Mark Brandenburg / industrial history
The commercial history of the Mark Brandenburg describes the development of the manufacturing industry, generally referred to as the secondary sector during the course of the existence of the Mark Brandenburg from the Middle Ages to the end of the early modern period .
In the middle ages
Brandenburg was a resource-poor country and the deposits of the most important ores at the time, silver, gold, iron, zinc and tin, were low. Due to its status as a land of colonization, which entered history much later than the southern and western German territories, the mark lagged behind the core areas of the empire on the Rhine in terms of the degree of civilization and economic development in the late Middle Ages.
Trades in the 16th century
The beginnings of a commercial landscape lie in the 16th century in the Berlin, Potsdam and Finowtal area . The workshops include mills, hammer mills on flowing waters, paper mills and glassworks . In 1532/1539 a paper mill was built in Eberswalde (until 1650), other paper mills were built in Reipzig (1539), Cottbus (1557) and Neudamm (1568). Until the end of the 16th century, glassware was imported from Silesia and Bohemia. Since there was enough sand and wood in the march, appropriate huts were built. A glassworks at Grimnitzsee (Uckermark) has been documented since 1575 . Between 1648 and 1713 there were production facilities at the Bernsee (Bernseesche Hütte), the hut in Potsdam-Zechlin , which supplied the farm with high-quality glass , two huts in Neumark, Althüttendorf am Grimnitzsee., The hut on Spiegelberg near Neustadt an der Dosse. There were a total of 75 huts in 60 locations in the Mark Brandenburg. Most of them produced utility glass. Only a few created and cut fine glasses.
There were a few companies that were based on a regal shelf, for example the copper hammers in Peitz (since the 1550s), the brass works near Eberswalde , Zehdenick and Neustadt an der Dosse . But their work was only as good as the limited quality of the lawn iron ores available in Brandenburg allowed. These huts were important for the elector because they supplied the garrisons with ammunition, but beyond that their economic use was limited. The iron produced there was not resistant to breakage in frost. Brandenburg was therefore not competitive on the regional metal trading market and the metal processing sector would not have held up without government support in the form of orders and import restrictions.
Apart from the glassworks and the (small) coal and steel works, there was no noteworthy, more highly developed trade in Brandenburg that exceeded the level of craftsmanship until the late 17th century . Brandenburg was considered to be an economically underdeveloped country, for example in comparison to the contemporary commercial landscapes of Flanders and Holland or the mining areas of the Ore Mountains.
At the locks of the Oder-Spree Canal , which was completed in 1668, smaller industrial settlements emerged, as did the Finow Canal , for example in the Rüdersdorfer Kalkberge , from which the towns were supplied with building lime .
First wave of manufactories founded by 1700
The period from 1640 to 1713 was the prelude to a period of mercantilist state economic policy in the entire Hohenzollern state that lasted until 1810 . The aim of the sovereign efforts was to create a unified and holistic national economy from the particular economic interests of individuals and the interests of opposing constellations of actors from cities, landlords, patricians / merchants and guilds .
The trade relations of the merchants with the industrial and commercial centers of Central, Eastern and Northern Germany were disrupted after the Thirty Years War. The competition of the financially strong Hamburg, Leipzig, Frankfurter / M. The Berlin-Brandenburg trade class in this region of the empire pushed merchants into the background. Small-scale commercial production in the Mark had hardly any supra-local significance. The actions of the guilds limited production rather than expanding it. From 1500 to 1612, 27 other guild organizations were added to the 11 existing guild organizations, but only one new trade privilege was granted by 1682 (1643 for the soap makers ). From 1682 to 1722, 40 new trade privileges were granted again, which speaks for a strong industrial recovery after 1682 and reflects industrial decline during the Thirty Years War and stagnation afterwards. The period from 1648 to 1680 was accompanied by developments in economic policy, which above all corresponded to the ideas of Dutch mercantilists.
Due to the rapid economic development of neighboring territories such as Saxony or the leading European states such as England or the Netherlands, Brandenburg and Prussia threatened to fall into a semi-colonial status. As a country that produced and exported raw materials cheaply and imported all processed finished goods at a high price. The example of the more developed Western European states had a stimulating effect and accelerated the development of its own economic strategy. The Great Elector Friedrich Wilhelm I sought for his Hohenzollern state, which was growing together and in which Brandenburg continued to hold a central position, to join the more developed states of Europe such as the Netherlands .
Since in the 17th century, after the destruction of the Thirty Years' War, the entire Thohenzollern state of Brandenburg-Prussia had no export-oriented large-scale trade at all, proto- industrialization and the creation of the basis for industrialization (capital, personnel, sales) were an achievement that the early modern state had to initiate. Such state subsidies related to financial contributions or a rigorous customs policy. The lack of unity in the interior of the entire Thohenzollern state, but also the diverging and opposing interests of the economic actors, only allowed a very energetic, patronizing, driving and defensive state policy. With these methods, Prussian economic policy resembled that of the other European states.
The resources for the development of a commercial landscape were not available in Brandenburg but also in the other associated Hohenzollern provinces such as East Prussia , the Duchy of Magdeburg or Western Pomerania . The existing capital of the residents was low, the skills in the commercial and capital sector of the economy were low and due to the low liberalization of the rural society, the economic initiative was not pronounced, so that economic stimuli had to come from outside. This was also achieved through the politics of peuplication of the Hohenzollern rulers in their entire provinces. After the Edict of Potsdam, many Huguenots settled in the Mark, with a focus on the Berlin area, and founded new types of business that had never existed before. With them, the actual wave of founding manufactories in Brandenburg began.
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On the state side, the attractive manufacturing policy was directed by Eberhard von Danckelmann , the most important Brandenburg statesman in the 1680s . At the beginning of the 1680s, the first manufactories were established with the participation of the two advisors to the Elector Elard Esich and Daniel Stephani . In 1678, a wool factory was set up in Berlin that produced decentralized production in the publishing system. The processing equipment had to be imported from Amsterdam, as there were no producers for this in Brandenburg. The factory was bad, but still existed at least in 1711 and by 1680 already had 200 workers. In 1679 the two consultants founded a sugar boiling plant in Berlin, followed in 1681 by a tobacco mill on the initiative of the Berlin mayor Christian Friedrich Bartholdi (1644–1707) and the Frankfurt tax council Johann Senning . In 1686, the Berlin merchant Johann Andreas Kraut had a "gold and silver drawing" set up. The manufacture was acquired by the Leipzig brothers Caspar Bose and Georg Bose and then sold to Severin Schindler . This company expanded and in 1708 already employed 900 people. Henri de Moor founded a mirror glass factory in Neustadt an der Dosse in 1696, which later became a supplier of mirrors for the Prussian castles. Here, as in the gold and silver drawing, it was the French workers with their production experience who contributed to the flourishing of the company. 18 French masters worked there with 120 workers. The Potsdamer Glashütte under the direction of Johann Kunckel produced high quality artistic glass products.
In 1685, in addition to handicrafts, there were commercial enterprises in Berlin such as the textile industry, sugar boilers and faience workshops. By 1700, other manufacturers followed in the following product groups: faience and earthenware, tapestries and carpets, gold and silver goods, wool, French hats, silk, wallpaper, stockings, Italian artificial flowers, cotton, decorative ribbons. Dye works and dye works developed, special weapons, brass work, steel goods and knives, coins and medals were produced. The first manufactories either took care of that or went under again after a few years. For example, the tobacco manufacturer was unable to sell its goods despite legal monopoly and tax breaks. The textile industry suffered from a lack of orders and raw materials. Overall, many manufacturers in the first wave of development up to 1700 lacked sustainable capital, quality of goods and a domestic market. Many of the goods produced could not compete with foreign products. A lack of sales led, for example, to the ruin of the Berlin crêpon factory founded in 1694. The textile manufacture of the Swiss manufacturer Joseph Orelly , which comprised 2000 weavers, had to give up in 1699 due to a lack of sales.
Regardless of the many setbacks and periodic economic crises, there was a strong economic growth in Brandenburg between 1713 and 1650. The flourishing branches of industry included copper and sugar mills, mines, paper mills and printing works. In addition to the large-scale production of leather goods, tobacco processing and tobacco pipes recorded increasing profits.
Mercantilism in the 18th century
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There were two important branches of industry in the Mark, the cloth production with a focus on Berlin-Cölln, Potsdam, Brandenburg an der Havel and other places and the beer brewery especially in the Altmark. The cloth industry had been in a lingering crisis since the early 16th century, made worse by the Thirty Years War. Saxon cloth manufacturers who bought wool from producers in Kurmark made the raw material more expensive for local publishers. The remaining wool was not enough to supply the local industry with the necessary raw material. Overall, cloth production in the 18th century was increasingly organized in the publishing system . The Kurmärk craftsmen organized in guilds were no longer able to cope with this, so that their number declined and merchants such as Adam Rosenfeld in Landsberg or Johann Mertz in Altmark began to relocate the cloth makers' guild.
In keeping with the zeitgeist of mercantilism , King Friedrich Wilhelm I tried to restrict the importation of so-called “luxury goods” and promoted the wool industry from its own raw materials. The lucrative exports of raw wool and unprocessed leather to "abroad" (mostly to Saxony) were finally banned after long-term exemption regulations and instead the processing of the entire shearing was ordered "inland". The Prussian army appeared as a major customer and buyer; in Berlin the warehouse was founded as a state publisher. The capital for manufactories often came from the profits of the wool industry.
The growing Prussian army proved to be an important customer . The development of an old Prussian armaments industry of its own was politically opportune, as Brandenburg-Prussia was thus able to free itself from its dependence on imports that were uncertain in times of war. In the period around 1700, various arms manufacturers were established in Brandenburg, of which the Potsdam rifle factory became the largest and longest in existence. Armaments and the military were subject to a steady boom in Brandenburg and Prussia in the 18th century. A well-known larger trading company, the Splitgerber and Daum company , adopted this branch of business in Brandenburg and invested with its own capital in the expansion of the armaments industry, especially around Berlin. The lack of ammunition that occurred in the first two Silesian Wars prompted Friedrich II to build new blast furnaces and processing plants between 1752 and 1756 in Schadow near Storkow , Gottow near Zinna , and Vietz near Küstrin . These systems were used exclusively for the army. The lack of suitable ores, which moreover could only be used for the production of ammunition, and the energy problem placed narrow limits on the expansion of this industry. Since deforestation by this trade but also by other trades such as glassworks, tar ovens, lime kilns and brickworks reduced the amount of wood available in the vicinity of these trades, regular reforestation and forest management began.
After the end of the First and Second Silesian Wars , Frederick II turned intensively to the development and expansion of domestic factories. When he came to power, all of Prussia was predominantly agricultural and only had a small export share of processed goods. The king's influence was aimed at achieving a positive trade balance and increasing the state's financial reserves . At the same time he wanted to create a Prussian market that was self-sufficient from foreign imports in order to prevent the outflow of foreign currency . The expansion of the textile industry should be accelerated to meet the needs of the local civilian population and the military. In order to meet his own wishes for high-quality fabrics for furnishing the castles and mansions, the king also directed his economic policy efforts towards the silk trade, which became one of Frederick II's favorite economic projects. This received a large proportion of state subsidies, concessions, privileges and the provision of buildings and manufacturing equipment. For the successful cultivation of mulberry trees for sericulture , he suspended state premiums in order to supply the manufactories that were to be established in Potsdam and Berlin with local silk. In addition, skilled workers and silk weavers from France were recruited. The silk industry, whose products such as damask , atlas , brocade and gros de Tours represented an art product “close to the court” and was dependent on a continuous state protection policy, reached its maximum production in 1780 and then declined. The silk production in Brandenburg competed with the leading French model and achieved artistic independence. An important Brandenburg entrepreneur in this segment was Johann Ernst Gotzkowsky, but also the Berlin trimmers and purveyor to the court Christian Friedrich Blume (1693–1746) and the protective Jew David Hirsch . Karl David Kircheisen provided the state for the corresponding industrial support from 1742 to 1770. In 1758, the wallpaper factory of the Jewish entrepreneur Isaac Levin Joel was established in Glienicke Castle , who produced oilcloth wallpapers there . Its manufacture became one of the most successful in all of Prussia. His wallpaper decorated the houses of many nobles as well as the king's castles. The fabrics from local manufacturers achieved a high quality in design and execution. The courtly demand for luxury goods stimulated the commercial sector and created a high-end sector that produced for a small wealthy clientele. Ultimately, the majority of workers in the commercial sector worked on a craft basis, that is, companies that were not geared towards standardized mass production and were rather small.
In contrast to the silk industry, developments in the cotton industry took place . Its boom, which began in the 1740s, was based on developing mass consumption. The cheap, colorfully printed calico enjoyed great popularity, so that there was a demand. In 1749 there were already seven calico printing plants in Berlin . These formed the centralized final stage of an entire production chain, which ultimately led to printing from spinning and weaving mills operated by publishers. These businesses required high capital, as appropriate technical production facilities such as the printing, carpentry, engraving, dyeing, bleaching, etc. required. The state continued to favor linen and wool production and was more of a hindrance than promoting the industry. The calico printing belonged to the guild-free trade . Therefore, investors first had to obtain concessions in order to be able to produce. The granting of such concessions has been prohibited by the state since 1754. The aim was to reduce production in this branch in order to protect the other textile branches. However, this measure had no lasting success, in 1763 there were ten manufactories. New businesses were created during the Seven Years' War, circumventing the prohibition. Among them that of the businessman Johann Georg Sieburg , who worked from 1756 to 1763 without a license and developed into the prototype of an entrepreneur in the cotton processing industry. Since the cotton companies received hardly any government support, they worked with their own capital and took care of the sale of their products themselves. In contrast to the other commercial sectors, the authorities rarely interfered in operational management. The entrepreneurs corresponded to a type of manufacturing capitalist who trusted the laws of the market completely and opposed government nuisance.
The involvement of local Jews became increasingly important for the operation of publishing houses and manufacturers . Above all, the takeover of unprofitable companies by wealthy Jews increasingly became a condition for state-granted (protective) privileges, so that a wave of Jewish business start-ups followed , especially after the general privilege of 1750 . For the residential and garrison city of Berlin, the Jewish commitment meant a surge in modernization and importance, which enabled the capital to increasingly establish itself as an important location for the silk and cotton industry and a hub for east-west trade . Many manufactories in Potsdam were founded by Jewish families from Berlin. Up to 1769 there were 17 Jewish factories that were responsible for the manufacture of silk and silk goods as well as cotton and precious metal processing. During the reign of Friedrich II, a total of 46 Jewish manufactories and factories were founded, 27 of them after the end of the Seven Years' War. Most of the start-ups took place in the textile industry, for example the cotton and calico factories in the greater Berlin area. In this post-war period, which was accompanied by economic crises, tensions and bankruptcies, the “Jews established themselves as saviors in need”, who only allowed the companies to survive and rebuilt them economically.
Brick factories and lime kilns produced more and more for Berlin's building needs, whose spatial structuring pull on the surrounding area has increased significantly since 1750. The division of labor between the province and Berlin, with the basic pattern of raw material production in the countryside and processing and consumption in Berlin, took on stronger contours. This was particularly evident in the textile industry. The wool was produced in the country and laid in the Berlin warehouse. Smaller towns and villages oriented themselves more and more towards Berlin. In addition, with the newly founded spinner and weaver colonies, village communities emerged that became completely dependent on their urban customers in the main role of Berlin. In addition to Nowawes , these were, for example, Friedrichshagen , Gosen and Neu-Zittau or the Wollup office . The separation of town and country typical of Brandenburg until then was broken with the creation of the Berlin economic region in the center of the Mark. This catchment area also included Spandau, Potsdam, Neustadt-Eberswalde, the Finow valley with its iron processing industry. The new spatial economic structure of Brandenburg led to the formation of Thünen's rings . The strong promotion of the residences in and around Berlin was also at the expense of the other provincial cities. In the 18th century, despite the commercial growth, the economic structures of the Berlin and Potsdam area with their manufacturing landscape could not draw conclusions about the entire economy of the Mark Brandenburg. There was a rudimentary concentration of industry in rural areas. For example, the Baron Franziskus Matthäus von Vernezobre de Laurieux (1690–1748) founded industrial production facilities in the Hohenfinow area after 1721 . Between 1752 and 1754 an iron hammer , a wire drawing shop and a nail factory were built, in Tornow a file factory was part of it for a time. The baron also owned a textile factory for barchents and linen production. The iron and steel goods factory near Neustadt-Eberswalde had been producing since 1750/53. In 1781 a paper factory was established in Spechthausen .
The size of the individual trades in the 18th century was still quite modest. The largest company, the “Royal Warehouse”, employed 4,730 workers in 1738, many of them working from home (new German: “Home office” :). The gold and silver factory in Berlin, the second largest company in Brandenburg, had 833 employees in 1783, the KPM employed 440 workers in 1770, and the Potsdam rifle factory in 1785 195 employees. The mirror factory in Neustadt (Dosse) counted 145 workers in 1788. The three Berlin sugar boilers employed 350 workers in 1787. Overall, however, the Mark can be described as a commercially concentrated region since 1770, which clearly stood out from its poorly developed level of development in the 17th century. In terms of its economic position in the entire Prussian state, the Margraviate of Brandenburg was the second most important province after Silesia. In terms of customs policy, the Märkiche economic area was heavily protected by the establishment of high customs barriers, for example against Silesia. The larger companies in particular have concentrated in the Prussian Central Province. 42.6 percent of the companies with more than ten employees were located in the Kurmark.
In 1800, all manufactories generated a value of 4,121,731 Reichstaler, of which goods worth 724,045 Reichstaler were exported. The entire secondary sector , including the so-called “mechanical arts” (e.g. sculptors, painters) and the handicraft businesses, produced a roughly calculated gross domestic product of around 11 million Reichstaler in 1800. The craftsmen's businesses, the leading group of which were the four trades (butchers, tailors, bakers, shoemakers), worked mainly for the needs of the local market.
| Manufacture of the Neumark 1804 | Manufacturing in the Kurmark 1800 | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Branch | Number of "factories" | Workers | Production value in RT | Value share of 100 | Number of "factories" | Workers | Production value in RT | Value share of 100 | ||
| textiles | - | 13.094 | 2,110,343 | 87 | - | 26,813 | 9,169,810 | 73.8 | ||
| Tobacco processing | - | - | - | - | 19th | 1125 | 1,103,388 | 8.9 | ||
| Sugar manufacturing | - | - | - | - | 8th | 179 | 759.070 | 6.1 | ||
| Precious metal processing | - | - | - | - | 1 | 1013 | 345,000 | 2.8 | ||
| Metal extraction and processing | 11 | 159 | 183,625 | 8th | 20th | 295 | 95,847 | 1 | ||
| Glass | 4th | 95 | 33,150 | 1 | - | 68 | 40,500 | 0.3 | ||
| Wallpaper production | - | - | - | - | 3 | 155 | 78,489 | 0.6 | ||
| Sawmills (cutting mills) | - | 86 | 15,442 | 1 | 65 | 14,391 | 0.1 | |||
| paper | 12 | 72 | 21,568 | 1 | 6th | 304 | 63.191 | 0.5 | ||
| Vegetable oils (oil mills) | - | 37 | 2640 | 0 | 161 | 21,828 | 0.2 | |||
| Mirror manufacturing | - | - | - | 0 | 1 | 148 | 60,500 | 0.5 | ||
| Jewelry industry | - | - | - | 0 | - | 154 | 175,400 | 1.4 | ||
| porcelain | - | - | - | 0 | 1 | 400 | 150,000 | 1.2 | ||
| Earthenware / faience production | - | - | - | 0 | 3 | 186 | 40,000 | 0.3 | ||
| Others | - | 367 | 48.394 | 2 | 774 | 303,543 | 2.4 | |||
| total | - | 13,910 | 2,415,162 | 100 | 31,840 | 12,420,957 | 100 | |||
| Pottery | - | 107 | 2982 | - | 8th | 117 | 18,863 | |||
| Breweries | k. A. | k. A. | k. A. | k. A. | k. A. | k. A. | k. A. | k. A. | ||
| Distilleries | k. A. | k. A. | k. A. | k. A. | k. A. | k. A. | k. A. | k. A. | ||
| Guild craft | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2,000,000 | |||
The main trade of the market was textile manufacture and processing. In terms of size, the trade achieved a good basis to be the first branch of the first wave of industrialization to generate a corresponding boost and economic dynamism. So there was a certain number of skilled workers, sales channels, raw material producers, which formed the basic requirement for the later take-off using machines. The metal industry was the second important branch in industrialization, along with energy generation from fossil fuels. However, this had only experienced an initial training in the market. This shows the small number of products that were ever manufactured. There were “factories” in the metal industry that only produced needles, buttons or nails. As a result, the possible uses for metals outside of the defense industry were still very limited.
Around 1800 there were about 1000 factories with 100,000 employees in the area of the later German Empire (excluding Austria, the Czech Republic). The German hereditary lands Habsburg had at that time 280 factories, Brandenburg-Prussia 220 factories, Silesia 30 factories, Ansbach-Bayreuth had 40 factories and the area of the Rhineland and Westphalia had 30 factories, the Electorate of Saxony had 170 factories, the Palatinate / Bavaria 150 factories, Kurhannover 20 manufactories.
According to this, the Electorate of Brandenburg had, despite the modest extent of labor-sharing and standardized manufacturing industries, which was obviously seen by today's comparative standards, around 1800 a denser industrial landscape for that time. The majority of the Brandenburg manufactories were located in the Berlin economic area.
The average annual wage in a Chemnitz calico printing plant in 1784 was 97.6 Reichstaler. The current annual wage of an experienced skilled worker in Germany is around € 40,000 gross. The conversion value of the Reichstaler at that time to today's purchasing power in euros is around 1: 400 if economic prosperity gains associated with the expansion of the shopping basket, the expansion of the infrastructure and technological progress are excluded. With a commercial production value of 15 million Rt per year for the Mark Brandenburg, this would be equivalent to a carefully estimated annual turnover of around six billion euros in today's currency. Six billion euros in annual sales with around 46,000 employees is the order of magnitude of today's larger conglomerate in the production segment. The information on the industry-related annual quantities produced in the Bratring plants also allows a comparison with a larger conglomerate today. In relation to the population of a little over a million inhabitants in the Mark Brandenburg at that time, the density of businesses and their economic relevance, based on today's level in Germany, is still low.
Basically, the basket produced around 1800 was still very small, the quantity of products was just as small. The social production conditions were pre-industrial and the actual labor market was not yet large. What was standardized alongside textiles were mainly goods for the luxury segment. This included furnishing elements of mansions and castles such as mirrors, wallpaper, dishes and the like. Goods for the lower income segment (e.g. IKEA furniture) were not yet industrially manufactured except for the textile sector, but continued to be manufactured in-house or as a craft. That meant a poor density of basic supplies with the essential things that people need every day. This shortage was evident, for example, in various hunger crises , which highlighted the structural inability of the producers at the time to be able to meet demand. Overall, the Margraviate of Brandenburg, with all its structural deficits and development paths, was up to date and, compared to earlier times, had clearly caught up with the other German territories. In the further course of the 19th century, the Berlin economic area was able to take a leading position in industrialization. The basic requirements for this were laid in the 18th century.
literature
- Bratring, Friedrich Wilhelm August: Statistical-topographical description of the entire Mark Brandenburg. Second volume. Containing the Mittelmark and Ukermark. Berlin 1805
- Otto Büsch, Wolfgang Neugebauer: Modern Prussian History 1648–1947, Volume 2, Walter de Gruyter Verlag, Berlin-New York 1981
- Ingrid Mittenzwei, Erika Herzfeld: Brandenburg-Prussia 1648–1789 - The age of absolutism in text and image. Verlag der Nation, 3rd edition, Berlin 1990
- Yearbook for Economic History, Academy of Sciences of the GDR, Institute for Economic History, special volume: On the economic and social history of Berlin from the 17th century to the present, Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1986, article by Horst Mauter: On the history of the Berlin faience factories from 1678 to around 1779
- On-site appointments - stations in Brandenburg-Prussia on the way to the modern world. In: Museum Association of the State of Brandenburg (Ed.): Exhibition catalog of the project "Kulturland Brandenburg 2001". Henschel Publishing House, 2001
Individual evidence
- ↑ Jan Winkelmann: The Mark Brandenburg of the 14th Century: Margravial Rule between Spatial Distance and Political Crisis, Lukas Verlag, Berlin 2011, p. 46.
- ^ Gerd Heinrich: Kulturatlas Brandenburg - Historische Landkarten - history of the Mark at a glance, Hendrik Bäßler Verlag, 4th edition, Berlin 2015, p. 32.
- ↑ On -site appointments - stations in Brandenburg-Prussia on the way to the modern world. In: Museum Association of the State of Brandenburg (Ed.): Exhibition catalog of the project "Kulturland Brandenburg 2001". Verlag Henschel, 2001, p. 51.
- ↑ Otto Büsch, Wolfgang Neugebauer: Modern Prussian History 1648-1947, Volume 2, Walter de Gruyter Verlag, Berlin-New York 1981, p. 952
- ^ Yearbook for Economic History , Academy of Sciences of the GDR , Institute for Economic History, special volume: On the economic and social history of Berlin from the 17th century to the present, Akademie-Verlag , Berlin 1986, article by Horst Mauter: Zur Geschichte der Berliner Fayencemanufakturen from 1678 to about 1779, pp. 29-37, pp. 36f
- ↑ Ingrid Mittenzwei, Erika Herzfeld: Brandenburg-Prussia 1648–1789 - The Age of Absolutism in Text and Image. Verlag der Nation, 3rd edition, Berlin 1990, p. 141.
- ^ Yearbook for the History of Latin America, Anuario de Historia de America Latina, Volume 32, Issue 1, Pages 257-302, ISSN (Online) 2194-3680, doi: 10.7788 / jbla-1995-0116 Chapter: American Colonial Goods and Economic Policy in Prussia and Saxony: Prolegomena (17th / 18th and early 19th centuries), p. 268.
- ^ Otto Büsch, Wolfgang Neugebauer: Modern Prussian History 1648-1947, Volume 2, Walter de Gruyter Verlag, Berlin-New York 1981, p. 951
- ↑ Ingrid Mittenzwei, Erika Herzfeld: Brandenburg-Prussia 1648–1789 - The Age of Absolutism in Text and Image. Verlag der Nation, 3rd edition, Berlin 1990, p. 147.
- ↑ Ingrid Mittenzwei, Erika Herzfeld: Brandenburg-Prussia 1648–1789 - The Age of Absolutism in Text and Image. Verlag der Nation, 3rd edition, Berlin 1990, pp. 140 f.
- ^ Gerd Heinrich: Kulturatlas Brandenburg - Historische Landkarten - history of the Mark at a glance, Hendrik Bäßler Verlag, 4th edition, Berlin 2015, p. 32.
- ↑ Ingrid Mittenzwei, Erika Herzfeld: Brandenburg-Prussia 1648-1789 - The Age of Absolutism in Text and Image, 3rd edition, Verlag der Nation, Berlin 1990, p. 142.
- ^ Yearbook for the History of Latin America, Anuario de Historia de America Latina, Volume 32, Issue 1, Pages 257-302, ISSN (Online) 2194-3680, doi: 10.7788 / jbla-1995-0116 Chapter: American Colonial Goods and Economic Policy in Prussia and Saxony: Prolegomena (17th / 18th and early 19th centuries), p. 269.
- ↑ On -site appointments - stations in Brandenburg-Prussia on the way to the modern world. In: Museum Association of the State of Brandenburg (Ed.): Exhibition catalog of the project "Kulturland Brandenburg 2001". Verlag Henschel, 2001, p. 52.
- ↑ Nina Simone Schep Frankowski: Johann Ernst Gotzkowsky. Art agent and painting collector in the Frederician Berlin, Akademie Verlag, Berlin 2009, pp. 37–39.
- ↑ Searching for traces in the Jewish cemetery in Potsdam: a handout for teaching, published by the Association for Jewish Studies, Universitätsverlag Potsdam, Potsdam 2016, p. 31.
- ^ Ingrid Mittenzwei, Erika Herzfeld: Brandenburg-Preußen 1648-1789 - The Age of Absolutism in Text and Image, Verlag der Nation, 3rd edition, Berlin 1987, p. 306.
- ↑ Stefi Jersch-Wenzel: Jews and "French" in the economy of the Berlin / Brandenburg area at the time of mercantilism. Individual publication by the Historical Commission in Berlin. Volume 23. Berlin 1978, p. 211
- ^ Ingo Materna, Wolfgang Ribbe: Brandenburg history. Akademie Verlag, Berlin 1995, p. 360 ff.
- ^ Ingo Materna, Wolfgang Ribbe: Brandenburg history. Akademie Verlag, Berlin 1995, pp. 360–365.
- ^ Bratring, Volume 2, p. 157.
- ↑ a b c Bratring, Volume 3, p. 65.
- ↑ Woolen goods, leather, white and tanner , leather gloves, have linen goods, Tree Woolen goods, Silk Factory, calico
- ↑ Bratring, Volume 1, p. 132 f.
- ^ Bratring, Volume 1, p. 154.
- ^ Bratring, Volume 1, p. 147.
- ^ Bratring, Volume 1, pp. 143ff, 157.
- ^ Bratring, Volume 1, p. 150.
- ^ Bratring, Volume 1, p. 151.
- ^ Bratring, Volume 1, p. 148.
- ^ Bratring, Volume 1, p. 148.
- ↑ According to self-counting of the individual information: Bratring, Volume 1, p. 156f, the sum information there has been incorrectly added up.
- ^ Bratring, Volume 1, p. 149.
- ^ Bratring, Volume 1, p. 156.
- ^ Bruno Gebhardt, Hans-Werner Hahn, Helmut Berding: Handbook of German History: Reformation, Restoration and Revolution 1806-1848 / 49, Volume 14, 10th edition, Klett-Cotta Verlag, p. 183
- ↑ a b Kurt Böttcher, Hans Jürgen Geerdts, Rudolf Heukenkamp: Brief history of German literature. People and Knowledge, 1987, p. 272.