards “sports education” and “sports didactics ”, a distance from the educational theory didactics classified as idealistic and the demand for sport-specific empirical basic research were connected. With empirical research, well-founded knowledge about the didactic starting situation of the learning processes can be gained. With the curricular operationalization of the objectives in the physical and sport-technical learning area, an objectification and evaluation of the learning results was achievable. In addition, the largely self-sufficient subject didactics, which were still self-sufficient, gave rise to new tasks from the social environment, such as the integration of immigrants into the class, drug education or the ability to think about, person-related, meaningful design of the increasing leisure spaces for which a "motor skills curriculum" too short. In addition to the "factual orientation" on the teaching and learning materials, there had to be a "problem orientation" with independent critical reflection by the learners. It was about the development of “action and reflection skills” including the important field of life sport. This is how the educationalist Siegbert A. Warwitz put it in a book contribution in 1974:

" Sports education is initially aimed at people's own physical movement, doing and acting, but must also enable them to recognize, assess and shape psychomotor activities in the larger context of the cultural phenomenon and social problem of sport ."

In his opinion, this educational task was economically sensible and could only be performed competently through cooperation between the subjects. Warwitz therefore advocated an “ opening up of sports didactics in the direction of interdisciplinary cooperation ” with the theoretical subjects. Sports pedagogue Dieter Brodtmann took a similar position a year later when he denounced the short-sighted “ didactic self-limitation through the exclusion of interdisciplinary objectives ” in an article in the magazine “Sportwissenschaft” , and also called for an interdisciplinary reorientation of the overly narrow subject didactics and called for “ the social To make processes in physical education an object of reflection and research ”.

The main reason for the expansion of sports didactics was the effort to regain the holistic human education and to develop an overall picture of the complex reality of life, both of which threatened to be lost in the face of the fragmentation of subjects. It was about problem-oriented, multi-perspective and multi-dimensional learning in an interdisciplinary framework. Project-oriented teaching and project teaching have been rediscovered as appropriate forms of implementation and have been further developed in accordance with the advanced didactic experience and knowledge.

In the 1990s, the sports teacher and theater artist Rainer Pawelke set out to counter his ideas and impulses with a " musical-ethetic culture of movement and experience " with the creation of his high-profile dream factory , the educational instrumentalization of sports events and the overloading of constantly new learning goals and enjoyment of movement were in the foreground. In the didactic complex of this “ new sports culture ”, however, the insight gained acceptance that sports didactics also deal cognitively more thoroughly with the dangers and problems inherent in sports , such as extreme sports , risk sports or spectator sports , and experiences typical of sports such as fear , courage , aggression and corresponding group dynamic processes must in order to be able to find a critical sense of purpose for one's own sport. Popular new forms of sport such as parkour , fun sports and adventure sports as well as new learning and relaxation techniques such as mental training , autogenic training and yoga were also included in the target program of the new sports culture . In university teaching, the pedagogical colleges, step by step, which had the same status as the universities, advanced didactic research and the corresponding training of prospective sports teachers . B. the academic teaching and learning fields in so-called "subject areas", such as the so-called "musical-aesthetic subject area", cooperatively merged under certain complex tasks.

The consolidation phase

The historical names for the educational subject area sport have changed considerably in its long history and with the change so have the ideas of the meaning, objectives and communication methods. They are reflected in the different names "gymnastics" (Greeks, philanthropists, Scandinavians), "gymnastics", "gymnastics lessons" or "gymnastics education" (Jahn, Gaulhofer-Streicher), "physical fitness" or "physical education" (GDR), "physical exercises "," Physical discipline "or" physical education "(Germany, Austria)," sport "(England)," physical education "or" physical education "," exercise, play and sport ", with which very different conceptions of meaning and corresponding communication techniques and organizational forms are combined , depending on whether the physical performance optimization, the military fitness, the health aspect, the leisure time orientation, the joy of the aesthetic movement or whether political, psychological or educational ambitions were in the foreground. Up to the present day there is a struggle to find the appropriate term for the socially desired and scientifically founded requirements of school sport.

The discussions that were still fierce in the second half of the 20th century about the didactic orientation of the subject, its positioning in the canon of subjects, its meaning and tasks within the sports sector, and its problem complexes to be dealt with within the framework of societal requirements gradually entered a phase of consolidation after the turn of the century. The extreme positions had moved towards one another and agreed as mutual additions or alternatives. The idea of ​​a pure “movement subject” had largely become obsolete in the consciousness of the other subjects. The sport had found its recognized equal place in research, science and teaching. The “theory of physical education” had further differentiated itself into sub-disciplines such as sports education , sports psychology , sports sociology , sports history , movement theory or training theory , and sports didactics had an important place alongside them. Sport was understood as part of a way of life in the leisure society, which should do justice to every person involved in sport, and which sport didactics had to develop. In terms of lifelong sports, it had to offer different meanings, objectives and forms of communication for school sports, high-performance sports, leisure and popular sports, toddler sports and senior sports. Sports mediation was accordingly no longer primarily understood as promoting motor skills and performance. Multi- perspective research and teaching as well as multi-dimensional learning , as they were developed in the 1970s and still had to be implemented against resistance, became the undisputed standard of sports didactics in research and teaching. Didactic principles such as “closeness to life”, “interests” or “leisure time” gave the interdisciplinary opening of the subject in the form of participation in interdisciplinary tasks in project form in the curriculum , which was demanded at an early stage, an unquestionable validity. The orientation of didactics towards a lifelong sporting activity determined by individual interests, already demanded by Konrad Paschen, required a corresponding “ability to act”, even beyond the conventional canon of school sport. Extracurricular sporting activities of the changed sport culture such as parkour , breakdance , skateboarding , such as fun sport and adventure sport had to be didactically assessed and developed.

The systematic updating of empirical research methods, but also school development in the sense of self-reflective school development planning , which both the changing needs of learners and the interest in the transmission of historically grown cultural assets and their further development as well as those due to social changes, are seen as essential future tasks can meet the new requirements that arise. They can only be mastered sensibly and effectively in a functioning subject association, as the preambles of most curricula meanwhile dictate. Appropriate quality assurance of teacher training , political influence on the part of didacticians, but also the creation of scientifically based instruments for self-evaluation of research and teaching are seen as guarantors of a continued educational reform . As an ongoing task, sport didactics faces the problem of bringing innovative requirements from the theoretical area of ​​the neighboring sciences, but also from politics and society, into a feasible, meaningful relationship with the practical conditions and possibilities of school reality, without curricular specifications remaining empty promises. Examples are the demands for inclusion , integration or co-education .

literature

  • Hajo Bernett: The pedagogical reorganization of the bourgeois physical exercise by the philanthropists. 3. Edition. Hofmann, Schorndorf 1972.
  • Julius Bohus: Sports History. Society and sport from Mycenae to today . Munich 1986, ISBN 3-405-13136-7 .
  • Michael Bridegroom: Sports Didactics. A textbook in 12 lessons . Meyer & Meyer: Aachen 2003.
  • Kai Brodersen (Ed.): Philostratos: Sport in antiquity (Peri Gymnastikes / About training). Marix, Wiesbaden 2015, ISBN 978-3-7374-0961-2 . (bilingual edition with introduction)
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  • Hans Groll : The systematists of physical exercises. Österreichischer Bundesverlag, Vienna 1955.
  • Hans Groll: The idea and shape of today's physical education. 3 volumes. Vienna / Munich 1962–68.
  • Stefan Großering: Introduction to sports didactics. 9th edition. Limpert Publishing House, Bad Homburg 2007.
  • Sven Güldenpfennig: Limits of bourgeois sports education. On the concept of society in didactics of physical education and sports curriculum. Cologne 1973.
  • W. Körbs: From the meaning of physical exercises at the time of the Italian Renaissance. Weidmann, Berlin 1938.
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  • Rainer Pawelke (ed.): New sports culture . Lichtenau 1995.
  • Hans-Günter Rolff: Studies on a theory of school development. Beltz Verlag, Weinheim 2007.
  • Bruno Saurbier: History of physical exercises. 10th edition. Limpert Publishing House, Frankfurt 1978
  • Annemarie Seybold : Didactic principles in physical education. Schorndorf 1972
  • Siegbert Warwitz : Interdisciplinary Sports Education. Didactic perspectives and model examples of interdisciplinary teaching. (= Contributions to teaching and research in physical education. Volume 55). Verlag Hofmann, Schorndorf 1974, DNB 740560026 .
  • Siegbert A. Warwitz, Anita Rudolf: The didactic thought picture. In: Dies .: Project teaching. Didactic principles and models . Verlag Hofmann, Schorndorf 1977, ISBN 3-7780-9161-1 , pp. 20-22.
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Individual evidence

  1. ^ Adolf Kaegi: Benseler's Greek-German school dictionary. 12th edition. Publishing house Teubner, Leipzig / Berlin 1904, p. 200.
  2. ↑ ibid. P. 167.
  3. ↑ Kai Brodersen (Ed.): Philostratos: Sport in antiquity (Peri Gymnastikes / About training). Marix, Wiesbaden 2015.
  4. ↑ Ilias 6,208 and 11,784 in the translation of Johann Heinrich Voss
  5. ^ Julius Bohus: Sports history. Society and sport from Mycenae to today . Munich 1986.
  6. ↑ cit. n. Bruno Saurbier: History of physical exercises. 10th edition. Limpert publishing house, Frankfurt 1978, p. 9.
  7. ↑ K. Huber: Theory of gymnastic education among the Romans. Langensalza 1934.
  8. ↑ Saurbier p. 62f.
  9. ↑ Johannes Rothe: The Ritterspiegel . ed. v. Christoph Huber and Pamela Kalnig, Verlag Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2009.
  10. ↑ W. Körbs: From the meaning of physical exercises at the time of the Italian Renaissance. Weidmann, Berlin 1938.
  11. ^ Johann Amos Comenius: Great Didactics: The complete art of teaching all people everything. 10th edition. ed. v. Andreas Flitner. Klett-Cotta, 2008. (Original 1657)
  12. ^ Hajo Bernett: The educational redesign of the bourgeois physical exercise by the philanthropists. 3. Edition. Schorndorf 1972.
  13. ↑ cf. Heinz-Elmar Tenorth: History of Education. Introduction to the basics of their modern development. 5th edition. Juventa, Weinheim 2010, p. 91.
  14. ↑ Hans Groll: The systematists of physical exercises. Österreichischer Bundesverlag, Vienna 1955.
  15. ↑ cf. Johann Christoph Friedrich Guts Muths: Gymnastics for the youth. [based on the original edition 1793 by Johann Christoph Friedrich Guts Muths], Wilhelm Limpert, Dresden 1928.
  16. ↑ GutsMuths: Games for exercise and relaxation of the body and mind for the youth, their educators and all friends of the innocent joys of youth. 1796.
  17. ^ Hajo Bernett: Sports Policy in the Third Reich. Schorndorf 1973.
  18. ^ Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, Ernst Eiselen: The German gymnastics art. 1816.
  19. ^ Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, Ernst Eiselen: The German gymnastics art. 1816, chapter "Gymnastics Laws"
  20. ^ Diethelm Blecking: The Slavic Sokol Movement: Contributions to the history of sport and nationalism in Eastern Europe. ed. v. of the Research Center for East Central Europe, Dortmund 1991.
  21. ↑ Konrad Paschen: Didactics of physical education: foundation and design. Verlag Limpert, Frankfurt am Main 1961 (4th edition 1972)
  22. ↑ Wolfgang Söll: Differentiation in physical education. Schorndorf 1973.
  23. ↑ Hartmut v. Hentig: learning opportunities for sport. In: Sports Science. 2, 1972, pp. 239-257.
  24. ^ Josef N. Schmitz: Didactic analyzes and fundamentals. 3. Edition. Schorndorf 1972.
  25. ↑ a b Ommo Grupe: Anthropological foundations and pedagogical objectives of physical education. In: Introduction to the theory of physical education. 3. Edition. Verlag Hofmann, Schorndorf 1973.
  26. ↑ Sven Güldenpfennig: Limits of bourgeois sports education. On the concept of society in didactics of physical education and sports curriculum. Cologne 1973.
  27. ↑ JO Böhme among others: Sport in late capitalism. Frankfurt 1971.
  28. ↑ Annemarie Seybold: Didactic principles in physical education. Schorndorf 1972.
  29. ↑ Stefan Großering: Introduction to Sports Didactics. 1st edition. Verlag Limpert, Bad Homburg 1976 (9th edition 2007)
  30. ↑ Friedrich Fetz: General methodology of physical exercises. 10th edition. Vienna 1996.
  31. ↑ Hans Groll: Idea and form of physical education today. 3 volumes, Vienna-Munich 1962-68
  32. ↑ Meinhart Volkamer: Experiments in Sport Psychology. Hofmann, Schorndorf 1974.
  33. ^ Siegbert Warwitz: The sport science experiment. Planning - implementation - evaluation - interpretation. Hofmann, Schorndorf 1976.
  34. ↑ Walter Kempf: Problems of the sports curriculum. Possibilities of new didactic-curricular research approaches. Scientific state examination work GHS, Karlsruhe 1976.
  35. ↑ Jürgen Lange: On the current situation in sports didactics. In: Sports Science. Focus issue “Sportdidaktik” 3–4, 1975, p. 225ff.
  36. ^ Siegbert Warwitz: The need to supplement physical education. In: Ders .: Interdisciplinary sports education. Didactic perspectives and model examples of interdisciplinary teaching . Verlag Hofmann, Schorndorf 1974, p. 10.
  37. ↑ ibid. Pp. 40-52.
  38. ↑ Dieter Brodtmann: Limits of sports didactics. In: Sports Science. 3-4, 1975, p. 292.
  39. ↑ Dieter Brodtmann: Limits of sports didactics. In: Sports Science. 3-4, 1975, pp. 286-297.
  40. ^ Siegbert Warwitz, Anita Rudolf: Project teaching. Didactic principles and models . Verlag Hofmann, Schorndorf 1977.
  41. ^ Karl Frey: The project method. Weinheim 1982.
  42. ^ Rainer Pawelke (ed.): New sport culture . Lichtenau 1995, pp. 360-372.
  43. ^ Siegbert Warwitz, Anita Rudolf: Experience-design-comprehend sport in projects. In: Rainer Pawelke (ed.): New sport culture . Lichtenau 1995, pp. 360-372.
  44. ↑ Klaus Willimczik: Interdisciplinary Sports Science - The Way to a Paradigmatic Justification. In: S. Kornmesser, G. Schurz (Ed.): The multiparadigmatic structure of the sciences . Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, pp. 181–227.
  45. ↑ Beate Großegger, Bernhard Heinzlmaier Youth Culture Guide , öbvhpt 2002.
  46. ^ Siegbert A. Warwitz: From the sense of the car. Why people face dangerous challenges. In: DAV (Ed.): Berg 2006 . Munich / Innsbruck / Bozen 2006.
  47. ^ Roland Singer, Klaus Willimczik (ed.): Social science research methods in sports science . Czwalina, Hamburg 2002.
  48. ↑ Hans-Günter Rolff: Studies on a theory of school development. Beltz Verlag, Weinheim 2007.
  49. ↑ Guy Kempfert, Hans-Günter Rolff: Quality and Evaluation. A guide to educational quality management. Beltz Verlag, Weinheim 2005.