National allegory
A national allegorical figure is an allegorical figure that embodies a nation and the idiosyncrasies attributed to it. If it appears in human form, one speaks of a national personification . These allegories can take different forms.
Female allegories
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The belief in a genius loci as a local guardian spirit comes from ancient tradition; Accordingly, the Greeks and Romans already worshiped local protective deities alongside the relevant pantheon. Female allegories as a portrait of a tribe or a nation have already been handed down from the Romans: on Roman coins that were minted on the occasion of military successes, female personifications from Africa , Gallia , Judea or Germania appeared in degrading mourning poses , appropriately labeled IUDAEA CAPTA or GERMANIA CAPTA . The patron goddess of the city of Rome, Roma , was elevated to a figure of identification under Augustus . During the peacetime under Emperor Hadrian , however, coin motifs with the “protective deities” of the imperial provinces were created as symbols of unity.
In medieval art there were isolated allegories that were provided with regional attributes , as was the case with most depictions of saints. In Renaissance art, female, personified allegories became increasingly fashionable again, but no longer stood for deities in the religious sense, but represented human or national characteristics. The representations of principalities and empires as female figures served mainly as Motif of art or to highlight national differences.
A national idea behind the creations was, however, already pursued in the unity-creating figure of a Helvetia in denominationally divided Switzerland. In the course of the French Revolution and the coalition wars that followed , the burgeoning national idea found a foothold in Europe and allegories of the homeland represented romantic-patriotic motifs of the fatherland . All over Europe from 1800 onwards national personifications based on antiquated models appeared in order to unite the respective children of the country under a visually identifiable figure; this also in countries that were not in Roman tradition. In Germany, which was not unified at the time, personifications of the German nation and personifications of the individual principalities arose. Even later and outside of Europe, national personifications emerged mostly as an expression of patriotism . The female personifications were flexible in their design and iconography, but often represented a defensive virgin or a mother of the nation. What they had in common when creating them was that they did not refer to historical models of a woman as ruler or warrior, but rather the nation belonging to it decorated with insignia of his power. On the contrary, the bourgeois ideal of women widespread in Europe around 1800 did not envisage any combative female figures.
Due to the ban on images in Islam , the allegorical personification of the nation is not widespread in the Islamic world. Nevertheless, in the immediate post-colonial phase, the female national allegory was taken over from “European iconography”, for example in the case of Algeria and Egypt. Attempts at obscuring made these allegories too abstract and impersonal, which is why the idea was dropped.
| Country | female allegory | First mention / introduction | comment |
|---|---|---|---|
| Argentina | nameless | 19th century | Personifications of characteristics of the nation (freedom, progress, fatherland), depicted with statues and coins. Comparable to the Brazilian allegory |
| Albania | Mother Albania ( Nëna Shqipëri ) | 19th century | originated in the resistance against the Ottoman Empire |
| Armenia | Mother Armenia ( Majr Hajastan ) | 1962-67 | Monumental monument, erected to replace a statue of Stalin |
| Bangladesh | Mother Bengal ( Bangla Maa ) | around 1905 | originated in the resistance against the British Empire and later India |
| Brazil | nameless ( Efígie da República ) | 19th century | Portrait of the republics of Brazil and Portugal, could not prevail in Portugal. Comparable to the Argentine allegories. |
| Bulgaria | Mother Bulgaria | ||
| Denmark | Mor Danmark | 18th century | Symbol of the Danish nation, mainly used in national romanticism , partly related to the figure of the two Sønderjyske piger ( South Kuutland girls ) as allegories of southern Jutland |
| Germany | Germania | early 19th century | Revival of a Roman allegory; Symbol of the beginning of German national consciousness |
| Further allegories of the same epoch are romanticizing for then often independent principalities or (imperial) cities: Bavaria - Bavaria |
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| Europe | Europe | Personification of the continent based on Greek legend, widespread political allegory since the founding of the European Union | |
| Finland | Virgo Finland ( Suomi-neito , Aura ) | 19th century | allegorical daughter of the Swedish Swea, used in the resistance against the Russian Empire |
| France | Marianne | from 1792 | Symbol of freedom of the French Revolution ; Allegory of the Republic |
| Gallia / Francia | before 1792 | Allegory of the Ancien Régime | |
| Georgia | Mother of Georgia ( Kartvlis Deda ) | 1958 | Monumental monument of the capital Tbilisi; after independence from the Soviet Union, the figure was adapted. In addition, St. George is the country's patron saint. |
| Great Britain | Britannia | 17th century | Revival of a Roman allegory; in use since about the unification of Scotland and England |
| Greece | Hellas | 19th century | |
| Ireland | Hibernia | 19th century | female allegory in Roman tradition |
| India | Mother India ( Bharat Mata ) | 19th century | Amalgam of female Hindu Indian deities, especially Durga . Originated under British occupation. |
| Indonesia | Mother Prithivi ( Ibu Pertiwi ) | local adaptation of the Hindu deity Prithivi | |
| Iceland | Mountain woman ( Fjallkonan ) | 1752 | popular since the 18th century |
| Italy | Italia turrita | 19th century | ancient Roman saturnia tellus ; depicted in art since the 16th century. Similar allegories of the same epoch romanticise the then independent principalities: Venetia. |
| Canada | Mother Canada | little common | |
| Malta | Melita | 1899 | introduced under British sovereignty on postage stamps and banknotes |
| Macedonia | Mother Macedonia | ||
| Mexico | nameless ( Alegoría de la Patria Mexicana ) | early 19th century | established in the war against the USA and in the German Empire |
| New Zealand | Zealandia | early 20th century | National allegory in coats of arms, postage stamps, banknotes and in the form of statues |
| Netherlands | Dutch maid ( Nederlandse Maagd ) | 1796 | Figure of freedom based on the model of the French Marianne |
| Norway | Mother Norway ( Mor Norge ) | early 19th century | |
| Austria | Austria | 19th century | previously understood as an allegory of the Habsburgs |
| Regional allegories exist, for example: Tyrolia - Tyrol (originated in the struggle for freedom against the Napoleonic occupation) |
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| Poland | Polonia | 13th Century | First mentioned in the hymn "Gaude Mater, Polonia" (Latin for joy, mother Poland ) |
| Roman Empire | Roma | 1st century AD | originally goddess, raised to a figure of identification under Augustus |
| Russia | Mother Russia (Россия-Матушка) | old legendary figure, possibly derived from the figure of the Mokosh (renamed in Soviet times: Mother Homeland) | |
| Scotland | Caledonia / Scotia | Revival of a Roman allegory for Scotland | |
| Sweden | Mother Svea ( Moder Svea ) | 1697 | emerged as an allegorical theater figure, raised to a role of identification in the 19th century |
| Switzerland | Helvetia | 1672 | Expressly created as an allegory of the unity of the Confederation |
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Cantonal allegories of the same epoch exist, for example: Berna - Bern |
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| Serbia | Mother Serbia ( Majka Srbija ) | 19th century | originated during the independence movements |
| Spain | Hispania | 19th century | Revival of a Roman allegory |
| Czech Republic | Čechie | 19th century | female form of the forefather Čech |
| Ukraine | Berehynia | after 1990 | emerged as a national figure of identification; alleged legendary pagan protective deity |
| Hungary | Hungaria | 19th century | |
| United States of America | Lady Liberty | Personification of the American idea of freedom, embodied in the Statue of Liberty | |
| Columbia | 18th century | historical female allegory; largely replaced by Uncle Sam |
Progenitor
In addition to the genius loci , other partly legendary, partly historical figures of identification have established themselves in various nations. A concrete figure is transfigured as the progenitor of the people in the sense of a legend of origin . In contrast to the female national allegory, a personal connection between the tribal or ethnic group and the ancestor is assumed, usually a descent relationship. Furthermore, the romanticized type of the progenitor builds on previously existing legends and allows less room for interpretation due to specific symbolism. At the beginning of the 19th century the two most widespread ancestors of identification of the German Empire were " Barbarossa " and " Arminius ", the latter was only largely demystified in the second half of the 20th century. There were also other regional “holy figures”. These figures are usually to be understood more as national symbols or national heroes (see also these articles).
| Country | Progenitor / mother | comment |
|---|---|---|
| China | Huangdi | mythical first emperor of China |
| Denmark | Holger Danske | in the 16th century romanticized legendary hero of the 9th century; then the forefather of the nation in the 18th century |
| Germany | Arminius | as a romanticized Germanic folk hero in the fight against Rome / foreign powers |
| Barbarossa | as a sleeping, legitimate emperor and liege lord | |
| Ireland | Ériu ( Éire ) | legendary queen; Primeval mother of the nation in the Celtic tradition |
| Japan | Amaterasu / Jimmu | Sun goddess as the ancestral mother of the Japanese people and the legendary first Tenno who descended from her |
| Korea | Dangun | legendary king of the first Korean empire |
| Poland | Lech | legendary patriarchal forefather of the nation |
| Russia | Rus | legendary patriarchal forefather of the nation |
| Czech Republic | Čech | legendary patriarchal forefather of the nation |
Type caricature as an allegory
Allegorical personifications are not only identity-forming, but also allow the pictorial representation of actions or dialogues. Sleeping, fighting or gesticulating allegories can be found in newspaper caricatures since the 18th century. The following caricatures of types were popular in the English-language press around 1790: John Bull for England (created as a literary figure as early as 1712, only popular as a caricature from around 1757), Brother Jonathan for the USA (diffuse genesis; popular only from around 1780), Jacobin for revolutionary France (popular practically only during the revolutionary years). In terms of their type, these characters were mostly known through earlier, mostly anecdotal mentions, stereotypes or folk tales, from which they could also inherit unfavorable traits without degrading the nation - a great contrast to the idealized female figures that they replaced. Brother Jonathan and John Bull were often portrayed in the contemporary press of the 19th century as equal rivals, whereby they stood as stereotypes both representative of their respective nation as well as of their inhabitants. The stereotype image of the German Michel was understood within Germany as an allegory of the Germans, but not of the governments and principalities, which invited comparisons with John Bull as the allegory of the English. The allegories later developed differently: Brother Jonathan was popularly fused in Punch during the American Civil War with Uncle Sam and an over-idealized Abraham Lincoln , which was later adopted by more and more cartoonists and displaced Jonathan. While Uncle Sam and John Bull moved in the direction of the personified government because of their appearance on recruitment posters, the figure of the German Michel remained an allegory of residents or bourgeoisie and usually does not represent the nation as such. This is how it is used in political caricature to this day.
Depending on the political situation and nationality of the artist, caricatures can easily be depicted unfavorably, similar to the defeated allegories on Roman coins. Artists and caricaturists also often decide to choose a national uniform or costume instead of a named allegory for the personification of a nation, which is partly only recognizable for the initiated, or to add certain additional attributes to the figure . The transitions are fluid. The recognizable attributes and stereotypes help the author as well as the reader to identify the personified nation. Current forms of national personification can also be found in comic form , for example in the Internet meme of the Polandball or in the Japanese series Hetalia: Axis Powers , where countries appear as people.
The caricature also allows clearly racist representations and so-called ethnophaulism figures, which are used exclusively for the degradation of another nation or group. Examples of this are or were the Wenzel (against the Czechs), the Iwan (against the Russians), but also le Boche (against the Germans) or the Sawney (against the Scots). Even the ethnophaulisms, initially only negatively associated, can subsequently be turned into a national allegory and / or an identification symbol of one's own nation or part of its inhabitants. The German Michel comes from a pejorative peasant image, just like the Dominican Conchoprimo was initially considered a stereotype for the hulking and uneducated rural population. The South American Roto , frowned upon as a marginalized, impoverished city dweller in neighboring countries, became an anonymous war hero in Chile.
Another form of condensing an entire population to a single person is that of the average consumer: The average consumer and the Mustermann family are examples in the German-speaking area, comparable to John Doe in the USA, Doña Juanita in Chile and Ola Nordmann in Norway.
The list below includes allegories of nationalities that are known only under a certain name and that are also used in self-reference.
| Country | Name of the allegory | comment |
|---|---|---|
| Australia | Little Boy from Manly | political cartoon propagated by The Bulletin newspaper in 1885 |
| Chile | Roto | originally ethnophaulism in neighboring countries for Chileans, now also adapted as a self-image |
| Germany | German Michel | probably appeared in the Renaissance, a popular motif since the pre- March period |
| Dominican Republic | Conchoprimo | Variant of the rural caudillo , now also adapted as a self-image |
| Great Britain | John Bull | political caricature as well as resident allegiance, in various uses since 1712 |
| Israel | Srulik | political cartoon; Developed in 1956 as a departure from anti-Jewish clichés |
| Canada | Johnny Canuck | political caricature, in various uses since 1869 |
| Norway | Ola Nordmann | pure resident allegiance, in use since the early 20th century |
| Palestine | Handala | originated in 1969 as a political protest caricature against marginalization |
| Philippines | Juan dela Cruz | originally pejorative type image, in use since the early 20th century |
| Portugal | Zé Povinho | Resident allegiance, roughly translated as "Josef Volk" - in use since around 1875 |
| Ukraine | Cossack Mamaj | idealized Cossack , from around the 18th century |
| Hungary | állambácsi | translates as "Uncle State" or "Mr. State" |
| United States of America | Brother Jonathan | historical allegory of New England as a British colony in the 17th century, gave numerous attributes to Uncle Sam |
| Uncle Sam | first used in 1812, popular since around 1865, officially established in 1961; often used as an allegory of the US government | |
| Wales | Lady Wales ( Mam Cymru ) | came up as a political cartoon around 1906 |
National animal allegories
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Instead of human personifications, animals are also possible as identification figures and symbols. It is very often the heraldic animal.
| Country | Name of the allegory | First mention / introduction | comment |
|---|---|---|---|
| Australia | Boxing kangaroo | 1940s | eponymous animal of the sports flag of Australia |
| China | Dragon ( Chinese 龍 / 龙 , Pinyin lóng ) | 2nd century BC | Allegory of the Emperor and the Empire |
| panda | as a symbol of the People's Republic of China since the second half of the 20th century | ||
| France | Gallic rooster | 1792 | Symbol of freedom of the French Revolution ; the lily previously stood for the ancien régime |
| Great Britain | British lion | adopted from heraldry | |
| Netherlands | Leo Belgicus | 16th Century | (historical) cartographic interpretation of the heraldic animal in the form of the Dutch provinces |
| Roman Empire | Imperial eagle | 1st century BC | originally a religious symbol, later a military identification symbol and dynastic heraldic animal |
| Russia | Russian bear | 16th Century | Since the 20th century, it has also been used more widely within Russia. The heraldic animal is the eagle. |
| Singapore | Merlion | 1964 | designed for city marketing in reference to the city's founding legend |
| Czech Republic | Bohemian lion | adopted from heraldry. | |
| United States | Bald eagle | adopted from heraldry |
Individual evidence
- ↑ a b Gerhard Brunn. Germania and the emergence of the German nation state. On the connection between symbols and the feeling of unity. In: Rüdiger Voigt (Ed.), Symbols of Politics - Politics of Symbols . Opladen 1989. ISBN 3322971945 . Pp. 103-110. Digitized
- ↑ Mareen van Marwyck: violence and grace: Female heroism in the literature and aesthetics in 1800 . Bielefeld 2015. ISBN 9783839412787 . Digitized
- ↑ Susanne Kaiser: Bodies tell: The postcolonial Maghreb of Assia Djebar and Tahar Ben Jelloun Bielefeld 2015. P. 196. ISBN 3839431417 . Digitized
- ^ Winifred Morgan: An American Icon: Brother Jonathan and American Identity , Delaware 1988. ISBN 9780874133073 .
- ↑ HER Belani: Deutscher Michel , Verlag CL Fritzsche, 1847 [digital copy https://books.google.de/books?id=SpA_AQAAMAAJ ]
