Mao's little general

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Mao's little general with the subtitle The story of the Red Guardsman Ken Ling is the experience report of a Chinese who was bornin Amoy (China) in 1950 andwho, as a 16/17 year old high school student, participated in the so-called Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution of Mao Tse Tung in the People's Republic from 1966 to 1968 China participated. After escaping to the Republic of China belongs island his memories were of its own activities during these two years by an American research team led by Ivan D. London , a psychologist and professor of social psychology at Brooklyn College, New York City University , in more more than 300 interview hours and brought into a literary form by Miriam London, his wife and permanent collaborator. The Chinese historian Li Ta-ling, professor at Southern Connecticut State College , was called in to the second phase of the book manuscript's development because of his linguistic and cultural competence and appears as a further co-author alongside Ken Ling and Miriam London. The book was first published in American in 1972, then, translated back from the American, published in Chinese in the same yearand published in German in1974.

content

The protagonist of the story, who reports in autobiographical first- person form under the pseudonym Ken Ling , grows up in the southern Fukienese port city of Amoy as the youngest of six children. He is pampered by his mother, a factory worker who is widowed at an early age, and is looked after like a baby by the older siblings even as a youngster. His teachers in High School No. Eight delight in the alertness and ambition of the boy who was baptized and raised in a Christian way. Although his ancestry from a middle-class family is not exactly a recommendation in the communist-ruled China of Mao Tse-tung, apparently little stands in the way of his path to university.

A student becomes a Red Guard

Then one morning, on June 1, 1966, Ken Ling, almost drowsy, was drawn into the vortex of one of those campaigns in Mao Tse-tung's China that he had only known from hearsay until then. However, the campaign - it will soon be called the “Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution” - is picking up unprecedented speed. Within a few days, the well-behaved, carefully brought up boy developed into a self-confident revolutionary who soon no longer recognized any authority over himself, a Red Guard who interrogated, mocked and humiliated his own, recently revered teachers and at least tolerated his classmates being barbaric torture, miserably murder and drive suicide. Their apartments are searched, books, musical instruments. Works of art and valuable furniture were destroyed, their families terrorized, and sometimes simply robbed. In the weeks that followed, the violent iconoclasm of high school students spread to the entire city and its institutions. Ken Ling is gaining increasing prestige in the cultural revolution. With a total of 304 delegates from his school, he went to the provincial capital Fuchou to bring the movement's vigor to the provincial level. Here, however, the provincial party leadership caused a numerically far superior counter-movement. The group experienced a bloody attrition on August 29th - the beginning of a bitter intergroup struggle within the "Cultural Revolution". In the short term, the defeated “Fighters of August 29” are able to make up for their defeat.

Travel to Beijing

Ken Ling is called back to Amoy and is elected to lead a group of 10 members of his school, who are supposed to go north to the capital to exchange experiences with Red Guards from other parts of the country. With a million of them, Ken Ling witnessed a public appearance of Mao Tse-tung in the open air and with up to a hundred thousand a public interrogation of Wang Kuang-mei , the wife of the then President of the People's Republic of China, Liu Shao-ch'i . He uses the opportunity of the trip to meet up with his siblings, visit sights in Beijing and continue to the provinces of the northeast.

Peak of power

On the way back, he made a stopover in Shanghai , in January 1967, after an almost three-month absence back home, to experience the leap to the height of his power. Everywhere in Amoy, "communes" are formed along the lines of the Paris Commune . A factory was named “New Amoy Canning Factory”. Shanghai had been a pioneer in the formation of “communes” of this kind, and Ken Ling, who has just come from Shanghai, is considered an expert. The seventeen-year-old is appointed “General Manager” of the 147 factories in the “municipality” of Amoy, which has around 730,000 inhabitants. Around 8,000 high school students stationed in the factories work under his command to increase production.

But Ling recognizes very well that the “commune” is more or less an illusion. Their governors are at odds with each other and compete for positions and influence. In addition, the opposing faction within the cultural revolutionary movement has regained strength after its bitter temporary defeat. Above all, however, the military begins to intervene in the cultural revolutionary processes.

The sudden fall

On February 25, 1967, the Chinese People's Liberation Army took over the city administration of Amoy. Ken Ling has to go underground. The opposing faction is initially covered by the army, but from the middle of the year it is more and more obvious that it is supplied with military equipment. The defenders of the commune have to keep their heads above water with their own arms production and arms smuggling.

In one of the civil war-like clashes between the factions, Mei-mei, Ken Ling's companion, is killed. Pain and disillusionment allow “Mao's little general” to understand that he and his colleagues have been cynically used by a distant “headquarters” in Beijing.

The protagonist fled on July 19, 1968 by swimming with his older brother from Amoy Beach, taking advantage of the ebb current, 12,500 meters to the island of Tatan, which belongs to the Kinmen archipelago and thus to the Republic of China.

Publications

Issues in several languages

The book was first published in 1972 in the USA , Great Britain and in Chinese in what was then British Hong Kong , in 1974 in German in Germany , in 1976 in Thai in Thailand and in 1981 in French in France :

  • The Revenge of Heaven. Journal of a young Chinese. Ken Ling. English text prepared by Miriam London and Ta-Ling Lee. Putnam, New York 1972.
    • The Revenge of Heaven. Journal of a young Chinese. Ken Ling. English text prepared by Miriam London and Ta-Ling Lee. Ballantine Books, New York 1972, SBN 345-02985-2-150, OCLC 869087849 .
  • Red Guard: from schoolboy to "Little General" in Mao's China. Ken Ling. English text prepared by Miriam London and Ta-Ling Lee. Macdonald, London 1972, ISBN 0-356-04169-7 .
  • - 天 讎: 一個 中國 青年 的 自述 / Tian chou: yi ge Zhongguo qingnian de zishu. Publisher 新 鏡 傳播 公司, Xianggang (Hong Kong): Xinjing chuanbo gongsi, Minguo 61 [1972]
  • Ken Ling, Miriam London, Li Ta-ling: Mao's little general. The story of the Red Guard Ken Ling. Translated by Inge Neske. Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag , Munich 1974, ISBN 3-423-01024-X . (Reprint 1982)
  • Thai edition of "The revenge of Heaven". Bangkok 1976.
  • La vengeance du ciel. Un jeune chinois in the cultural revolution. traduit de l'américain par Pierre Barroux, Hervé Denès et Albert Schmidt, Publication Robert Laffont, Paris 1981, ISBN 2-221-00624-0 .
Different titles of the editions

While the American and Chinese titles ("The Revenge of Heaven" or "Tian Chou") take up the fatal end of a tender love story, which the narrator links to the myth of "Heaven" that was authoritative in ancient China , the German Title provides a direct reference to the main strand of the narrative and its actors: the Red Guards, who were often referred to as "little generals" in the cultural revolutionary jargon.

Dissemination in libraries

According to the WorldCat database , the American edition is available in 466 libraries, the London edition in 69, the Chinese edition in 46, the German in 33 and the French in 21 libraries.

The German edition

The cover of the 1974 German edition was designed by Celestino Piatti , like almost all dtv titles at the time. On the front of the cover there is a drawing signed “Piatti” in wide black lines of varying thickness. It shows the upper body of an Asian-looking man in a uniform jacket with a collar that is closed by a button and fits tightly around the neck, two patch pockets with curly button-closed flaps ( so-called Mao suit ) and a ribbon diagonally across the upper body. The figure is wearing a blue cap. Uniform jacket and hat in this style can be seen in many pictures of Mao Tse-tung. A red five-pointed star, the red star , is attached to the cap . The lower part of the drawing is held in a strong red and partly black hatched area that extends beyond the figure and also covers part of the face. The 536-page book has 31 headed chapters and contains several site plans and maps.

Jürgen Domes , with the "Politics of China and East Asia" department at the Otto Suhr Institute of the Free University of Berlin, the initiator of contemporary China research in Germany and professor of political science at Saarland University , oversaw the German edition scientific and provided the text with explanatory footnotes. In contrast to the American original, the German edition contains an afterword in which Ivan D. London explains the genesis and the fundamental research strategy aspects of the publication. The American model of this afterword appeared in the same year under the title The Revenge of Heaven. A brief methodological account in an American journal.

The historical background

Unlike publications in science or entertainment literature, the "story of the Red Guardsman Ken Ling" did not emerge from a preconceived intention either on the part of the narrator or on that of the American research team. Rather, it came about as a completely unplanned individual, albeit particularly outstanding, result of a research project that was much more extensive both in terms of time and subject matter, which surprisingly gave the narrator the chance, after his sudden fall from the dizzying power-political height, of a leading Red Guard in one To quickly gain a foothold in the “other world”.

First research field Soviet Union

Ivan D. London (1913–1983) and Miriam London (1923–2011) had made a name for themselves in American academia by examining the Soviet social system through refugee interviews. From 1946 to 1966, London published more than 20 essays on various aspects of psychology in the Soviet Union, some with the collaboration of his wife, but also other colleagues. His treatise A Brief History of Psychology in the Soviet Union appeared in 1950 in German translation. The London couple had initially conducted their research as participants in the "Harvard Refugee Interview Project on the Social System of the Soviet Union", which had come about thanks to generous funding from the American Air Force and almost all well-known social scientists in the USA who had the necessary information Language skills, summarized in order to gain knowledge about the Stalinist Soviet Union. When Ivan London began teaching at Brooklyn College in New York in 1952, however, Ivan London withdrew from this project and, together with his wife, set up an institute for political psychology in which refugee interviews, methodologically well-founded, were conducted in their own way. In 1957, London also published a comparative study of defectors from the Soviet Union and from East Germany. London referred to his method as the psychological or idiographic and meant a procedure that encouraged the respondent to describe the social and political situation in his country as the reality he personally experienced. The interviews of the London method remained open-ended and led to a potentially instructive and instructive depth (in-depth interviewing) instead of aiming at a goal set in advance by the researcher. Strictly avoiding a deterministic specification and allowing the researcher to engage in discussions with the respondent on an equal footing guaranteed, so the conviction of London, first of all, that the answers remained free from the attempt of the respondent, helpful to a supposed or actually recognized interest of the questioner and, secondly, that the descriptions of reality remained authentic, i.e. only brought to light what a concrete individual had experienced, observed or achieved without any hearsay or speculation about higher connections.

Second research field China

With the support of several private foundations, such as the Smith Richardson Foundation as the most important of them, the London couple turned to the Chinese refugee community in Hong Kong and Taiwan in 1963 for the next twelve years. As in the case of the Soviet Union, they wanted to gain a picture of the social and, last but not least, institutional-systemic conditions in the People's Republic of China from the largest possible number of personal, socially as widely dispersed individual testimonials as possible.

In preparation for this, Miriam London had started to study Chinese colloquial language. Despite the impressive knowledge she apparently acquired - she was finally able to process written reports of 500,000 characters and documents from Chinese sources - the Londoners entered the Chinese research field as newcomers. Compared to the specialists who traditionally represented China in science, to the sinologists , they were undoubtedly laypeople. When Ivan D. London was made aware of a young man by his research assistant in Taiwan in September 1968, who appeared to him as a person as well as his story as impressive and in fact thus began the genesis of the book in the narrower sense, the research team was however, through a large number of interviews “with the political wilderness” and the “psychological darkness of the cultural revolution” in China.

Processing stages

Ivan D. London first got in touch with the young man, who would later take the name Ken Ling with a view to publication, in writing. In order to ensure that he was a suitable subject for his general research work, London provided him with a list of 100 political terms that were in use in cultural revolutionary China and asked for their comments. The result of this test convinced him.

Summer 1969 in Taiwan

In the summer of 1969, the researcher couple started working with Ken Ling during their stay in Taiwan. In the first phase, the aim was to capture the subject's personality in as much detail as possible based on everyday occurrences as well as on the main events in their life. In addition to the meetings in which the project leader asked questions through the intermediary of a translator and his colleague, Miriam London, recorded all the answers verbatim, the research team conducted interviews with other refugees from the ranks of the former Red Guards in order to check the statements by Ken Ling. At the end of their stay in Taiwan in autumn that year, the test subject was given the task of working on ten episodes in writing that had emerged in the course of the discussions. The interviewee was supposed to escape the straitjacket into which the oral questioning had involuntarily pressed him by writing a letter entirely on his own.

Li Ta-ling's involvement

A second phase of processing began with the question of how the insights gained could be conveyed to third parties. Earlier experiences with the communication of work results concerning the Soviet Union had remained unsatisfactory. The idea occurred to Miriam London herself, who actually carried it out, to choose a literary form of representation. The Londons therefore took the Chinese-born Professor Li Ta-ling on board as a further employee and offered the "New York Times Magazine", which is enclosed in the New York Times on Sundays, as a reading sample and test of the acceptance of the material in the The public presented a text that was later processed in the first chapter of the book publication. The positive response to this excerpt, which appeared in January 1970, was the decisive factor in the decision to tackle a book project.

Third phase of work

In the spring of 1970, Miriam London wrote a preliminary draft for this project and started talks with the future publisher in New York. She was given the task of writing the book because she had "the necessary literary feel in English" and a "literary talent". This marked the beginning of the third phase, which was the longest and at the same time the most labor-intensive. All available interview material was re-examined. The task now was to work towards a goal - the book publication - to close gaps, investigate contradictions, verify data and point out connections that had gone unnoticed. It was only in this phase that the Londoners became aware, for example, of the tender love bond between Ken Ling and one of his fellow campaigners, which, with its tragic end, would determine the title of the book in the American, Chinese and French editions. This side thread of the story was so significant to her because it was able to underline the individual element of the entire publication. It was not about portraying the Chinese Cultural Revolution, but about experiencing it on the part of a single person.

Wu Ping-chung as a translator in the summer of 1970

The Londoners again spent the summer of 1970 in Taiwan and now even rented Ken Ling's hotel in order to be able to intensify and accelerate their work. Writing also gained more space than the oral interview. Ivan London hired Professor Wu Ping-chung, one of the most knowledgeable linguists in China at the time, who commonly interpreted for the President of National China and played a central role in the cooperation between his government and the American armed forces stationed in Taiwan. Under the conditions of pre-digital communication, Wu spoke the translation of Ken Ling's written contributions onto a tape recorder and provided them with comments that he considered important from a linguistic and factual point of view. All material was then airmailed to Li Ta-ling in New Haven , the seat of Southern Connecticut State College, who processed it further and in turn communicated with London by airmail. For the actual writing of the book, Miriam London had the material of around 300 interview hours, Ken Ling's free transcripts of around 400,000 characters and answers to queries totaling around 100,000 more characters. In about seven months, by the deadline set in March 1971, she produced the book.

meaning

The importance of this publication was initially politically time-bound. It was created against the background of the People's Republic of China's almost total isolation from the outside world since the mid-1960s. The country was not present at the international diplomatic level, nor did the leadership in Beijing, with few exceptions, tolerate the stay of non-Chinese foreigners within its sphere of influence. The few foreigners who existed in the then Chinese People's Republic or who were allowed to travel to the country were either specialists who had committed themselves to absolute silence about their perceptions of the country and its people, or so-called friends of China , i.e. advocates, propagandists and court reporters of the communist regime. Klaus Mehnert is one of these very friendly rapporteurs towards China . In his 1971 bestseller China After the Storm , which was created on the basis of a 32-day trip to China, he states:

In China, the social encrustations that have arisen since the victory of the revolution have been broken up during the cultural revolution, state and social conditions have gained a high degree of spontaneity. There is the charismatic leader Mao on the one hand, and 'the masses' on the other. In between everything is in flux.

He also writes:

The Red Booklet and the Selected Works will also retain canonical authority in China for a long, possibly very long time. [...] Some of his ideas can already be said today that they are second nature to the Chinese.

Elsewhere it says:

I think I can say one thing: The joy of life and work, the vigor of 'using my own strength', which I encountered everywhere, were not provided, not ordered; the little man in particular may experience with satisfied astonishment that he can work without officials, chief engineers, chief accountants or directors.

In the United States, Ross Terrill and John King Fairbank (1907–1991) were among the most reliable advocates of communist rule in China. Steven W. Mosher gives a detailed overview of this in China Misperceived . In the countries of Western Europe as well as in America, the Chinese mainland was widely perceived as terra incognita . In the interested western public, however, it was not just the conviction that basically nothing could be known about this country, which is often mystified as the “Middle Kingdom”, but paradoxically also the opinion that what its communist ruling elite would most likely be accepted as credible and let their sympathizers know. In individual cases, the reasons for this perceptual inconsistency might range from nostalgic admiration for ancient Chinese high culture to iconoclastic excitement for a Sino-Communist utopia . At the same time, the common Western understanding of China in the 1960s and 1970s was generally shaped by the supposed rebellion of the Chinese nation, which had supposedly come to itself with Mao Tse-tung, against the Soviet hegemon allied with it since 1950 . The more tense the relationship between Moscow and Beijing became, the more interested Western observers in science, journalism and politics began to feel emotionally connected to Mao Tse-tung. The Chinese leader may be a tyrant , but it was believed that he had lifted the Chinese people from the mercilessness of hunger and poverty. So wrote Christian Graf von Krockow in 1978:

In the 27 years since the establishment of the People's Republic […], China has solved fundamental problems with which developing countries struggle - mostly in vain: the problem of nutrition, the problem of employment, the problem of elementary upbringing and education for all, the problem of medical care and hygiene.

On the occasion of the spectacular visit by Richard M. Nixon , President of the United States of America , to Beijing , Hangzhou and Shanghai from February 21 to 28, 1972 , the American scientists and press people accompanying the President were able to convince themselves for the first time on the spot that that the people in the People's Republic of China supposedly lived in modest, but well-ordered and adequate circumstances.

The book Ken Lings painted a radically different picture at the same time. On his train journeys to the north, the Red Guard had encountered bitter poverty, poorly clad beggars and obviously starving people in large numbers. The further the trains went north, the more people plagued by misery crowded the stations and stretched emaciated arms towards the passengers at the windows. If you weren't careful enough, the bite would be torn from your hand. For Ken Ling, this was everyday inconvenience as well as unbearable dirt and stench that one encountered in the further north of the country. Inside China it was known that in provinces like Anhui there was always starvation. Ken Ling illustrated his observations with drastic details and yet as if they were a matter of course.

The bark was peeled off the trees. Now and then a corpse lay on the railway line; once I saw a child's leg. The stations were full of ragged, starved people.

The American visitors had apparently visited Potemkin villages during the Nixon trip . The London, on the other hand, had managed to open a window to Chinese reality. This fact was all the more significant as Western societies could very well have knowledge of this reality, but refused to accept it. Western scientists who did not allow themselves to be deterred by the zeitgeist were therefore often demonized and discredited. As one of the accomplices in 2007, Götz Aly made an impressive commitment to the German scene. Ken Ling was Chinese, someone who grew up in the People's Republic of China and had seen what he said with his own eyes. You either had to believe him or prove that he was a baron of lies , or China itself had to open itself up to such an extent that its reality could potentially be perceived by everyone.

The process of opening up China would take many years to complete. However, as late as the 1970s, Ken Ling's shocking descriptions were confirmed section by section by official Sino-Communist sources. Miriam and Ivan D. London documented this fact in 1976 and 1979 in five articles devoted to the problem of hunger and begging:

  • The Other China: Hunger. Part I - The Three Red Flags of Death (The Other China: Hunger. Part I. The Three Red Flags of Death) ,
  • The Other China. Part II. The Case of the Missing Beggars (Part II. The Case of the Missing Beggars) ,
  • The Other China. Part III. How do we know China. Let us count the ways ... (Part III. How we know China. Let us count the ways ...) as well
  • Hunger in China: The "Norm of Truth" (Hunger in China: The Standard for Truth) and
  • Hunger in China: The Failure of a System? (Hunger in China: The Failure of a System?) .

This made the long-term importance of London's book publication, which lies in the field of science, clear. For the first time, it exposed the school of the sinologist and Harvard professor John King Fairbank, who was also extremely influential in the field of politics, and which marked the image of the People's Republic of China beyond recognition, and with it the Chinese political discourse in the USA from the ground up mixed up. Secondly, however, it has shown that no social reality in the world can escape its sociological penetration. Indeed, this is a matter of method .

Reception of the book

General public in the US and UK

The American public at large paid close attention to the "Story of Red Guard Ken Ling". The book was featured in numerous - 90 reviews are known - in the USA and Great Britain - daily newspapers, magazines and radio stations, for example in the Economist (London), in the Cleveland Press, on CBS Radio , in the New Yorker , in the Wall Street Journal , in the Los Angeles Times , the National Observer, Publishers Weekly, and the Wichita Falls Times. Most of the time, the media recognized the authors. For example, the American news magazine Newsweek wrote :

An extraordinary and important book: a detailed, first-hand account of the bloody unrest that rocked China in the Cultural Revolution; and a true-to-life picture of the Red Guard movement.
Reaction in science
negative

The reactions from science, on the other hand, initially remained distant or even hostile. The review by the renowned China historian James E. Sheridan (1922–2015), who is close to the Fairbank School, from Northwestern University in Evanston and Chicago appears to be exemplary. Dispensing with any linguistic precision, he explains that it is a bit “fishy” about this book. The foreword to the American edition appears to him as “puzzling”. He considers it questionable that a publication that two American and two Chinese scientists were working on when the diary of a young Chinese man was issued. In addition, one should have learned something about the qualifications of the project developers ("developers"), said Sheridan, although he should have known at least Ta-Ling Lee and Ivan D. London as professor colleagues. He obviously did not know them, because he missed the disclosure of guidelines and goals of the interviewer, precisely the requisites of the conventional behaviorist working method , which London discards in its methodological writings because of their deterministic , and therefore, in his opinion, falsifying implications would have. The actually devastating argument - so effective to this day that the World Health Organization risks taking the whole world off the network of social life before issuing a very early warning from this source that the corona virus was first transmitted from humans in the southern Chinese metropolis of Wuhan takes too people seriously - but for him it was the fact that the research team interviewed the protagonist Ken Ling on the soil of Taiwan. Sheridan raised the question, obviously rhetorically speaking, whether this might not have influenced his statements. Taiwan was in the early 1970s and is still today the place where the most extensive and reliable knowledge of the People's Republic of China is available. It has to do with the nature of the matter, which is formally recognized by any state that has diplomatic relations with the Beijing government: Taiwan is part of China. It is the part of China that is the only part of all sub-societies in the Chinese region that has been democratically constituted for a quarter of a century and is not affected by the systemic hostility to information of communist rule. Here, however, the reviewer was concerned with the purity of his personal science:

The young people on these pages , Sheridan went on, appear opportunistic, selfish, dishonest [and] brutal. That could be so and it would be important for us to know. But the author himself pretends to be so unprincipled and viciously opportunistic that the reader is reluctant to believe anything, including about the character and behavior of other Red Guards.

Like many of his colleagues, Sheridan had evidently ignored the years of starvation in China from 1960 to 1962, which, according to various official Chinese sources, cost tens of millions of lives. Obviously he was not aware of the extent to which the time of massive starvation had socially depressing consequences and caused the deterioration of interpersonal manners.

positive

A counter-position to Sheridan's review can be found in the memoirs of Richard Baum (1940–2012), an equally renowned American China scholar and professor at the University of California in Los Angeles ( California ). In his 2010 memoir, he reported that his indecision with regard to conditions in China, including his willingness to expose his disbelief, ended quite abruptly in mid-1972 after he wrote a detailed first-hand report on the "Cultural Revolution" in Fukien read, namely The Revenge of Heaven . There was talk of apparitions that he knew quite differently, like people in ragged and dirty clothes begging for food and wrestling at train stations. In order to dispel any doubts, he wrote a very long letter to Miriam and Ivan London, in which he explained the nature and background of his remaining skepticism and asked whether she or the protagonist of the book called Ken Ling had any further evidence to verify the teach many sensational openings in the book. Tree literally:

To my surprise, they replied with an even longer letter - 12 pages typewritten, narrow-line - containing point-by-point answers to my questions, along with an impressive list of bibliographical references (mostly Chinese-language sources) detailing many of Ken Ling's allegations documented. It was a sincere and thoughtful reply, and it ended with an assurance from the Londoners that, despite some authoritative arrogance, Ken Ling was a real, real person. The Londons won me over both with the quality of their evidence and the measured tone of their response.

In Germany, Arnulf Baring , professor of political science, theory and the comparative history of political systems of rule at the Free University of Berlin, discussed the book in 1974 in the weekly newspaper Die Zeit :

This life story of a sixteen or seventeen year old is so unusual that it will perhaps go down in world literature as the Chinese Grimmelshausen of our day, but certainly in the history books as a Maoist Wolfgang Leonhard - a description of brief intoxication and disillusioned farewell to the revolution ”. He summed up: “These memoirs by a very young man are the most exciting, strongest text of our day that I know. Anyone who begins to read this report has a long night ahead of them. Because he won't let go of him.

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Ken Ling, Miriam London, Li Ta-ling: Mao's Little General. The story of the Red Guard Ken Ling . Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, Munich 1974, ISBN 3-423-01024-X , p. 530. Quoted as Mao's little general
  2. ↑ see data on Ivan D. London from Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs , accessed July 6, 2020.
  3. ↑ Data on Miriam London from Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs , accessed July 6, 2020.
  4. ↑ Only referred to as Li Ta-ling in the German version of the book. The English language version of the name is Ta-Ling Lee. Lee publishes under this name, see Publications at WordCat , accessed on June 30, 2020.
  5. ↑ Mao's little general. S. 5
    Data on Ta-Ling Lee from Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs , accessed July 6, 2020.
  6. ↑ Mao's Little General , Foreword p. 5 and p. 528.
  7. ↑ Mao's little general. P.56.
  8. ↑ Mao's little general. P. 9.
  9. ↑ Mao's Little General , Chapter The Incident on August 29, pp. 95-107.
  10. ↑ Mao's Little General , Chapter Long live Chairman Mao! Pp. 218-228.
  11. ↑ Mao's Little General , Chapter Wang Kung-mei is caught in the net. Pp. 258-280.
  12. ↑ Jürgen Domes : The Mao Tse-tung era. Domestic Policy in the People's Republic of China, Verlag W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart / Berlin / Cologne / Mainz 1971, p. 158.
    Jürgen Domes: The Internal Politics of China 1949–1972. C. Hurst & Company Publishers, London 1973, p. 172.
  13. ↑ Mao's little general. P. 316.
  14. ↑ Mao's little general. P. 333f.
  15. ↑ Mao's Little General , Chapter The Revenge of Heaven. Pp. 482-492.
  16. ↑ Mao's Little General , footnote 5, p. 13.
  17. ↑ Mao's little general. P. 520.
  18. ↑ Mao's little general. P. 518.
  19. ↑ Mao's little general , map p. 522f.
  20. ↑ Mao's Little General , footnote from Jürgen Domes, p. 46.
  21. ↑ Overview at WorldCat , accessed July 8, 2020.
  22. ↑ Directory at WorldCat , accessed July 8, 2020.
  23. ↑ Overview at WorldCat , accessed July 8, 2020.
  24. ↑ Overview at WorldCat , accessed July 8, 2020.
  25. ↑ Information from WorldCat , accessed July 8, 2020.
  26. ^ Richard Löwenthal : Preface. In: Jürgen Domes: Postponed Revolution - The Policy of the Kuomintang in China, 1923-1937 -. (= Contributions to foreign and international politics. Volume 3). Walter de Gruyter & Co., Berlin 1969, p. IX.
  27. ^ In memoriam Professor Jürgen Domes. In: campus - magazine of the Saarland University. No. 1/2003.
  28. ↑ Mao's little general. Foreword p. 5.
  29. ↑ Mao's Little General , Afterword, pp. 525-534.
  30. ^ Psychological Reports. Volume 34, 1974, pp. 1023-1030 ( see article in the English language Wikipedia about this journal )
  31. ↑ Mao's little general. last chapter Another world. Pp. 510-524.
  32. ^ In: Psyche , edited by Hans Kunz and Alexander Mitscherlich , Heidelberg, 4th year. 9th issue, pp. 161-189.
  33. ^ Description of Ivan D. London's participation in the project from 1950 onwards.
    Ivan D. London and Miriam B. London: A research-examination of the Harvard Project on the Soviet Social System. I. The basic written questionnaire. Psychological Reports, 19 (1966), pp. 1011-1109.
  34. ↑ The Davis Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies called a sum of 1 million US dollars for 1951 to 1953 , demand on June 29 2020th
  35. ↑ Presentation of the project at Daviscenter for Russian and Eurasian Studies , accessed on June 29, 2020.
  36. ^ Science, edited by John Michels, New York 1952, p. 81.
  37. ^ Description of the development to the Institute of Political Psychology of Brooklyn College. Accessed July 1, 2020.
  38. ^ The Young East German and Soviet Defector: A Report on Similarities. In: The Journal of Psychology. 53, pp. 103-109.
  39. ↑ Mao's little general. P. 533f.
  40. ^ Steven W. Mosher: China Misperceived: American Illusions and Chinese Reality. Basic Books. New York 1990, p. 162.
  41. ↑ a b Mao's little general. P. 525.
  42. ↑ Mao's little general. P. 527.
  43. ^ I. London, M. London, Ta - Ling Lee: The Making of a Red Guard. In: The New York Times Magazine. 4th January 1970.
  44. ↑ Mao's little general. P. 529 and footnote there
  45. ↑ a b Mao's little general. P. 529.
  46. ↑ Mao's little general. P. 532.
  47. ↑ Mao's little general. P. 530.
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  58. ↑ Even the German language Wikipedia has a redirect to the article “People's Republic of China” in 2020 when entering the term “Middle Kingdom”.
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  60. ↑ Mao's little general. P. 144: For many, the word 'Anhui' was synonymous with 'beggar' .
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  63. ↑ Götz Aly: Unser Kampf 1968. Fischer-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2007, paperback edition, 4th edition 2018, ISBN 978-3-596-17778-3 , pp. 111-115 u. 141
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  72. ↑ John Calleway, CBS Radio, review broadcast January 15, 1972.
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  83. ↑ James E. Sheridan: Chinese drama. The Red Guards and the Maoist Legacy. Chicago Sun-Times, February 20, 1973
    James E. Sheridan: The Red Guard Revolt and The Long March for Survival. In: Houston Chronicle . May 3, 1972.
    James E. Sheridan: Two Documents of China 's Revolution. In: The Cincinnati Enquirer. June 8, 1972.
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