Hamburg in the time of National Socialism

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The Hanseatic city of Hamburg remained an important business location during the National Socialist era under Gauleiter Karl Kaufmann , but trade lost its importance. During this time, Hamburg expanded from 415 km² to 755 km². After the Nazi regime triggered World War II, the Hanseatic city was hit by heavy bombing in the later years of the war. On May 3, 1945, the leading forces surrendered the city to the British without a fight.

Seizure of power

First mayor and governor

Soon after the " seizure of power ", celebrated by the National Socialists as the day of the national uprising , the SPD senators resigned on March 3, 1933, following threats from Reich Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick . Two days later, the seriously ill mayor Carl Wilhelm Petersen of the German State Party also announced his resignation, and on March 6, Senator Paul de Chapeaurouge ( German People's Party ) also took this step. The rest of the citizenship elected on March 8th with the participation of DVP and DStP a new, National Socialist-led Senate . The Senate elected NSDAP member Carl Vincent Krogmann as First Mayor . On May 19, Krogmann's position was renamed to that of "Governing Mayor". The last session of the citizenship took place on June 28, 1933.

City and state of Hamburg were the same circuit a Reichsstatthalter subordinated to the on May 16, 1933 Karl Kaufmann had been determined, the already Gauleiter of the Gau Hamburg was. The party districts subordinate to the Gauleiter corresponded to the earlier Reichstag constituencies. In what is now the city of Hamburg, the offices of the Gauleitungen Schleswig-Holstein (in the city of Altona ) and East Hanover (in the city of Harburg-Wilhelmsburg ) were initially located , the area of ​​which roughly corresponded to the former Lower Saxony administrative district of Lüneburg. However, they were later moved to Kiel and Lüneburg.

On July 30, 1936, Krogmann was deposed by Karl Kaufmann, who himself claimed leadership of the state government. Kaufmann concentrated five main offices and therefore had an unusually large amount of power as a Gauleiter; he tied his followers to himself through donations from black coffers.

Area of ​​Hamburg after the Greater Hamburg Act came into force :
  • previous city of Hamburg
  • previous city of Bergedorf (to the state of Hamburg since 1868)
  • previous, remaining Hamburg rural areas
  • added city of Altona
  • added city of Wandsbek
  • added city of Harburg-Wilhelmsburg
  • added rural communities

    • Territorial changes

    The Greater Hamburg Act of January 26, 1937, which came into force on April 1, 1937, resulted in major territorial changes for the Hanseatic city that are still valid today (see also districts in Hamburg ). The city districts of Altona, Wandsbek and Harburg-Wilhelmsburg as well as numerous communities passed from Prussia to Hamburg. Despite the loss of former Hamburg areas (including Cuxhaven, Geesthacht), the city now had a contiguous total area of ​​755 km² instead of the previous 415 km². With effect from April 1, 1938, all cities and municipalities transferred to Hamburg were merged with the city of Hamburg to form a single municipality "Hanseatic City of Hamburg".

    The Greater Hamburg Law also regulated a number of other territorial changes. Particularly noteworthy is that the state of Lübeck lost its independence and passed to Prussia.

    politics

    economy

    Until 1937, Hamburg was a rather small and medium-sized trading city and by no means an industrial metropolis. The trade sector was weakened by the Nazi economic policy aimed at armament , agriculture and self - sufficiency . As a result, unemployment in Hamburg was significantly higher and lasted longer than the average in the rest of Germany. The handling of goods in the Port of Hamburg did not even reach the level of 1929 in 1938. However, due to the armament, the industrial sector - large shipyards and oil processing - gained in importance. In 1934, around 70% of the shipyards were financed by state grants. By the Greater Hamburg Law of 1937, industrial districts were incorporated, so that now more people were employed in industry and crafts than in trade and transport.

    It was not until the beginning of 1940 that the need for labor in the Hamburg armaments industry could no longer be met, so that civilian workers were initially recruited, but then forced laborers were increasingly used.

    Education

    As president of the newly formed state education authority, Karl Julius Witt dismissed non-compliant school councils, transferred school administrators and "cleaned up" teaching staff. By 1935, 637 teachers had been forced to retire, including many married teachers who were referred to as “double earners”. The education of elementary school teachers at the university, which had existed in Hamburg since 1926, continued until 1936, after which the training took place at a college for teacher training, from 1941 at several teacher training institutes where an Abitur was not required for admission.

    As a university politician and rector, Adolf Rein played a key role in giving up autonomy and driving out more than 90 academics from the university. In 1933, university professors from Hamburg largely showed their solidarity with the new movement. The number of students decreased from 3594 (WS 1932/33) or 2305 (WS 1934/35) to 1385 by the summer semester 1939; Access restrictions for female students and the changes in teacher training since 1936 contributed to this.

    From 1937 on there were structural differences in the middle school system: The middle schools incorporated from Prussia began with the fifth school year and charged a school fee, some of the “Old Hamburg” elementary schools instead had a “superstructure” that began with the seventh school year. From 1938 the high school (formerly grammar school) ended with the twelfth school year; coeducation, which had been gradually abolished in elementary schools as early as 1934, was completely abolished.

    housing

    The reign of the National Socialists did not leave any positive traces in Hamburg, as the Weimar Republic did with new building districts in the Jarrestadt or the Dulsberg . The attacks in July / August 1943 destroyed 44 percent of the already scarce living space.

    At the end of 1934 Gauleiter Kaufmann spoke of 18,000 missing apartments; In 1935, the Hamburg State Statistical Office put the number of apartments required at 25,000. 60,000 families were on the waiting lists of the housing authorities, which were closed in 1933. The general economic improvement and measures such as the marriage loan further increased the number of newly concluded marriages and thus the need for affordable housing. The historian Beate Meyer cites an additional requirement of 80,000 apartments for April 1940.

    Housing construction became a matter for the private sector; Investments went into armaments, which also put a heavy strain on the capacities of construction workers and building materials. Small government loans to promote housing construction were not enough to create enough housing at low rents. In the years up to the beginning of the war, around 2100 one to three-room apartments were built annually, which were affordable for “normal wage earners”: the number of newly built villas, single houses and large rental apartments was considerably greater.

    The redevelopment campaign of the Gängeviertel , which was highlighted in terms of propaganda and in which a social hotspot was also removed from a KPD stronghold, did little to eliminate the housing shortage: instead of 1140 houses, only 520 new apartments were built. For ideological reasons, small settler buildings on the outskirts with a modest single house and large plot of land for self-sufficiency were funded, which proved to be extremely problematic and hardly represented more than five percent of the new buildings.

    urban planning

    In 1937 the Hamburg architect Konstanty Gutschow took part in a competition for the design of the northern bank of the Elbe in Hamburg, which he won - with the recommendation of Adolf Hitler. In 1939 Gutschow was named "Architect of the Elbe Bank" by Kaufmann. In 1941 he was awarded the title “Architect for the Redesign of the Hanseatic City of Hamburg”. He submitted a general development plan for Hamburg, which envisaged the expansion of the capital of German shipping into the so-called Führerstadt ; with a 250 m high Gau high-rise, a people's hall, an Elbe bridge and an enlargement of the port. In January 1940, the production of bricks for the Führerbauten on the banks of the Elbe was set as the most important task of the Neuengamme concentration camp .

    Gutschow took over the idea of ​​an east-west breakthrough road . However, the plans were soon classified as unimportant and dormant. The extensive destruction in the summer of 1943 led to a second general development plan in 1944, which took even less account of existing structures.

    Terror and persecution

    Hamburger Tageblatt of March 31, 1933 on the boycott of the Jews

    As early as May 16, 1940, around 550 Sinti and Roma were arrested in Hamburg - along with around 200 from Schleswig-Holstein and around 160 from Bremen - and interned for four days in fruit shed 10 at the Magdeburg harbor. On May 20, 1940, they were deported from the nearby Hanover train station to the Bełżec labor camps .

    In 1933, around 19,400 Jews lived in what would later become Greater Hamburg . As in numerous other places in Germany, they were also victims of exclusion, disenfranchisement and direct persecution in Hamburg. Further steps followed the boycott of Jews and the Law on Civil Servants in April 1933; they culminated in the Reichspogromnacht of November 1938, which increased the pressure to flee Germany.

    Gauleiter Kaufmann boasted to Hermann Göring that in September 1941, because of the bomb damage, he asked the “Führer” to have the Jews evacuated in order to gain living space. Hitler complied with this suggestion. In fact, Hitler made this decision to deport Jews from Germany in mid-September 1941. The Higher SS and Police Leader Rudolf Querner , at the same time head of the police department in the Hamburg state administration and a representative of Kaufmann in all police matters, played a key role in the deportations.

    Beginning in October 1941, 5,296 Jews were deported in 17 transports via the Hanover station ; others committed suicide , were abducted from occupied Western European refugee countries or fell victim to other persecution measures such as Operation T4 . A total of 8,877 Hamburg Jews lost their lives. After the liberation in 1945 there were only 647 Jews in Hamburg; most of them had survived under the protection of a mixed marriage .

    The names of around 20,400 people who died in the Neuengamme concentration camp including the subcamps by the end of March 1945 could be determined with certainty; serious estimates put 26,800 fatalities. Another 16,100 prisoners perished in the evacuation marches and the bombing of ships such as the Cap Arkona .

    After the war, only around 8,500 Hamburgers were recognized as victims of National Socialism . Among the 1,417 political victims were 20 members of the citizenship. Around 1,500 perpetrators were punished as part of the denazification process .

    Judiciary

    Justice Senator Curt Rothenberger transformed the Hamburg judiciary “into a compliant instrument of the Nazi regime”. He retired, took leave of absence or transferred civil servants and judges who did not suit him, in addition, he immediately withdrew their license to 71 Jewish lawyers due to the law to restore the professional civil service and excluded 69 more in 1938 on the basis of the Fifth Ordinance to the Reich Citizenship Act .

    The sovereignty of the federal states was gradually abolished between 1934 and 1937; the Ministry of Justice had direct access to the distribution of business. This did not detract from Rothenberger's overpowering position as Justice Senator and President of the Hanseatic Higher Regional Court: it created the “Rothenberger System” for Hamburg. He was constantly attracting events and was always present. Rothenberger demanded active work for the "National Socialist Movement"; In 1939 almost all of the junior staff and 90% of the judges at the Higher Regional Court were party members. At an early stage he exerted political influence in meetings with heads of authorities and court presidents, which were primarily set up for organizational issues. From May 1942 he ordered weekly “previews” of pending criminal cases of the special court, in which the sentence was discussed and judgments could be criticized.

    In the “Rothenberger System”, there were no usual conflicts between Gauleiters and heads of justice elsewhere: Kaufmann carried the party's demands and wishes directly to his friend, Rothenberger, who implemented them as he saw fit. A close mutual cooperation with the Gestapo chief Bruno Linienbach and the higher SS and police leaders Hans-Adolf Prützmann and Rudolf Querner meant that they refrained from interfering with the judiciary, but the judiciary tolerated the extraordinary terror of the Gestapo.

    Hamburg criminal courts - primarily the Hanseatic Special Court - imposed 229 death sentences, most of which were carried out with a guillotine in the Hamburg remand prison on Holstenglacis.

    War events

    In addition to the 16,800 conscripts who were drafted in May 1939, tens of thousands of reservists had to enter. At the end of 1940, Hamburgers were killed in the war in 1975. Before the surrender, more than 100,000 Hamburgers had died as soldiers or civilians as a result of the war.

    Two days after the German air raid on Rotterdam , there was a British air raid on Hamburg. By the end of 1940 there had been around 70 air raids and 123 air alarms, during which the population should go to air raid shelters. Around 1,500 people were killed before the major attack in July / August 1943.

    In April 1940 there were safe shelters for less than three percent of Hamburg's population. In the summer of 1943 three quarters of all cellars had been expanded; Shelter spaces were available for 22 percent of the population.

    Air defense

    Main article: Hamburg flak towers

    In response to the Allied air raids on Berlin, the “ Führer order to erect flak towers in Berlin” was issued on September 9, 1940 , which was extended to the cities of Vienna and Hamburg by the end of 1942 in order to protect them from bombing raids. During the Second World War, Hamburg became the target of Allied air raids because the city had several large shipyards such as Blohm & Voss , Howaldtswerke , Deutsche Werft and HC Stülcken Sohn , which built submarines for the Navy . The flak towers were designed by the architect Friedrich Tamms under the direction of Albert Speer , General Building Inspector for the Reich capital , and realized by the Todt Organization , also with the use of thousands of foreign and forced laborers .

    For the airspace defense of Hamburg, three pairs of flak guns were planned, which were to be arranged in a triangular shape over the city area in order to ensure good coverage. The guidance tower (L tower) belonging to each combat tower (G tower) was spatially at least 100 m away from it, so that the vibrations and the thick smoke of the anti-aircraft muzzle flash did not affect the measuring devices for targeting. Most of the time the L tower was equipped with radar (for example with the Würzburg giant ).

    The flak towers were designed as a completely self-sufficient unit with their own electricity and water supply and had a hospital. By creating a slight overpressure inside the building, they were also protected against gas attacks.

    Only the two pairs of flak guns in St. Pauli and Wilhelmsburg were built. The third pair was to be built in the east of Hamburg, but this was not realized.

    In January 1944, 14,000 boys born between 1926 and 1928 were deployed as air force helpers.

    Operation Gomorrah

    Main article: Operation Gomorrah

    Video recordings of the US Army from the bombing of Hamburg.

    Heavy bombing by American and British aircraft formations in July and August 1943, Operation Gomorrah , killed at least 34,000 people and destroyed around a third of all residential buildings. Around 125,000 Hamburgers were injured and 900,000 homeless. By the end of the war, around 17,000 aircraft dropped around 101,000 high-explosive bombs and 1.6 million incendiary bombs on the city in 213 air raids.

    These attacks began on July 24, 1943, when 791 British bombers were bombed . In the days that followed, the Americans attacked with 122 Flying Fortress bombers , thus disrupting the salvage work that had started . The attacks culminated on the night of July 27th and 28th, triggering a firestorm that has never been seen on such a scale before. The firestorm destroyed large parts of the east of the city, killing around 35,000 - 45,000 people and making a million people homeless. The exact number of deaths could never be determined, as many victims were completely burned to ashes.

    The districts of Rothenburgsort and Hammerbrook in particular were completely unexpected. Since the bodies could not be disposed of quickly, the Hammerbrook area was cordoned off in order to prevent entry because of the expected risk of epidemics.

    It turned out that the existing bunkers and shelters were completely inadequate. An evacuation was therefore initiated, which in some parts of the city could still be carried out on time, e.g. B. in Barmbek . All residents who were not necessarily needed in arms production had to leave the city. As far as possible, children were sent from the city to the countryside ( Kinderlandverschickung ) in order to bring them to safety.

    High-explosive and incendiary bombs were used for bombing . With their enormous pressure, the explosive bombs specifically covered the roofs of the houses so that the phosphorus from the incendiary bombs could get directly into the apartments and stairwells. The stairwells, made almost entirely of wood, carried the flames of the room fires to the lower floors and ensured that the buildings were completely burned out.

    The attacks were always limited to one sector of the city. The central starting point was the 147.3 m tall tower of the Nikolaikirche , the ruins of which were not rebuilt and today serves as a memorial and permanent exhibition for Operation Gomorrah.

    In order to trigger the dreaded firestorm, the edges of the sector in particular were bombed. The resulting wind on the center of the sector ensures the widespread destruction.

    On the day when the sector with the districts of Eppendorf , Winterhude and Hoheluft was to be attacked, thunderclouds were in the sky. In order not to endanger the number of bombers, the attack was canceled. The districts remained largely undamaged.

    Eilbeker Weg street after the 1943 bombing raid

    The bunkers built to protect the population were only able to offer limited protection at this final phase of the war, as larger and larger bombs were made during the war, which the bunkers could not withstand. The fire's need for oxygen also suffocated those trapped.

    End of war

    On May 2, 1945, Major General Alwin Wolz was appointed combat commander of Hamburg. With Gauleiter Karl Kaufmann he agreed on the hopeless situation of Hamburg. After also Reich President Karl Doenitz , which deals with the last imperial government of Flensburg - Mürwik had settled, had agreed to a bloodless transfer of Hamburg, accompanied Wolz on 3 May 1945 by Hans Georg von Friedeburg guided German delegation to the British headquarters in Lueneburg . At Villa Möllering , Wolz immediately signed the conditions for handing over the city. Only on the following day was the partial surrender authorized by Karl Dönitz for the German armed forces in northwest Germany , Holland , Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein signed by the German delegation on the Timeloberg south of Lüneburg. But on the afternoon of May 3, 1945, the British soldiers marched into Hamburg and Wolz officially handed the city over to Brigadier General Spurling in the town hall . Gauleiter Karl Kaufmann was arrested on May 4th, as was Wolz, and Mayor Krogmann a week later. The British began to control all areas of public life. With the surrender in May 1945, Hamburg became part of the British Zone , then again an independent state and in 1949 a federal state of the Federal Republic of Germany.

    See also

    Individual evidence

    1. ↑ Uwe Lohalm: "Model Hamburg". From city-state to Reichsgau. In: Research Center for Contemporary History Hamburg (Ed.): Hamburg in the »Third Reich«. Göttingen 2005, ISBN 3-89244-903-1 , p. 122.
    2. ^ Frank Bajohr: Gauleiter in Hamburg. On the person and activities of Karl Kaufmann (1900–1969). In: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte 43 (1995), no. 2, p. 279.
    3. ↑ Klaus Weinhauer: Trade crisis and armaments boom . In: Hamburg in the “Third Reich” . Published by Research Center for Contemporary History in Hamburg, Göttingen 2005 ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , p. 194.
    4. ↑ Klaus Weinhauer: Trade crisis and armaments boom . In: Hamburg in the "Third Reich" , Göttingen 2005 ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , p. 197.
    5. ↑ Klaus Weinhauer: Trade crisis and armaments boom . In: Hamburg in the "Third Reich" , Göttingen 2005 ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , p. 195.
    6. ↑ Klaus Weinhauer: Trade crisis and armaments boom . In: Hamburg in the "Third Reich" , Göttingen 2005 ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , p. 203.
    7. ↑ Uwe Schmidt, Paul Weidmann: The school system. In: Hamburg in the “Third Reich” , Göttingen 2005 ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , pp. 306 and 310f.
    8. ↑ Confession of the professors at the German universities and colleges to Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist state
    9. ↑ Uwe Schmidt, Paul Weidmann: The school system. In: Hamburg in the “Third Reich” , Göttingen 2005 ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , p. 348.
    10. ↑ Uwe Schmidt, Paul Weidmann: The school system. In: Hamburg in the “Third Reich” , Göttingen 2005 ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , pp. 306 and 310f.
    11. ^ Karl Christian Führer: National Socialist Housing Policy. In: Hamburg in the “Third Reich” , Göttingen 2005 ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , pp. 432–434.
    12. ^ Detlev Humann: Labor battle - job creation and propaganda in the Nazi era 1933-1939. Göttingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-8353-0838-1 , p. 120.
    13. ↑ Beate Meyer: The persecution and murder of Hamburg's Jews 1933-1945: history, testimony, memory . Wallstein-Verlag, Göttingen 2006, p. 34.
    14. ^ Karl Christian Führer: National Socialist Housing Policy. In: Hamburg in the “Third Reich” , Göttingen 2005 ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , p. 434.
    15. ^ Karl Christian Führer: National Socialist Housing Policy. In: Hamburg in the “Third Reich” , Göttingen 2005 ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , p. 447.
    16. ^ Karl Christian Führer: National Socialist Housing Policy. In: Hamburg in the “Third Reich” , Göttingen 2005 ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , p. 440.
    17. ↑ ndr.de He was Albert Speer from Hamburg
    18. ↑ Deportation to Bełżec. At: Sent to death. The deportations of Jews, Roma and Sinti from Hamburg from 1940 to 1945. (Accessed January 14, 2011)
    19. ^ Frank Bajohr : Gauleiter in Hamburg. On the person and activities of Karl Kaufmann (1900–1969). In: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte . 43 (1995), no. 2, p. 291, ifz-muenchen.de (PDF).
    20. ↑ Document VEJ 3/223 = The persecution and murder of European Jews by National Socialist Germany 1933–1945 (source collection) Volume 3: German Reich and Protectorate September 1939 - September 1941 (edited by Andrea Löw), Munich 2012, ISBN 978- 3-486-58524-7 , p. 542: On September 18, 1941, Himmler informed us that the Führer wanted the Jews to be deported from the Old Reich and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia .
    21. ↑ Beate Meyer: The persecution and murder of Hamburg's Jews 1933-1945: history, testimony, memory . Göttingen 2006, p. 34.
    22. ↑ Beate Meyer (Ed.): The persecution and murder of Hamburg's Jews 1933–1945. Hamburg 2006, ISBN 3-929728-85-0 , pp. 16/47
    23. ^ Neuengamme Concentration Camp Memorial (ed.): The exhibitions. Bremen 2005, ISBN 3-86108-075-3 , p. 95
    24. ↑ Detlef Garbe: Institutions of Terror ... In: Hamburg in the "Third Reich" , Göttingen 2005 ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , p. 521.
    25. ^ Heiko Morisse: Jewish lawyers in Hamburg. Hamburg 2003, ISBN 3-7672-1418-0 , p. 102.
    26. ↑ Klaus Bästlein (ed.): "For leaders, people and fatherland ..." Hamburg justice under National Socialism. Published by the Hamburg judicial authority, Hamburg 1992, ISBN 3-87916-016-3 , Volume 1, p. 39.
    27. ↑ Klaus Bästlein (ed.): "For leaders, people and fatherland ..." Hamburg 1992, ISBN 3-87916-016-3 , volume 1, p. 105.
    28. ↑ Klaus Bästlein (ed.): "For leaders, people and fatherland ..." Hamburg 1992, ISBN 3-87916-016-3 , volume 1, p. 107.
    29. ↑ Klaus Bästlein (ed.): "For leaders, people and fatherland ..." Hamburg 1992, ISBN 3-87916-016-3 , volume 1, p. 64f with document.
    30. ↑ Klaus Bästlein (Ed.): "For leaders, people and fatherland ..." Hamburg 1992, ISBN 3-87916-016-3 , Volume 1, pp. 144 and 103.
    31. ↑ Detlef Garbe: Institutions of Terror ... In: Hamburg in the "Third Reich" , Göttingen 2005 ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , p. 524.
    32. ↑ Ursula Büttner: Gomorrah and the consequences ... In: Hamburg in the "Third Reich" . Göttingen 2005, ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , p. 613.
    33. ^ Fritz Bajohr: Final consideration. In: Hamburg in the “Third Reich” . Göttingen 2005, ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , p. 688.
    34. ↑ Ursula Büttner: Gomorrah and the consequences ... In: Hamburg in the "Third Reich" . Göttingen 2005, ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , pp. 613-614.
    35. ↑ Ursula Büttner: Gomorrah and the consequences ... In: Hamburg in the "Third Reich" . Göttingen 2005, ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , p. 615.
    36. ↑ Ursula Büttner: Gomorrah and the consequences ... In: Hamburg in the "Third Reich" . Göttingen 2005, ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , p. 616.
    37. ↑ Uwe Schmidt, Paul Weidmann: The school system. In: Hamburg in the “Third Reich” , Göttingen 2005 ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , p. 333.
    38. ↑ Ursula Büttner: Gomorrah and the consequences ... In: Hamburg in the "Third Reich" . Göttingen 2005, ISBN 978-3-89244-903-4 , p. 618.
    39. ^ Letter to the Citizen. Announcements of the Bürgererverein Lüneburg eV number 75 , from: May 2015; Page 11 f .; accessed on: May 1, 2017
    40. ↑ Oliver Schirg: By night and fog: Hamburg's surrender. In: Hamburger Abendblatt, April 18, 2015, pp. 20–21 ( online ).
    41. ↑ Spurling's first name (s) are uncertain; see. For example: Local public transport in Hamburg 1945 to 1999 ( Memento of the original from June 1, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , accessed on: May 2, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / fredriks.de
    42. ↑ Norddeutscher Rundfunk : On the silk thread: Hamburg's way to surrender , from: May 2, 2015; accessed on: May 1, 2017

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