Sibling marriage

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Sibling or sibling marriage refers to the marriage of relatives between biological siblings or half-siblings. It is a rare special form of endogamy , marriage within one's own social group. Worldwide it falls under the traditional prohibition of incest , sexual intercourse between close blood relatives. Sexual contact between a brother and his biological sister has been taboo among the vast majority of peoples since historical records began and is usually viewed as unnatural. However, there are a number of exceptions. They contradict the assumption, which is widespread in anthropological, sociological and ethnological specialist literature, that the prohibition of incest is universal in all societies.

In some historical cultures, sibling marriage was considered legitimate within the ruling family or even practiced as a sacred custom and elevated to the religious sphere. In ancient times, it was also widespread among the population in Egypt . In ancient Athens , half-siblings were allowed to marry if they had different mothers. Strict prohibitions, however, existed in the Middle Ages and in the early modern period due to church regulations on consanguinity as an obstacle to marriage .

Some myths of polytheistic religions offer narratives of sibling marriages of deities; the best known examples are Zeus ( Jupiter ) and Hera ( Juno ) as well as Osiris and Isis .

Ancient oriental cultures

Hittites

With the Hittites the sibling marriage was in the 14th century BC. Strictly forbidden, offenders were punishable by death. This emerges from the contract that the Great King Šuppiluliuma I concluded with his brother-in-law Ḫukkana, the ruler in Ḫajaša . In older research it was believed that the text of the treaty could infer that in Ḫajaša, an area in northeastern Anatolia , the sister was considered as a possible sexual partner and also as a wife; the Hittites had known of it and rejected this custom as barbaric. According to the current state of research, this assumption is due to a wrong interpretation of the text; In reality, there is no talk of socially acceptable sexual relationships among siblings in Ḫajaša.

Even a presumed evidence of sibling marriage among the Hittites has not proven to be conclusive. In older research, based on genealogical data from the legend of a land donation deed, it was believed that the Hittite incest ban was temporarily ignored in the ruling house. On the seal, the great king Arnuwanda I describes himself as the “son” of his predecessor Tutḫalija , while his wife Ašmunikkal appears as the daughter of Tutḫalija. A number of researchers interpreted this as an example of sibling marriage in the early history of Anatolia. In the more recent specialist literature, however, one sees only the son-in-law of his predecessor in Arnuwanda; presumably he was adopted by him and could therefore be called his son.

Elam

In the kingdom of Elam , according to an older research opinion , sibling marriage was practiced in the ruling house. However, it is nowhere directly attested in the sources, but is only deduced from the fact that sometimes the successor of a king referred to himself as the “son of the sister” ( Elamisch Ruhušak ) of his predecessor and also the name “wife-sister” for a queen occurs in writing. However, these expressions are not compelling proof of marriage with a biological sister, because it is also possible that a non-family queen was accepted into the family as his “sister” after her marriage to the ruler and was also legally “appointed” sister.

Old Egypt

According to the Osiris myth, one of the most important myths of the ancient Egyptian religion , the benevolent god Osiris is married to his sister Isis . The wicked brother of Osiris, Seth , also lives in a sibling marriage; his wife is Nephthys , Isis' sister.

Following the example of Osiris, some pharaohs chose sisters as chief wives. In the people, however, sibling marriage seems to have been rare. There is no clear evidence of a marriage between full siblings. In lovers and married couples, the address "my brother" or "my sister" was common; it was intended to express the family relationship and as a rule did not refer to real blood relationships. A sibling marriage in the family of a commander of Libyan mercenaries from the time of the 22nd dynasty is clearly documented . Thus, this practice also occurred among foreigners.

Judaism

In early Judaism, the assessment of sibling marriage was subject to a fundamental change. This development is reflected in contradicting evaluations in various books of the Tanach . An older tradition approvingly describes the family and clan-centered conditions of a pre-state early period, in which some relatives marriages that were later prohibited were not objected to. The Book of Genesis shows that there was an ancient tradition of legitimate marriage between half-siblings who came from the same father. In the 20th chapter of the book of Genesis it is told that the patriarch Abraham passed his wife Sarah as his sister and later said in explanation: “By the way, she is really my sister, a daughter of my father, just not a daughter of my mother. In this way she could become my wife ”( Gen 20.12  EU ). The story of the rape of the king's daughter Tamar by her half-brother Amnon (2 Samuel 13: 1–22) provides evidence of the early royal period . This act angered King David , the father of the siblings, but was not punished by him. So she could go unpunished because the head of the family wanted it that way. It was only because the rape as such dishonored, not because of the close relationship, that Amnon's crime was considered shameful. Before the act, Tamar tried to dissuade her half-brother from his plan by suggesting that he talk to the king, then he would “not refuse” her, that is, agree to a marriage. At the time this story was written, half-siblings were still legal to marry if they had different mothers.

Later, the assessment changed completely by relevant circles, the conventional toleration was reversed. In the book of Deuteronomy it is solemnly proclaimed: "Cursed who lies down with his sister, with the daughter of his father or with the daughter of his mother" ( Dtn 27,22  EU ). Also in the context of the incest prohibitions of the post-exilic “ Holiness Law ”, which also applied to non-Jewish fellow citizens, sexual intercourse between siblings was prohibited in principle. Half-siblings were expressly included in the ban ( Lev 18.9  EU and 18.11). Violation was punishable by death; the guilty should be "wiped out before the eyes of the sons of their people". Anyone who has "exposed the shame of his sister" - that is, "exposed her nudity" - must bear the consequences of his guilt ( Lev 20.17  EU ). In the early Roman Empire , the Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria commented on and defended the incest prohibitions of the holiness law. He said that these regulations should not be regarded as a mere peculiarity of Judaism, but could claim universal validity, because disregarding them would have bad consequences. The prohibition of sibling marriage teaches self-control and good morals. Philo combined his fundamental support for exogamy , the choice of spouses outside the family, with criticism of the Greek and Egyptian tendency to marry close relatives.

Lydia

In the Lydian dynasty of the Mermnaden , sibling marriage was established in the 7th century BC. Chr. Repeatedly attests: King Sadyattes II married his sister. Only the son from this marriage, Alyattes II , was entitled to the succession, because the Sadyattes children of other women were considered bastards. Alyattes also married his sister.

Persian Empire

In the dynasty of the Persian great kings , the Achaemenids , several marriages were concluded between half-siblings. The great king Cambyses II († 522 BC) introduced this custom. After the account of the historian Herodotus , Cambyses first had it clarified whether there was a legal obstacle to his project. When his lawyers certified him in an expert opinion that he could do what he wanted, he married his half-sisters Atossa and Roxane. Both were daughters of his father Cyrus II. The great king Darius II (423-404 BC) married his half-sister Parysatis , the daughter of his father Artaxerxes I. Another well-known case is the marriage of Arsames , a member of the Achaemenid family in the 4th century AD Century BC He was married to his sister Sisygambis . From this marriage Darius III went. , the last Achaemenid ruler. This also concluded a sibling marriage. It is unclear whether his wife Stateira was a full or half sister.

With the Hecatomnids , the relatively independent dynasty of the Persian satraps of Caria , was in the 4th century BC. Sibling marriage practiced. The satrap Maussolos II. (377–353 BC) married his sister Artemisia II , who took over the rule after his death and ruled alone for two years (353–351 BC). Then Maussolos' brother Idrieus (351-344 BC) took over the rule. He was married to his sister Ada , who later became his successor.

Greek cultural area

Archaic and Classical Times

With the Greeks of the archaic and classical times , marriage between full siblings was frowned upon, it was considered " barbaric ". There was, however, a general tendency among the nobility to marry relatives, which tended to be preferred over connection with strangers. Tradition has it that in Athens it was forbidden to marry half-siblings if they were children of the same mother (homomḗtrioi) ; however, if they came from the same father (homopátrioi) , they were allowed to marry. Allegedly, this provision was based on a law introduced by Solon . In research, however, the existence of such a legal regulation is partly disputed and the corresponding practice of the Athenians is traced back to a mere social norm without legal obligation. There are several records of marriages of children of the same father in Athens. In Sicily, the tyrant Dionysius I of Syracuse married his son Dionysius II († after 337 BC) with his half-sister Sophrosyne.

Hellenism

In the Hellenistic world of states, when choosing a wife for ruler, connection with close relatives such as nieces or cousins ​​was common. In some realms it happened that the king and queen were married and siblings at the same time. The tendency towards such marriages was particularly pronounced in Egypt. The sources provide hardly any reliable information about the reasons that led to sibling marriage in Hellenistic dynasties. A possible motive in research is the attempt to prevent external influences and inheritance claims. In Egypt the old pharaonic tradition could offer points of contact, in Asia the Persian familial endogamy. The extent of the imitation of such models is unclear. An essential factor was the religious exaltation of the ruler during his lifetime. It was able to build on pre-Hellenistic ideas and was extended to the members of the royal family. The ruler's cult emphasized the distance between the deified ruling family and the subjects. The resulting increased exclusivity of the royal family could suggest the idea of keeping the lineage pure through unequivocally equal marriage relationships.

Early Ptolemies

Cameo with a portrait of the siblings and married couple Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II.

As far as is known, the marriage of full siblings was first practiced among the Greeks in the dynasty of the Ptolemies , the Diadoch kings of Egypt. The son and successor of the dynasty founder Ptolemaios I and Queen Berenike I , Ptolemaios II , married in 278 BC. His full sister Arsinoë II, eight years older than him . She had previously been married to her half-brother, the Macedonian king Ptolemaios Keraunos , a son of Ptolemy I by another woman. Since the Egyptians regarded Ptolemy II as pharaoh, his connection with the sister could be considered legitimate by the local population according to the tradition of pharaonic endogamy. However, it contradicted the traditional sense of propriety of the Greeks. The contemporary poet Sotades von Maroneia therefore targeted royal incest in mocking verses. Sotades was severely punished for this audacity; according to one tradition he was imprisoned, according to another even drowned. Later, the historian Memnon of Herakleia expressed his disapproval, and the geographer Pausanias stated that the king had violated Macedonian custom by following an ancient Egyptian custom. These sources reflect the view of an anti-Ptolemaic tradition that not only condemned incest, but also portrayed the dynasty as perverse in general.

For the Egyptian royal court, however, sibling marriage became an important element of the dynasty's self-portrayal. Ptolemy II purposefully created a ruler cult: He had his deceased parents venerated as "saving gods" and also claimed a divine status for himself and his wife. The ruling couple was revered as "sibling gods " ( theoí adelphoí ) . Thus the union of the royal siblings received a religious consecration. Arsinoë was honored with the honorable surname Philádelphos ("the one who loves the brother"). This was intended to convey to the subjects the high moral value of fraternal affection and unity in the ruling house. The imperial cult already established by Ptolemy I for the deified Alexander the Great was now extended to the ruling couple, the Alexander priest was henceforth called "Priest of Alexander and the sibling gods". The court did not shy away from establishing a relationship with the highest deities. The court poet Theocritus compared the marriage of Ptolemy II with hierogamy , the “holy wedding” of the Greek father Zeus with his sister Hera. For the native population of Egypt, the comparison with the divine siblings and married couple Osiris and Isis, whose legendary mutual love represented the classic model for conjugal love, was obvious. Arsinoë II was often identified with Isis. After her death, Ptolemy II intensified her cult. Her posthumous worship as a goddess reflected her real political weight during her lifetime, because she was not satisfied with a representative role, but was politically very influential and had also actively participated in national defense. Many places were named after her, numerous statues, reliefs and inscriptions show her great importance.

After the death of Ptolemy II, his son Ptolemy III took over . the royal office. Although he was not the son of Arsinoës II, but came from an earlier marriage of his father, the cult of the "sibling gods" was already so established that Ptolemy III. referred to in his title as their son and thus denied his birth mother.

In the following years almost all queens of the Ptolemaic dynasty were either sisters or cousins ​​or nieces of their husbands. King Ptolemy IV , a grandson of Ptolemy II, followed the example of his grandfather: He married 221/220 BC. His full sister Arsinoë III. This couple was deified and worshiped as "father-loving gods" during their lifetime. His cult was attached to the Alexander the Great. Arsinoë III. appeared on the same level as her husband in sacrificial scenes.

Dynastic entanglements in the Ptolemaic Empire

The next sibling marriage took place in the next generation but one: Ptolemy VI. , a grandson of Ptolemy IV, was born as a child in 176/175 BC. Married his younger full sister Cleopatra II , who later served as co-regent. For the period from 163 to 145 BC An official community government of the royal couple is documented; In the introductory formulas of the documents, the two were regularly mentioned side by side. In the ruler's cult they were worshiped as "mother-loving gods".

After the death of Ptolemy VI. came 145 BC His younger brother Ptolemy VIII came to power. The new ruler took over the widow of his predecessor as his sister-wife. This was the fourth sibling in the Ptolemaic dynasty. Ptolemy VIII had the very young son whom Cleopatra II had from her first marriage murdered; allegedly the prince was killed in the arms of his mother in the middle of the wedding celebrations of the new ruling couple. Cleopatra II succeeded, however, in maintaining her position as official co-ruler in her new marriage. The equality of king and queen is attested in inscriptions, they appear as "the two rulers of Egypt". The royal couple received the cult title "Benevolent Gods".

The religiously supported self-portrayal of the royal family remained largely ineffective during this time, because the stark contrast between the propagandistic exaggeration in the ruler's cult and the family and political reality could hardly be concealed. Ptolemy VIII made himself hated by harsh repression and was discredited by his un-royal appearance and behavior. In the Greek population of the capital Alexandria, his title Euergetes ("benefactor") was reversed, he was called "evildoer" and ridiculed as "fat man". A serious conflict in the royal family had a particularly devastating effect. Cleopatra II had from her marriage to her deceased brother Ptolemy VI. a daughter of the same name, Cleopatra III. This pleased the new ruler, who was her uncle and stepfather. Ptolemy VIII first made the daughter of his brother and his wife his mistress, then he married her in 141/140 BC. As a second wife and raised her to be an equal queen next to her mother. This double marriage with her own full sister and her daughter was unique in the Hellenistic world. Under constitutional law, the two women were placed on the same level; in the official documents they were listed as queens next to her husband, Cleopatra II as "the sister" and Cleopatra III. was referred to as "the woman". All three have now been included in the term “beneficent gods”. Outwardly they appeared united, but in the long run it was not possible to simulate unity. The constellation led to a bitter rivalry between mother and daughter and, as a result, to civil war.

The civil war between the supporters of the king and the partisans of Cleopatra II broke out in 132 BC. Chr. From. For about a year Ptolemy VIII held the upper hand in Alexandria, then his palace was set on fire and he had to go with Cleopatra III. flee to Cyprus, which was part of his kingdom. There he prepared the reconquest. In the meantime Cleopatra II had herself proclaimed sole queen in Alexandria. Her brother and husband were deposed, and his statues were removed. For the first time in the Ptolemaic period, a woman ruled alone. The year 132/131 BC Chr. Counted them as their first year of reign to illustrate the break with the past. She also adopted a new cult name; she called herself "mother-loving saving goddess". However, it could not prevail in all of Egypt. Although she enjoyed the support of the Greek and Jewish population, especially in the capital, her husband had considerable support from the local Egyptians and the troops in the south remained on his side. In addition, she lost her eldest son from her marriage to Ptolemy VIII, the Crown Prince Ptolemy Memphites , because her husband succeeded in having the boy, who was about fourteen years old, brought to Cyprus. There the fled king had his son, in whom he saw a potential rival, murdered before his eyes and had his head, legs and hands cut off. He sent the dismembered corpse to Alexandria, where his mother received it the night before the celebration of her birthday. Cleopatra II then publicly exhibited her son's body parts in order to increase the anger of the masses.

As early as 131/130 BC BC began the attack of the invading forces of the overthrown king from Cyprus. His force advanced rapidly, but conquering the heavily fortified capital, Alexandria, proved very difficult. Ultimately, however, Cleopatra II found himself in a hopeless situation and fled to Syria with the treasury. No later than 126 BC Alexandria was again in the hands of Ptolemy VIII, who took revenge there and ordered a slaughter. Cleopatra III also benefited from his victory. She was now equated in religious propaganda with the "great mother of the gods Isis", which she trumped the cult name of her mother.

Despite the violence and brutality of the conflict, it occurred in 124 BC. To an at least outward reconciliation between Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra II. The defeated ruler returned to Egypt. She now acted alongside Cleopatra III again. as Queen, at least officially continued her marriage to her reigning brother and was re-accepted into the group of three of the “Beneficent Gods”. However, she was no longer the mother of the heir to the throne; after the murder of her son, a son of her daughter and rival had become crown prince.

Late Ptolemies

The successor to Ptolemy VIII came in 116 BC. His son Ptolemy IX. on. He was first married to his sister Cleopatra IV , but this marriage ended in 115 BC. At the instruction of Cleopatra III. dissolved, whereupon the king took his younger sister Cleopatra V. Selene as his wife. His son Ptolemy XII. also entered into a sibling marriage; he married 80/79 BC Chr. Cleopatra VI. Tryphaina . After the death of Ptolemy XII. climbed his still underage son Ptolemy XIII. the throne. This ruler is said to have been married as a child to his older sister Cleopatra VII , who later became Caesar's lover . However, this is denied in recent research, as is the alleged second marriage of Cleopatra VII with her other brother Ptolemy XIV , the successor of Ptolemy XIII.

Seleucids

The Seleucids ruling in the Middle East sometimes preferred marriage to a relative to a foreign dynasty. They probably wanted to prevent attempts by foreign rulers to interfere. A sibling marriage has only been proven with certainty in one single case: King Antiochus III. married 196/195 BC His eldest son and co-regent Antiochus the younger with his daughter Laodike . With his sister and his other daughters, Antiochus III drove. an active marriage policy to build a dynastic system; the fact that he proceeded differently with his crown prince is probably due to a general distrust of foreign dynasties who could gain influence over the internal affairs of his empire through the future queen. Antiochus the Younger died in 193 BC Just like his wife, the wives of his two younger brothers, the kings Seleucus IV and Antiochus IV , were called Laodike. It is possible that all three are one and the same woman. If so, the three sons of Antiochus III. successively married their sister.

Pontus

In the kingdom of Pontus , the ruler's siblings were married in the Mithridatids dynasty with the kings Mithridates IV. (160 / 155–152 / 151 BC) and Mithridates VI. (120–63 BC) attested. Mithridates IV married his sister Laodike Philadelphos . Mithridates VI. accused his wife, who was also called Laodike , of adultery and had her executed.

Epirus

In Epirus the dynasty of the Aiacids , the kings of the Molossians , ruled . Only one sibling marriage is attested: King Alexander II (around 272–242 BC) married his half-sister Olympias , the daughter of his father Pyrrhos I.

Roman Imperial Era

According to Roman law, sibling marriage was forbidden as incest, even with half-siblings. However, the Romans generally tended to be considerate of the different customs of the peoples living in their empire and tolerated their traditional family law relationships. In Egypt, even in the Hellenistic epoch, sibling marriage was not a privilege of the ruling family; Private individuals had also practiced it after the model of the royal couple, especially in urban settings. After the incorporation of Egypt into the Roman Empire, the popularity of this practice apparently increased significantly, even among full siblings; It appears to have reached its greatest spread only in the Roman Empire . On a papyrus from the 2nd century even twins appear as a married couple. The evaluation of Roman tax returns shows that sibling marriage was far more widespread in cities than in rural areas. Apparently it had spread from north to south and from cities to the countryside. It was more common in young men than in older men.

However, when almost all free residents of the empire were granted Roman citizenship in 212 with the Constitutio Antoniniana , incest-hostile Roman marriage law came into force for the Egyptians, at least in theory. However, mild criminal treatment was envisaged; if the legal impediment to marriage was not known, the man should get away with a slight punishment, and the woman who was generally assumed to be ignorant of the law should go free. A consistent implementation did not succeed; In the period that followed, the number of sibling marriages decreased, but the custom continued to exist. In the late 3rd century, Emperor Diocletian still considered it necessary to take vigorous action against inadmissible connections between relatives according to “barbaric” custom. With an ordinance in 295, Diocletian imposed the barriers to marriage required by Roman family morals. If this was violated, prosecution was threatened. In theory, the death penalty was an option, but it was unlikely to be carried out in the case of such incest offenses. The threat of punishment did not apply retrospectively, but only for new marriages.

The alleged approval of incestuous mores by " pagan " philosophers caused great offense among the Church Fathers . She was morally condemned in the polemical writings of Christian apologists . There were considerable exaggerations and distortions. The view of Stoic philosophers that incest prohibitions were conventions that could not be derived from nature gave rise to outrage . In the apologetic literature of the Christians, the Stoics were assumed to have recommended the licentiousness of animal life for imitation. It has even been alleged that the famous Stoic Chrysippus prescribed incest and that the Epicurean and Stoic libraries were full of texts advocating, among other things, sexual intercourse between siblings. In this context, the marriage of the god father Iuppiter (Zeus) with his sister Juno (Hera) was attacked, who had set a bad example for the people.

The late antique church father Augustine dealt extensively with the contrast between endogamy and exogamy. In his work De civitate dei he dealt specifically with the problem of sibling marriage. The starting point was the biblical statement that all of humanity descended from the parents Adam and Eve . According to this historical picture, at least the second generation of brothers must have married their sisters. Accordingly, there must have been a development from an initially inevitable familial endogamy (“emergency incest”) to exogamy. Augustine believed that sibling marriage had been forbidden by religion when the original constraint that initially required it had ceased to exist. The compulsion to exogamy brought about a meaningful development, because the transition to choosing a partner outside of one's own nuclear family brought about a desirable broadening of horizons. From then on, family connections with strangers came about on the basis of useful and noble harmony. The bonds created in this way would have promoted the expansion of love ( caritas ) among people. Hence the exogamy is good and natural. One recognizes this from the fact that even among the “godless heathen” a natural fear of incest can be observed. Even the marriage between cousin and cousin has always been considered undesirable and seldom happened because siblings are too closely related.

Modern research

In the modern age, sibling marriage has received a lot of attention both in classical studies and in ethnosociology . Their occurrence in a number of cultures - usually only in ruling families, in ancient Egypt and the Persian Empire, but also in the population - contradicts the long-held assumption that incest has always been outlawed in all cultures around the world and that familial exogamy is a fundamental principle of all human societies.

In modern antiquity, the Hellenistic and imperial marriages of full siblings have been intensively researched. The main aim is to explain the custom in the Ptolemaic royal family, which was unusual for the ancient Greco-Roman culture. Various interpretations have been presented and discussed in numerous studies. Three factors are primarily considered: influence by an ancient Egyptian tradition, the encapsulation of the royal family caused by the divine kingdom and the relatively endogamy-friendly tradition of the Greeks who immigrated to Egypt.

The origin of Ptolemaic sibling marriage has long been disputed. Ernst Kornemann's hypothesis , who suspected Persian origin, did not prevail. The prevailing assumption in older research that the example of earlier pharaoh dynasties was decisive is doubted by some scholars. Joseph Modrzejewski found in 1964 that Hellenistic sibling marriage should not be seen as a continuation of a local tradition. Rather, it was introduced by the immigrant Greeks. Its root is the general Greek tendency to endogamy, in particular the traditional, relatively tolerant attitude towards marriages among relatives. A recent proponent of the hypothesis of an ancient Egyptian influence on Ptolemaic practice is Keith Hopkins (1980). The skeptics include Lucia Criscuolo (1990) and Roger S. Bagnall and Bruce W. Frier (1994).

In 1967 Jakob Seibert responded to the question of the motives for the introduction and continuation of sibling marriage in Egypt. He pointed out that when this practice was introduced by Ptolemy II, Arsinoe II was probably the driving force. It was the second marriage for the king and the third for his sister. The desire for descendants to secure the succession to the throne can hardly have played a role, because Ptolemy already had a crown prince from his first marriage and his connection with the already aged Arsinoë remained childless. Therefore - according to Seibert - in addition to Arsinoë's lust for power, the exclusivity of the divine kingdom, the deliberate analogy to the siblings Zeus and Hera, can be considered as explanations. However, the fact that Ptolemy II married his son and heir to the throne of the same name with the heir to the heir to the King of Cyrene , i.e. not adhering to the principle of family endogamy, speaks against such a basic motive . Even later, the Ptolemaic kings did not fundamentally reject exogamous marriages; therefore class awareness is ruled out as a motive.

In 2001, Wolfgang Speyer emphasized the magical-religious character of dynastic incest and the role model function of the divine siblings who celebrated a holy wedding. He saw the basis in a world view, according to which the sexual union of the divine brothers and sisters belonged to the conditions that guaranteed the present world reality in its order and continuity. For the representatives and representatives of the gods on earth, the kings and their wives, the behavior of the divine "world parents" was exemplary. The royal sibling marriage should be understood as a rite that repeated the holy marriage of the oldest gods; this marital union was understood to be based on the cosmic order.

Another topic of research is the question of the reasons for the spread of sibling marriage in the Egyptian population during the imperial period. The economic benefits are often pointed out: in Egypt, property was divided up in the event of inheritance, with the female descendants also being entitled to inheritance; Thus, in a sibling marriage, the family's property ownership remained intact, which was particularly important in a country with little arable land. In addition, the dowry was omitted. However, they also waived the dowry that a bride from outside the family would have brought with her. The classic model of Isis and Osiris probably played an important role.

literature

  • Hatto H. Schmitt : Sibling marriage. In: Hatto H. Schmitt, Ernst Vogt (Ed.): Lexicon of Hellenism. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-447-04842-5 , Sp. 373 f.
  • Keith Hopkins: Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt. In: Comparative Studies in Society and History 22, 1980, pp. 303-354

Remarks

  1. ^ Heinrich Otten : Sororat in Ancient Asia Minor? In: Saeculum 21, 1970, pp. 162-165.
  2. ^ Jörg Klinger: Strangers and outsiders in Ḫatti. In: Volkert Haas (ed.): Outsiders and Randgruppen , Konstanz 1992, pp. 187–212, here: 192–194.
  3. ^ Heinrich Otten: Sibling marriage in Ḫatti. In: Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Aräologie , Vol. 3, Berlin 1957–1971, p. 231.
  4. ^ Richard H. Beal: Studies in Hittite History. In: Journal of Cuneiform Studies 35, 1983, pp. 115–126, here: 115–119; Gernot Wilhelm : Tutḫalija. In: Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Aräologie, Vol. 14, Berlin 2014–2016, pp. 224–227, here: 226.
  5. ^ Viktor Korošec : Cuneiform writing law. In: Orientalisches Recht (= Handbook of Oriental Studies , Department 1, Supplementary Volume 3), Leiden / Cologne 1964, pp. 49–219, here: 137; Walther Hinz : Das Reich Elam , Stuttgart 1964, p. 76.
  6. ↑ Friedrich Wilhelm König : Sibling marriage in Elam. In: Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Aräologie, Vol. 3, Berlin 1957–1971, pp. 224–231.
  7. ↑ Schafik Allam: Sibling marriage. In: Lexikon der Ägyptologie , Vol. 2, Wiesbaden 1977, Sp. 568-570, here: 569.
  8. ↑ See Friedrich Fechter: The family in the post-exile time , Berlin 1998, pp. 192–198.
  9. ↑ See also Klaus Thraede : Blutschande (incest). In: Reallexikon für Antike und Christianentum , Supplement-Liefer 9, Stuttgart 2002, Sp. 37-85, here: 51 f.
  10. ↑ Herodotus 3:31, 1-4.
  11. ^ Walter Erdmann : The marriage in ancient Greece , Munich 1934, p. 185; Klaus Thraede: blood shame (incest). In: Reallexikon für Antike und Christianentum , Supplement-Liefer 9, Stuttgart 2002, Sp. 37-85, here: 53 f.
  12. ↑ Evangelos Karabélias: Inceste, mariage et stratégies matrimoniales dans l'Athènes classique. In: Gerhard Thür (Hrsg.): Symposion 1985. Lectures on Greek and Hellenistic legal history , Cologne / Vienna 1989, pp. 233-251, here: 241 f.
  13. ↑ Klaus Thraede: Blood shame (incest). In: Reallexikon für Antike und Christianentum , Supplement-Liefer 9, Stuttgart 2002, Sp. 37-85, here: 53 f.
  14. ^ Walter Erdmann: The marriage in ancient Greece , Munich 1934, pp. 180-185.
  15. ↑ Lucia Criscuolo: Philadelphos nella dinastia lagide. In: Aegyptus 70, 1990, pp. 89-96, here: pp. 93 f. and note 21.
  16. ↑ See on the cult of the sibling gods Günther Hölbl : Geschichte des Ptolemäerreiches , Darmstadt 1994, pp. 37 f., 87-89, 106.
  17. ^ Keith Hopkins: Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt. In: Comparative Studies in Society and History 22, 1980, pp. 303–354, here: 344 f.
  18. ^ Günter Poethke : Arsinoe II. In: Lexikon der Ägyptologie , Vol. 1, Wiesbaden 1975, Col. 450 f .; Günther Hölbl: History of the Ptolemy Empire , Darmstadt 1994, p. 37 f., 94-98.
  19. ^ Günther Hölbl: History of the Ptolemy Empire , Darmstadt 1994, p. 45.
  20. ↑ Günther Hölbl: History of the Ptolemaic Empire , Darmstadt 1994, p. 149 f.
  21. ^ Günther Hölbl: History of the Ptolemaic Empire , Darmstadt 1994, p. 160.
  22. ^ Günther Hölbl: History of the Ptolemy Empire , Darmstadt 1994, p. 172.
  23. ↑ For the dating see Günther Hölbl: Geschichte des Ptolemäerreiches , Darmstadt 1994, p. 321, note 72.
  24. ^ Günther Hölbl: History of the Ptolemaic Empire , Darmstadt 1994, p. 172 f.
  25. ↑ Günther Hölbl: History of the Ptolemy Empire , Darmstadt 1994, pp. 174–177.
  26. ↑ Günther Hölbl: History of the Ptolemy Empire , Darmstadt 1994, pp. 177–179.
  27. ↑ Günther Hölbl: History of the Ptolemy Empire , Darmstadt 1994, pp. 179–181.
  28. ↑ The marriages of Cleopatra VII are contested by Lucia Criscuolo: La successione a Tolomeo Aulete ed i pretesi matrimoni di Cleopatra VII con i fratelli. In: Lucia Criscuolo, Giovanni Geraci (eds.): Egitto e storia antica dall'ellenismo all'età araba , Bologna 1989, pp. 325–339.
  29. ↑ Jakob Seibert: Historical contributions to the dynastic connections in Hellenistic times , Wiesbaden 1967, p. 68.
  30. ^ Hatto H. Schmitt: Investigations on the history of Antiochus the Great and his time , Wiesbaden 1964, pp. 13-24.
  31. ↑ Schafik Allam: Sibling marriage. In: Lexikon der Ägyptologie , Vol. 2, Wiesbaden 1977, Sp. 568-570, here: 569.
  32. ^ Keith Hopkins: Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt. In: Comparative Studies in Society and History 22, 1980, pp. 303–354, here: 320–322, 324; Roger S. Bagnall, Bruce W. Frier: The demography of Roman Egypt , Cambridge 1994, p. 127 f .; Dominic Montserrat : Sex and Society in Graeco-Roman Egypt , London 1996, p. 89; Naphtali Lewis: Life in Egypt under Roman Rule , Oxford 1983, p. 43 f.
  33. ↑ Nikolaos Gonis: Incestuous Twins in the City of Arsinoe. In: Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 133, 2000, p. 197 f.
  34. ^ Roger S. Bagnall, Bruce W. Frier: The demography of Roman Egypt , Cambridge 1994, pp. 49, 129 f., 133.
  35. ↑ Klaus Thraede: Blood shame (incest). In: Reallexikon für Antike und Christianentum , Supplement-Liefer 9, Stuttgart 2002, Sp. 37-85, here: 45 f., 48; Judith Evans Grubbs: Law and Family in Late Antiquity , Oxford 1995, pp. 97-100; Egon Weiss : Endogamy and Exogamy in the Roman Empire. In: Journal of the Savigny Foundation for Legal History . Romance Department 29, 1908, pp. 340–369, here: 357–361.
  36. ↑ Egon Weiss: Endogamy and Exogamy in the Roman Empire. In: Journal of the Savigny Foundation for Legal History. Romance Department 29, 1908, pp. 340–369, here: 361–365.
  37. ↑ Klaus Thraede: Blood shame (incest). In: Reallexikon für Antike und Christianentum , Supplement-Liefer 9, Stuttgart 2002, Sp. 37-85, here: 56 f., 69 f., 72 f.
  38. ↑ See also Klaus Thraede: Blutschande (incest). In: Reallexikon für Antike und Christianentum , Supplement-Liefer 9, Stuttgart 2002, Sp. 37–85, here: 80–82.
  39. ↑ Keith Hopkins provides a brief overview: Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt. In: Comparative Studies in Society and History 22, 1980, pp. 303–354, here: 304–307, 310 f.
  40. ↑ A brief overview is provided by Klaus Thraede: Blutschande (Inzest). In: Reallexikon für Antike und Christianentum , Supplement-Liefer 9, Stuttgart 2002, Sp. 37–85, here: 45–47.
  41. ↑ Joseph Modrzejewski: The sibling marriage in the Hellenistic practice and according to Roman law. In: Journal of the Savigny Foundation for Legal History. Romance Studies Department 81, 1964, pp. 52–82, here: 59 f., 80.
  42. ^ Keith Hopkins: Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt. In: Comparative Studies in Society and History 22, 1980, pp. 303–354, here: 312.
  43. ↑ Lucia Criscuolo: Philadelphos nella dinastia lagide. In: Aegyptus 70, 1990, pp. 89-96, here: 92 f.
  44. ^ Roger S. Bagnall, Bruce W. Frier: The demography of Roman Egypt , Cambridge 1994, p. 130 and note 73.
  45. ↑ Jakob Seibert: Historical contributions to the dynastic connections in Hellenistic times , Wiesbaden 1967, pp. 81–85.
  46. ↑ Wolfgang Speyer: On the magical-religious incest in antiquity. In: Wolfgang Speyer: Early Christianity in the ancient radiation field , Tübingen 2007, pp. 137–152, here: 138 f. (First published in 2001).
  47. ^ Dominic Montserrat: Sex and Society in Graeco-Roman Egypt , London 1996, p. 89 f .; Keith Hopkins: Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt. In: Comparative Studies in Society and History 22, 1980, pp. 303–354, here: 322 f., 351; Roger S. Bagnall, Bruce W. Frier: The demography of Roman Egypt , Cambridge 1994, pp. 130 f.
  48. ↑ See Keith Hopkins: Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt. In: Comparative Studies in Society and History 22, 1980, pp. 303–354, here: 344 f.