Olympic Wallowa Lineament

Location of the Olympic Wallowa Lineament

Is the OWL an optical illusion?

The Olympic-Wallowa-Lineament (OWL) - first recorded in 1945 by the cartographer Erwin Raisz on a relief map of the Continental United States - is a physiographical peculiarity of unknown origin in the US state of Washington , which is estimated between the small town of Port Angeles on the Olympic Peninsula and the Wallowa Mountains in eastern Oregon .

location

Raisz located the OWL in particular from Cape Flattery (the northwest tip of the Olympic Peninsula) along the north bank of Lake Crescent, further on the Little River (south of Port Angeles ), on Liberty Bay (Poulsbo), Elliott Bay (with the orientation of the streets in Downtown Seattle ), the north coast of Mercer Island, the Cedar River (Chester Morse Reservoir), at Stampede Pass (on the main ridge of the Cascade Range ), on the south side of the Kittitas Valley ( Interstate 90 ), the Manastash Ridge , the Wallula Gap (where the Columbia River meets the Oregon border) and finally along the South Fork Walla Walla River to the northwest corner of Oregon. After crossing the Blue Mountains , Raisz associated the OWL with a pronounced step on the north side of the Wallowa Mountains. Raisz observed that the OWL tends to form basins on the north side (Seattle Basin, Kittitas Valley, Pasco Basin, Walla Walla Basin) and elevations / mountains on the south side (Olympic Mountains, Manastash Ridge, Umtanum) Ridge, Rattlesnake Mountain, Horseheaven Hills, Wallowa Mountains), and reported various points where parallel structures exist, generally four miles (6.4 km) north or south of the main line. The alignment of these special structures is somewhat irregular; modern maps with a higher level of detail show a broad zone of more regular structures. Subsequent geological surveys have suggested various refinements and corrections.

Introduction to a riddle

Which triangle?

Most geological features are originally identified or characterized by a local expression of this feature. The OWL was first identified by its effects, a human perceived pattern in a wide range of many seemingly random elements. But does the OWL really exist? Or is it an optical illusion like the Kanizsa triangle (see figure), where we “see” a triangle that doesn't really exist?

Raisz wondered whether the OWL could just be the possibility of combining random elements, and geologists have since been unable to discover any uniform general property or any connection between the various local elements. Davis (1977) called it a "fictional structural element". It has already been recognized as coincident with many faults and fault zones and used to describe significant differences in geology. (For example, to distinguish the older "crystalline" plutonic rocks of the North Cascades from the younger basaltic rocks of the South Cascades. There are also finer differentiations such as on the Columbia Plateau , where the OWL marks a difference in structural expression by leaf displacements and Rotations in the southwest dominate, while they are of minor importance for the northeast. See also Hooper & Conrey (1989)) These are far too strongly correlated with one another to discard them as random structures. But regardless of its importance, it has not yet been understood what the OWL consists of or how it came about.

The OWL sparks the interest of geologically interested people partly because its characteristic course from northwest to southeast (more precisely: N60W) is shared by many other apparently local features along a broad geographical strip. (Estimating north and west orientations from the map gives an angle of N59W [azimuth 301 °] from Wallula Gap to Cape Flattery. There's a little loop east of Port Angeles - the shoreline between Pillar Point and Slip Point has one more westerly angle of 65 degrees - but this section is so short that the angle from Wallula Gap to Port Angeles is still 57 degrees. A line runs from the heavy relief at Gold Creek to the mouth of Liberty Bay and beyond - a line which runs along various apparent OWL features is 52 degrees. In Seattle, the Ship Canal's angle [which is a fairly narrow indicator of the natural setting in it] is 55 degrees. It is possible that whatever that OWL is straight, but lies deep, and its manifestations are deflected towards the surface by other structures, such as the Olympic Mountain Batho lith forcing Gold Creek to flee. The Blue Mountains may create a similar arc. But this is completely speculative.) The special features around Seattle include parallel traversing escapes on the south end of Lake Washington , the north side of Elliott Bay , the valley of the Ship Canal , the step along Interlaken Boulevard (in line with the Ship Canal, however with a slight offset to the north), the escape of Ravenna Creek (which drains Green Lake southeast into Union Bay) and Carkeek Creek (northwest into Puget Sound ), various streams around Lake Forest Park (at the north end of Lake Washington) and (on the east side) Northrup Valley (using Highway 520 from Yarrow Bay to the Overlake area) as well as various smaller properties too small to mention. All of these are buried in “younger” (less than 18,000 years old) glacial deposits, and it is difficult to imagine how these were influenced other than by more recent glacial processes.

The same orientation can be found in the Brothers, Eugene Denio and McLoughlin fault zones in Oregon (see map below), which are geological features that are decades old, and in the Walker Lane line in Nevada.

Also to the east, both the OWL and the Brothers Fault Zone in Idaho are less clearly distinguishable, where they encounter the ancient North American continental craton and the course of the Yellowstone hotspot . But more than 50 miles (80 km) north is the parallel Trans-Idaho discontinuity and even further north is the Osburn Fault (Lewis and Clark Line) roughly from Missoula to Spokane . Aeromagnetic and grave investigations of anomalies suggest an extension into the interior of the continent.

Structural relationships with other specifics

One problem with evaluating any hypotheses about the OWL is a lack of evidence . Raisz suggested that the OWL could be a blade displacement (long horizontal displacements at the boundaries of the plates of the earth's crust now identified as such ), but he lacked both the data and the knowledge to test this. One of the first speculations that the OWL might be an important geological structure - published when the theory of plate tectonics was new and not widely accepted (until Thomas (1976) referred to the "currently popular theory of plate tectonics") - became referred to by the author as "a shameful hypothesis". Modern studies still shy away from the incredible geographic range and lack of continuous structures, the lack of clear transverse fractures and confusing expressions in both million-year-old rocks and sediments that are only 16,000 years old.

Major geological structures in Washington and Oregon:   SCF - Straight Creek Fault; SB - Snoqualmie Batholith (dotted area on the left); OWL - Olympic Wallowa Lineament; L&C - Lewis and Clark Line (Gravitational Anomaly); HF - Hite Fault; KBML - Klamath / Blue Mountains Lineament (slightly out of place); NC - Newberry Caldera; BFZ - Brothers Fault Zone; EDFZ - Eugene Denio Fault Zone; MFZ - McLoughlin Fault Zone; WSRP - Western Snake River Plain; NR - Nevada Rift Zone; OIG - Oregon Idaho Trench; CE - Clearwater Embayment; (from Martin et al. (2005), with kind permission of PNNL )

The geological exploration of an object begins with the determination of the structure, the composition, the age and the relations to other objects. The OWL does not fit into the usual scheme. It presents itself as an orientation in many elements of diverse structure and composition, even as a boundary between areas of different structure and composition; it is not yet clear what kind of object or process - the “original OWL” - could control this. There are also no special "OWL rocks" that could be examined or measured radiometrically. Here the determination of his age is put aside and rather the relationship to other objects or structures is looked at, e.g. B. which (possibly older) objects overlap or interfere with each other. In the following sections we look at various objects that are expected to have some kind of structural relationship to the OWL and what they could tell us about the OWL.

The cascade chain

The most notable geological structure that crosses the OWL, which is Cascade Range (Engl. "Cascade Range"), in the Pliocene (five ... two million years ago) as a result of the Cascadia subduction zone has been postponed. These mountains are fundamentally different on each side of the OWL: The South Cascades consist of Cenozoic (less than 66 million years old) volcanic and sedimentary rocks, while the North Cascades consist of much older Paleozoic (hundreds of millions of years old) metamorphic and plutonic rocks are constructed. It is not known whether this difference is in any way related to the OWL or is simply a random difference.

Raisz classified the cascades on the north side of the OWL as being displaced about six miles (9.6 km) west; He did similar things for the Blue Mountains, but this is questionable, and similar shifts are not evident in the older - up to 17 million year old - Columbia River basalt rivers . In general, there is no clear indication of structural misalignment through the OWL, nor are there any individual objects crossing the OWL (that are more than 17 million years old) that would indicate the absence of the offset.

Straight Creek Fault

Geological topography at the meeting of the SCF and OWL showing the general swiveling to the southeast around Keechelus Lake, Kachess Lake and Cle Elum Lake. The red line is Interstate 90, Snoqualmie Pass is in the lower left corner, Easton is almost in the middle. The White River / Naches fault zone, in the red area below, appears to be the southern edge of the OWL. Extract from Haugerud & Tabor (2009)

The Straight Creek Fault (SCF) - trending just east of Snoqualmie Pass and almost due north into Canada - is a major fault, notable for its substantial dextral (right-hand) offset of at least 90 kilometers. (Estimates of the offset vary.) Your intersection with the OWL (near Kachess Lake ) is the geological equivalent of a particle accelerator, and the results should be informative. For example, that the OWL is without offset suggests that it is more recent than the last horizontal displacement of the SCF (alternatively, the OWL could be the reflection of some type of structure - perhaps in the lithosphere - that is not affected by the SCF?) , sometime between about 44 and about 41 million years ago (ie during the mid Eocene ). And if the OWL is blade displacement or mega-shear as many have speculated, then it should create an offset in the SCF. Whether or not the OWL is moving the SCF becomes an important test of what the OWL is all about.

Is the OWL moving the SCF or not? Difficult to say as no trace or whatever of the SCF has been found south of the OWL. While some geologists have speculated that it continues directly south, albeit hidden under younger deposits, no trace of it has been found.

If the SCF doesn't continue straight south - and the total lack of evidence that it does, creates a case for the lack of evidence - where else should it be? Heller et al. (1987) present some possibilities: it could make an arc to the east, it could make such an arc to the west, or it could simply end.

Tabor mapped the SCF with a turn and a merge with the Taneum Fault (which is coincident with the OWL ) south of Kachess Lake. This fits in with the general pattern in Keechelus Lake , Kachess Lake and Cle Elum Lake as well as in associated geological units and faults (see picture on the right): each of these is oriented north-south at the north end and turns to the south-east if it reaches the OWL. (There are also maps for download, see Haugerud & Tabor (2009), Tabor et al. (1984) and Tabor et al. (2000)) This suggests that the OWL is a left- hand (sinistral) leaf displacement that deforms the SCF and has moved. However, this is not consistent with the SCF itself, and most of the other leaf displacements associated with the OWL make right sense (dextral). It is also incompatible with the geology in the southeast. In particular, surveys of the southeast region (in conjunction with Department of Energy activities at the Hanford Site ) have shown that there is no evidence of any fault or structure comparable to the SCF (e.g., Caggiano & Duncan (1983)) in general and Reidel & Campbell (1989))

On the other hand, Cheney (1999) maps the SCF as continuing south without addressing the situation south of the OWL. (He ultimately speculated that the missing portion of the SCF might have been displaced dextrally to become a southbound fault in the Puget Lowland. However, the same problem exists here: younger debris obscures any traces.) The apparent southeast curve may be be viewed as a geometric effect of foreshortening: it occurs in a belt of intense folding (very similar to a carpet being pushed against a wall) which - unfolded - some of the "curves" together with the southern extension of the SCF into a linear position could bring. (See the maps by Cheney (1999) [DGER OFR 99-4] and Tabor et al. (2000) [USGS Map I-2538]; see also Haugerud & Tabor (2009) [USGS Map I-2940])

There does not appear to be any indication that the SCF is turning west . Although such indications would be largely buried, the general direction of the topography does not suggest such a turn. A relocation - to the west or east - seems unlikely to the effect that various expected effects will not occur. (For example, no shift in the Olympic Mountains is observed, so the block moving from the Olympics would have to leave a gap or ditch . There is a basin - the Seattle Basin - just north of the Seattle Fault , but nobody seems to have one Movement of the OWL related.) Could the SCF just end? That's hard to understand. If there was an offset along this fault, where could it come from? To Wyld et al. To quote (albeit in the context of a different fault): "It cannot just end." Although the SCF has experienced a significant horizontal shift, Vance & Miller (1994) claim that the final major movement of the SCF (about 40 million ago Years) mainly consisted of a vertical movement ("dip-slip"). Since the displacement probably came from below, and when it came to a standstill, it was eroded, the masses were distributed like sediments. But this view has not been established.

Another possibility is that the southern segment of the SCF is on a block of crust that was rotating away from the OWL. There is evident evidence that about 45 million years ago much of Oregon and southwest Washington rotated about 60 degrees about a pivot point somewhere on the Olympic Peninsula (see the Oregon Rotation section below). This should have left a large gap south of the OWL, which could explain why no Cenozoic rocks were found immediately south of the OWL. This suggests that a continuation, if any, of the SCF and the missing Cenozoic rocks could be found somewhere southwest of Mount Saint Helens , but this has never been observed.

Darrington / Devils Mountain Fault Zone

The interaction of the Straight Creek Fault with the OWL produced virtually no clear information and, like the OWL itself, remains a mystery. The closely connected Darrington / Devils Mountain Fault Zone (DDMFZ) is more informative. It runs east of a complex of faults from the south end of Vancouver Island to the small town of Darrington , where it turns south and converges with the SCF (see map above).

North of the DDMFZ (and west of the SCF) there is the Chuckanut Formation (part of the "Northwest Cascade System" of rocks, shown in green on the map), an Eocene sedimentary formation that is adjacent to the Swauk, Roslyn and others Formations (also in green) were formed south of Mount Stuart ; their spatial separation is due to the right-hand movement of the leaves along the SCF. The fact that the northern part of the DDMFZ shows a left, meaningful leaf shift is not an inconsistency that it originally looks like - just think of the movement on each side of an arrowhead.

It seems as if today's DDMFZ originally lay in the escape of the OWL. Later, about 50 million years ago, the North American continent collapsed into what is now the Olympic Peninsula along an axis that is almost perpendicular to the OWL, pressing the rocks of the Mesozoic (pre-Cenozoic) Western and Eastern Melange Belt (WEMB, on the map) blue) across the OWL, bending the DDMFZ and initiating the SCF and splitting the Chuckanut formation. On the north side of the DDMFZ and rolled a little around the east side there is a series of prominent rocks - the Helena-Haystack-Mélange ("HH Melange" on the map) - which are raised in vertical folds. Similar distinctive rocks have been found in Manastash Ridge (shown on the map but mostly too small to see), which are still on the OWL, just east of the SCF.

This can clarify an early mystery why the Mesozoic rocks just south of the DDMFZ - the Western and Eastern Melange Belt - have no counterpart on the east side of the OWL as well as an offset to the south: They were not moved by the SCF, but rather from the southwest against pressed them.

Then it goes on strangely. Rocks very similar to WEMB (including blue slate ) are also found on the San Juan Islands and along the west coast fault on the west side of Vancouver Island. This suggests that the OWL was once a leaf drift, perhaps a continental margin along which terranes moved from the southeast. But similar rocks also occur at Rimrock Lake Inlier, about 75 km south of the OWL and just west of the projected SCF trace, and in the Klamath Mountains in southwest Oregon. Explaining the widespread distribution of rocks is complicated; many geologists see no alternative to transporting an extended SCF. But that shakes some of the "solutions" described above, so that there is no consensus.

CLEW and the Columbia Plateau

Further east is the "CLEW", the segment of the OWL extending from the small town of Cle Elum (which marks the western boundary of the Columbia River basalts) to Wallula Gap (a narrow breakthrough in the Columbia River just north of the Oregon border). This segment and the associated Yakima Fold Belt encompass many of the northeast trending faults that traverse the OWL. However, these are large upheavals (with vertical movements) that are associated with a compressional folding of the overlying basalts. Since there are typically 3 km wide sedimentary deposits that separate the basalts (also 3 km thick) from the basement , these faults are somewhat isolated from deeper structures. There is consensus among geologists that any blade shift activity at the OWL predates the 17 million year old Columbia River Basalt Group .

There is some evidence that some of the northwest trending mountain ranges may be reflected in the base structure, but the character and details of the deeper structure are unknown. A 260 km long seismic refraction profile showed an elevation in the earth's crust base near the OWL, but the researchers were unable to determine whether this elevation is in line with the OWL or just by chance the OWL is in the same location as the profile crosses; the serious data suggest the latter. The seismic data showed uniformity in rock type and thickness across the OWL, making it impossible to view it as the boundary between the continental and oceanic crust. The results were interpreted to mean that there was continental rifting in the Eocene; perhaps an unrecognizable trench was formed (but this has been questioned by others) or it may be associated with the rotation of the Klamath Mountain block away from the Idaho batholith (see Oregon rotation , below).

There is a curious change in character of the OWL in the center of the CLEW where it crosses the roughly northbound Hog Ranch / Naneum Anticline . To the west of this the OWL seems to follow a ridge in the basic structure, to the east it follows a gravity gradient, very similar to the Klamath / Blue Mountain lineament (see below ). The significance of all of this is unknown.

Hite fault system

Beyond the Wallula Gap, the OWL is identical to the Wallula fault zone, which runs against the Blue Mountains. The Wallula fault zone is active, but whether this condition is due to the OWL is unknown; like the Yakima Fold Belt, it could be the result of regional tensions; it is only given on the basis of superficial basalts, pretty much regardless of whatever happens in the bedrock.

On the western boundary of the Blue Mountains, the Wallula fault zone crosses the northeast trending Hite Fault System (HFS). This system is complex and has been interpreted differently. Although seismically active, it appears to be displaced by the Wallula fault and therefore older. On the other hand, a later study found “no obvious spatial displacement”, neither in the OWL nor in the faults associated with the HFS. Reidel et al. (1993) suggested that the HFS reflects the eastern boundary of a piece of ancient continental craton (around "HF" - Hite Fault - centered on the map ) that is shifted south; Kuehn (1995) attributed an offset of 80 ... 100 kilometers to a left-handed shift (and significant, significant vertical shifts) along the HFS.

The interaction of the Wallula and Hite fault systems has not yet been understood. Beyond the Hite fault system, the OWL enters a region of geological complexity and confusion where even the traces of the OWL are less clear, even to the point where both the topographical feature and the Wallula fault are terminated by the Hite fault. The original topographical lineament as described by Raisz is along a step on the northeast side of the Wallowa Mountains. However, there is a perception that the fault trend in this area is more southward; it has been suggested that the fault associated with the OWL is taking a large step south to the Vale fault zone, which connects to the Snake River fault zone in Idaho. These two lines create a bend in the OWL. The Imnaha fault ( striking against Riggins, Idaho) lies more in the flight of the rest of the OWL and in the flight of the aforementioned gravity anomalies running into the continent. Whichever route should be correct, it is noteworthy that the OWL appears to change characters after crossing the Hite fault system. What this says about the nature of the OWL is unclear, although Kuehn already concluded that it was not a tectonically significant structure in northeastern Oregon and western Idaho.

Wallowa Terran

As noted above, the trail of the OWL between the Blue Mountains and the North American Craton border becomes faint and somewhat confusing (the thick orange line on the map , just across the Oregon-Idaho border, represented by the dashed line in the graphic below) . This is the Wallowa Terran, a piece of the earth's crust that broke in from somewhere and was blocked between the Columbia Embayment in the west and the North American continent in the east and north. A remarkable feature are the abnormally uplifted Wallowa Mountains , east of which are the Hells Canyon (Snake River) and the Oregon-Idaho border. To the northeast of the OWL (Wallowa Mountains) is the Clearwater Embayment (“CE” on the map ), represented by the ancient rocks of the craton. To the southwest of this section of the OWL, there is a trench region (upon which large blocks of crust fell) that extends approximately 60 mi (97 km) south of the nearly parallel Vale fault zone (see graph below).

Wallula / Vale transfer zone and surroundings. WFZ - Wallula Fault Zone; IF - Imnaha Fault; WF - Wallowa Fault; LG - La Grande Trench; BG - Baker Trench PG - Pine Valley Trench. Map kindly provided by SC Kuehn.

The formation of rifts (fractures) takes place where the earth's crust is stretched or expands. There are various explanations as to why this happened in this region. Kuehn (1995) put forward the theory that a right-hand movement on the Wallula Fault was transferred to other faults more south, such as the Vale Fault, whereupon he referred to the region as the Wallula / Vale Transfer Zone. Essman (2003) suggested that the deformation of the earth's crust in this region was a continuation of the basins and chains immediately south, although he considered any connection to the OWL to be of minor importance. Another explanation is that a clockwise rotation of part of Oregon (discussion below) about a point near Wallula Gap would have pulled the Blue Mountains away from the OWL; this could also explain why the OWL is curved here.

These theories may all have their truths, but what they could say about the genesis and structure of the OWL has not yet been thought through.

Hells Canyon - the deepest river canyon in North America - is so deep because of the great heights it cuts through. This is generally due to the rejuvenation of the earth's crust, which allows the hotter and therefore lighter and buoyant material from the earth's mantle to penetrate further to the surface. According to many, this has to do with the Yellowstone hotspot and the Columbia River basalts; the nature of this connection is hotly debated. (See also "The plume coffin?", "The Great Mantle Plume Debate," and "Beneath Yellowstone," and Humphreys et al. (2000). See also Xue & Allen (2006) for additional sources.)

While the Yellowstone Hotspot and Columbia River Basalts do not seem to interact directly with the OWL, clarifying their origin and context could clarify some of the OWL's environment and even force possible models. The same applies to the clarification of the nature and history of the Wallowa Terran, in particular the nature and the causes of the obvious deformation and the multiple lines in the OWL in this region; this would be an important step towards understanding the OWL.

Columbia Embayment and KBML

The basement under what is now Washington and Oregon, like most of the continent, consists of pre-Cenozoic (more than 66 million years old) rocks. The exceptions are southwest Washington and Oregon, which have practically no pre-Cenozoic strata. This is called the Columbia Embayment, a large notch in the North American continent, which is characterized by parts of the oceanic crust covered by thick sediments. ("Embayment" - Eng. "Indentation" - is possibly a misleading name, which it suggests a dent in the coast, which only seems to be so in relation to today's coast. In geological time periods before the coast of North America was in Idaho and Nevada as described later.)

The Columbia Embayment is of interest because its northern border is roughly aligned with the OWL. The deviations are mainly in the region of the CLEW , where the sediments are buried under the basalts of the Columbia Basin , and in the Puget Sound, where the Cenozoic rocks extend to Vancouver Island. (The contact zone between the oceanic and continental crust appears to represent the Southern Whidbey Island fault , as discussed below. Whether this contact zone extends south beyond the OWL is not yet known.) Whether the OWL could reflect a deeper crustal boundary was challenged by geophysical studies which may - or may not - have the properties expected from such a boundary. (For example, Cantwell et al. (1965) see some sort of boundary while Catchings & Mooney (1988) do not.)

The southern limit of the Columbia Embayment runs along a line from the Klamath Mountains on the Oregon coast to a point in the Blue Mountains just east of the Wallula Gap. In contrast to the OWL, this line has little topographical correspondence and is not associated with any major fault system apart from the Hite fault system. (The lack of a topographically identifiable reflux could be due to backfilling by the Grande Ronde and Picture Gorge basalt rivers, parts of the Columbia River basalts.) But mapping of the gravity anomalies definitely shows a lineament, just over 700 km long, the so-called Klamath / Blue Mountain Lineament (KBML). This lineament is of interest here because of the possibility that it could have been conjugated with the OWL earlier, as discussed in the following section.

Oregon rotation

As a result, the situation becomes very interesting. Measurements of paleomagnetism (the recording of the spatial orientation of the rock at the time of solidification) at a number of locations in the Coast Range - from the Klamath Mountains to the Olympic Peninsula - show consistent data on a clockwise rotation of 50 ... 70 degrees. Geologists are often troubled by the results of geophysical methods, which they believe to be different types of faults. The geophysicists, on the other hand, claim that their results are consistent and rule out such errors (see map below). One interpretation of this is that western Oregon and southwest Washington are rotating as a solid block around a pivot point at its northern end near the Olympic Peninsula.

Rotation of the Coast Range (light green) and the Blue Mountains, represented by red lines. (The sources are inconsistent with regard to the number and position of the poles; see text) The dashed red line is the OWL, the dashed blue line the KBML; the intersection is roughly at the Wallula Gap. Original card courtesy of William R. Dickinson. (See Dickinson (2004) for an earlier version.)

The interesting thing is: A simulated rotation back to the starting point brings the Coast Range to a position almost opposite the OWL. Hammond (1979) suggested that the Coast Range (assuming they were submarine mountains that had previously merged with the continent) erupted from the continent about 50 million years ago in the mid-Eocene. This interpretation assumes a " back-arc " of magmatism, perhaps fed by a subduction zone and possibly connected with the intrusion of various plutons into the North Cascades about 50 million years ago. Oddly enough, this happened when the Kula / Farallon ridge passed under the OWL (see discussion below ). Magill & Cox (1981) discovered a sudden "rushing forward" caused by rapid rotation about 45 million years ago. This could have happened at the same time that the rock collided with the Sierra Nevada block of California; Simpson & Cox (1977) noted that there was a change in direction of the Pacific plate about 40 million years ago, perhaps due to collision with another plate. (The reason and nature of the tearing off seem not to be fully understood. Various complications during the subduction of the Kula and Farallon plates may have played a role.)

During this Coast Range rotation, the block of continental crust that now forms the Blue Mountains (on the east side of the KBML) was also torn from the Idaho batholith and rotated about 50 degrees, but at a point near the Wallula Gap (or maybe further east). (In a later work, Dickinson (2009?) Tends to have the pivot point more easterly, as shown on the map.) In the resulting gap, the crust was stretched and thinned; the upwelling of the hotter mantle eventually contributed to uplifting the Wallowa and Seven Devils Mountains and perhaps also penetrating the Columbia River basalts and other basalt rivers.

While the model of the rotation of a compact block is appealing, many geologists prefer a different interpretation that minimizes the rotation of the entire block and instead of rifting a "right-handed shear" (the result of the relative movement of the Pacific plate past the North American plate or perhaps resulting from the expansion of the province of basins and chains) as the primary driving force. The large values ​​of paleomagnetic rotation are explained by a "ball-bearing model": The entire Oregon Block (western Oregon including the Cascade Range and southwest Washington) is considered to be composed of many smaller blocks (on the order of tens of kilometers) of each of which rotates independently around its own axis. The evidence of such small blocks (at least in Southwest Washington) is assumed. Later work has tried to work out how much of the paleomagnetic rotation reflects the actual block rotation; although the magnitude of the rotation has been reduced (down to only about 28 °) the model does not seem to work completely. How this triggers the postulated rifting has apparently not been considered. More recent work, based on analysis of GPS measurements, concluded that "most of the Pacific Northwest can be described by a few large rotating elastic crustal blocks," but noted that in a 50 km wide zone on the Oregon coast the apparent Rotation rate is twice that; this suggests that several models could be applicable.

Modern measurements show that central Oregon is still rotating, with the calculated rotation poles including the Wallula Gap, which roughly represents the intersection of the OWL and the KBML. It is fascinating to consider whether the KBML was involved in this rotation, but it is also unclear; that it is not distorted at the point of intersection with the OWL suggests that it does not. The OWL appears to be the northern limit of the rotating block, and the lack of paleomagnetic data southeast of the KBML suggests that it may represent the southern limit. The details of all of this, however, are in the dark.

Puget Sound

Another notable element that the OWL traverses is the Puget Sound , and it is strange to consider the possible effects of a Puget Sound fault. (Such a fault was once proposed on the basis of various marine seismic data, but this proposal was strictly rejected and appears to have since been abandoned.) The combined terrestrial and bathymetric topography shows a separate lineament along the west side of the Puget Sound of Vashon Island ( just north of Tacoma) northward to the west side of Holmes Harbor and the Saratoga Passage at Whidbey Island . But at Port Madison it is separated by an offset of several miles.

Interestingly, the southern section is roughly in the area of ​​the OWL. This suggests a right-handed (dextral) offset along a blade shift. However, if it does, there should be a major fault in the Port Madison neighborhood that runs to Seattle (perhaps on the Lake Washington Ship Canal ) - but there is even less evidence of this than the Puget Sound fault. (The southern section of this lineament is where Brandon (1989) located the border of the cascade orogen - the "Cenozoic Truncation Scar" in his Fig. 1. It is not known that this boundary would be identical to the Southern Whidbey Island Fault, which crosses Whidbey Island near Holmes Harbor and strikes southeast.) The significance of this lineament and its offset are completely unknown. The fact that there were deposits in the Ice Age (about 16,000 years ago) implies a very recent but unknown event; but perhaps these deposits only covered much older ones. An offset found today could explain the apparent shift in the north-south glacial drumlins shared by the Lake Washington Ship Canal, but this is no longer evident in the more easterly areas.

Alternatively - and this would appear extremely relevant in relation to the OWL - processes other than sheet shifts could have created these lineaments.

Seattle Fault

→ Main article : Seattle Fault

A locally remarkable feature that crosses the OWL zone is the East-West Seattle Fault (SF). It is not a matter of a leaf displacement, but a thrust where a relatively flat block of rock is pushed from the south over the northern part (and over the OWL). One of the displayed models explains the displacement of the rock by a structure hidden eight kilometers below the surface. Another model also places the base of the clod at a depth of eight kilometers on a structure that causes the edge to roll. (See Fig. 17 in Johnson et al. (2004) for the cross-sections of various models.) The character of the underlying structure is unknown. Geophysical data does not indicate a large fault or any boundary of crustal blocks along the front of the Seattle fault, nor along the OWL, but this may be due to the limited range of geophysical methods. Current geological maps from the east side of the Seattle Fault suggest a shear (horizontally flat) about 18 kilometers below ground.

These models were developed while studying the western section of the Seattle Fault. In the middle section, where the SF crosses the superficial Eocene rocks associated with the OWL, various strands of the SF meander - which elsewhere are more or less ordered. The meaning of this and the nature of the interactions with the Eocene rocks are also not known.

An examination of the various strands of the Seattle Fault - especially in the middle section - found that they cross some deeper swellings at an angle, similar to the waves in a river. This is a fascinating idea which could explain how local and seemingly independent objects could be organized in depth and even on a large scale across the scales, but this does not seem to have been considered. This is likely due in part to the lack of information about the character and structure of the Earth's upper crust where such a structure could exist.

Southern Whidbey Island Fault and RMFZ

The Southern Whidbey Island Fault (SWIF), which runs almost parallel to the OWK of Victoria (British Columbia) from southeast to the foothills of the Cascade Range northeast of Seattle, is a contact between the oceanic crust block of the Coast Range to the west and the pre-Cenozoic continental block of the Cascade Range to the east. It appears to be connected to the more south-facing right-hand Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone (RMFZ) which crosses Rattlesnake Mountain (near North Bend ), which is a similar deep-seated contact between different species of the basement. On the south side of Rattlesnake Mountain - exactly where the first lineament of the OWL meets - at least one strand of the RMFZ (the others are hidden) turns up to Cedar Falls and the Cedar River . Other faults in the south show a similar turn. (Current mappings show a multiplication of the fault strands; it is possible that these seemingly arcuate faults are artifacts of a slightly confusing map.) It is obvious that a general twist or loop formation across the OWL is not yet applicable to the pattern of physiographic peculiarities, which characterize the OWL are obvious. With the recognition that the Seattle Fault and RMFZ are the edges of a large, north-moving block, there is a separate impression that these faults and even some of the topographical features "flow" around the corner of the Snoqualmie Valley . Even if this "flowing" of a mountain around a valley should appear bizarre: One should keep in mind that even if the superficial relief is about three quarters of a kilometer high, the flowing material could reach down to 18 kilometers. (The analogy of icebergs moving around a sandbar is quite apt.) It is worth noting that Cedar Butte - a small mound just east of Cedar Falls - is the furthest southwest-advanced feature in the region of some very ancient ones Cretaceous (pre-Cenozoic) metamorphic rocks. It seems fairly plausible that there are some well-established and hardened barriers at depth around which the shallower and younger sedimentary flows flowed. In such a context, the arcuate faults observed would be very natural.

Broader context

It is generally believed that the pattern of the OWL is a manifestation of deep physical structures or processes (the "primordial OWL") which could be explained by studying its effects on other structures. As has been shown, the study of the peculiarities that could interact with the OWL yielded little: a provisionally determined period of time (between 45 and 17 million years before today), ideas that the original OWL could originate from great depths of the earth's crust and the Evidence that the OWL is (contrary to expectations) not itself a boundary between the oceanic and continental crust.

The lack of results suggests that the “broader context” of the OWL should be considered. Below are some elements of this broader context that may or may not be related to the OWL in some way.

plate tectonics

→ Main article : Plate tectonics

The most broad context of the OWL is the global system of plates that is driven by the convection currents in the earth's mantle. The primary operations on the western boundary of the North American plate are the merging, subduction, autopsy, and translation of plates, micro-plates, terrans and crustal blocks between the converging plates of North America and the Pacific. (For an excellent review of Washington's geological history, see Townsend & Figge (2002).)

The main tectonic plate in this region (Washington, Oregon, Idaho) is the North American plate, which consists of a craton of ancient, relatively stable continental crust and various additional parts that have fused with it; this is basically the entire North American continent. The interaction of the North American with several other plates, terrans, etc. on its western edge is the primary driver of geological processes in this region.

Since the breakup of the supercontinent Pangea in the Jurassic (about 250 million years ago), the main tectonic process in the region has been the subduction of the Farallon Plate (see below) and its remaining fragments ( Kula Plate , Juan de Fuca Plate , Gorda plate and Explorer plate ) among the North American. As soon as the North American plate has pushed over the last remaining piece, it comes into contact with the Pacific plate and generally forms a transform fault like the Queen Charlotte Fault . This transform fault would then extend from Vancouver Island in the north to the San Andreas Fault on the California coast in the south. Between these is the Cascadia Subduction Zone , the final section of a subduction zone that once stretched from Central America to Alaska.

This has not been an ongoing process. 50 million years ago there was a change of direction in the movement of the Pacific plate (as seen in the arch of the Hawaii-Emperor chain ). This had repercussions on all neighboring plates and could have something to do with the initiation of the Straight Creek Fault and the end of the Laramian orogeny (the uplift of the Rocky Mountains ). This event may have established the phase of the OWL, as much of the crust in which it occurs was formed in this epoch (the early Eocene); it could mark the beginning of the OWL. Other evident facts suggest a similar reorganization of the plates about 80 million years ago, possibly with the beginning of the Laramian orogeny. Ward (1995) identified at least five “major chaotic tectonic events since the Triassic”. Each of these events is a possible candidate for the creation of the conditions or structures which the OWL or the original OWL resulted in, but the knowledge of what these events were or even their effects is still chaotic in itself.

A stream of terrans - blocks of crust - complicates the geological conditions; these terranes flowed northward along the continental margin for more than 120 million years (and possibly much longer) in what was recently known as the North Pacific Rim Orgenic Stream (NPRS). However, these terranes could be secondary to the OWL, as there are indications that local tectonic structures were essentially caused by the deeper and much older (e.g. Precambrian ) basement and even by structures of the earth's mantle.

Subduction of the Farallon and Kula plates

About 205 million years ago (during the Jurassic), the supercontinent of Pangea began to break up when a rift split separated the North American Plate from what is now Europe and pushed it westward against the Farallon Plate. During the following Cretaceous Period (144 to 66 million years ago) the entire Pacific coast of North America, from Alaska to Central America, was a subduction zone. The Farallon Plate is remarkable for its former size, and it plunges almost horizontally under most of what is now the United States and Mexico; it is probably connected with the Laramian orogeny. About 85 million years ago, the portion of the Farallon Plate that stretched from present-day California to present-day Alaska separated from the Kula Plate.

The period from 50… 48 million years ago (the middle Eocene) is particularly interesting because during this time the subducted Kula / Farallon ridge passed today's OWL. (A slightly different view is that this piece of the Kula plate broke off to form the so-called Resurrection plate, so that finally the Resurrection - / Farallon ridge was created. The Burke Museum shows some graphics of it.) This time also marks the beginning of the Oregon Rotation , possibly combined with a rifting along the OWL, and the initiation of the Queen Charlotte and Straight Creek faults . The timing seems important, but how it could all be related is unknown.

About 30 million years ago, part of the expanding center between the Farallon Plate and the Pacific Plate under California was subducted, placing the Pacific Plate in direct contact with the North American Plate; this created the San Andreas Fault. The remainder of the Farallon plate divided, the northern part became the Juan de Fuca plate; Parts of this then broke apart and formed the Gorda plate and the Explorer plate. During this time the last piece of the Kula Plate was subducted, initiating the Queen Charlotte Fault on the British Columbia coast; coastal subduction was reduced to the Cascadia subduction zone under Oregon and Washington.

Newberry Hotspot Track - Brothers Fault Zone

The ages of the Rhylithlava masses (light blue) from the McDermitt Caldera (MC) to the Yellowstone Caldera (YC) trace the movement of the North American Plate across the Yellowstone hotspot. Similar age gradations from lavas across the High Lava Plains (HLP) to the Newberry Caldera (NC) are known as the Newberry Hotspot Track, but go in the wrong direction with regard to the movement of the plate over a hotspot. The numbers mean the age in millions of years. VF = Vale Fault, SMF = Steens Mountain Fault, NNR = North Nevada Rift.

The Newberry Hotspot Track - a series of volcanic cones and lava flows that closely coincides with the Brothers Fault Zone (BFZ) - is interesting because of the parallelism to the OWL. In contrast to all other features of the OWL, these lava flows can be dated. They show an advancing age westward from their origin at the McDermitt Caldera on the border of Oregon and Nevada to the Newberry Volcano . Interestingly, the Yellowstone hotspot also appears to have its origin around the McDermitt Caldera and is generally thought to be closely associated with Newberry Magmatism. But while the trace of the Yellowstone hotspot across the Snake River Plain coincides with what one expects from the movement of the North American plate over a kind of "hotspot" fixed in the mantle below, the trace of the Newberry "hotspot" runs diagonally across the North American plate away; it is therefore not consistent with the hotspot model .

Alternative models include a .:

1. the flow of material from the top layer of the earth's mantle ( asthenosphere ) around the edge of the Juan de Fuca plate (also known as the "Vancouver Slab"),
2. Rivers that reflect the topography of the lithosphere (such as the edge of a craton),
3. Faults in the lithosphere, or
4. the expansion of the Basin and Range Province (which, conversely, could have resulted from the interactions between the North American, Pacific and Farallon plates, and perhaps the subduction of the triple point where the three plates collide).

However, none of these models has yet been fully accepted. (For example, Xue & Allen (2006) concluded that the Newberry Track is the product of a process controlled by the lithosphere [such as faults in the lithosphere or the expansion of basins and chains]; Zandt & Humphreys (2008) disagree and identify a river in the mantle around the sinking Gordon / Juan de Fuca floe.) These models generally only attempt to consider the source of the Newberry magmatism; they regard the "track" as pre-existing weaknesses in the earth's crust. So far, none of the models has taken into account the special orientation of the BFZ or the parallel Eugene Denio or Mendocino fault zone (see map ).

Bermuda hotspot track?

It was noted at least as early as 1963 that the OWL lay in the escape of the Kodiak-Bowie Tiefseeberg chain (English "Kodiak-Bowie Seamount Chain"). A study published by Morgan in 1983 suggests that this deep-sea mountain OWL escape marked the passage of the Bermuda hotspot about 150 million years ago. (The same passage was also included in the Mississippi Embayment statement.) However, there are significant doubts as to whether the Bermuda hotspot is a hotspot at all, and the lack of any supporting evidence makes this supposed hotspot completely speculative.

The 1983 publication also suggested that the passage of a hotspot weakens the continental crust, making it prone to rifting. But could the relationship ultimately run in the other direction: Do these “hotspots” gather in zones in which the crust has already been weakened (for reasons that have not been known so far)? The suspected Newberry hotspot track could illustrate this (see the “Mega-Shearings” section below), but the application of this concept in general is not yet accepted. Application to the OWL would require answering a few other questions, e.g. For example, how traces of a 150 million year old event might have withstood displacement northward into Alaska to affect a structure no more than 41 million years old (see Straight Creek Fault ). Perhaps there is an explanation that geologists just haven't found yet.

Orofino shear zone

The OWL becomes indistinct, and may even end , just east of the Oregon-Idaho border where it meets the northbound West Idaho Shear Zone (WISZ). (The zone is also called the West Idaho Seam Zone or the Salmon River Seam Zone, depending on which part of its long history is meant.) It is a near-vertical tectonic boundary between the merged oceanic terran in the west and the plutonic and metamorphic rocks of the North American craton (the primeval continental core) in the east. From the Mesozoic Era to about 90 million years ago (in the Middle Cretaceous), this was the western edge of the North American continent, into which several offshore terranes broke and slid north.

Something strange can be observed near the small town of Orofino (just east of Lewiston, Idaho) : the edge of the kraton makes a sharp, right-angled turn to the west. What is actually happening is a cutting of the WISZ by the west-northwest trending Orofino Shear Zone (OSZ), which runs roughly parallel to the OWL westward until it disappears below the Columbia River basalt and can be traced southeast across Idaho and perhaps beyond . This cutting happened 90 ... 70 million years ago, possibly due to the docking of the "insular super-terran" (which now forms the coast of British Columbia). This was a large left-handed transform fault, the northern continuation of which the WISZ is believed to be one of the faults in the North Cascades. A similar misalignment can be observed between the Canadian Rockies in British Columbia and the US Rockies in southern Idaho and western Wyoming. (See also Figure 1 in O'Neill et al. (2007) and Figure 1 in Hildebrand (2009).)

Then something strange happened again: Before the westward-striving craton edge turned north, it seemed to swerve to the south in the direction of today's Walla Walla (located near the Oregon border) and the Wallula Gap (the orange line on the regional map or the dashed line on the other card ). (Although Southeast Washington is almost entirely covered by the Columbia River basalts, drilling in this dangling unearthed rocks characteristic of the craton.) It appears that the OSZ may have been offset, perhaps by the Hite fault , but it is - contrary to the regional trend - faces south. If this were a transverse offset, it would be younger than the OFZ (less than 70 million years old) and older than the OWL, which has no offset. The fact that OWL and OFZ (along with many other structures) run in parallel suggests some similarities, perhaps a connection on a deeper level. But the offsets suggest that they originated independently.

Megashings

The OFZ (also called Trans-Idaho Discontinuity) is a local segment of a larger structure, which was only recently discovered, the so-called Great Divide Megashear (German for "Large Separating Megashear"). East of the WISZ, it turns southeast (broadly like the OWL beyond Wallula Gap) to follow the Clearwater fault zone of the continental divide near the Idaho-Montana border to the far northwest of Wyoming. From there, it appears to merge with the Snake River / Wichita fault zone that runs through Colorado and Oklahoma. Some sources have described this course as the Olympic / Wichita lineage (e.g. Vanden Berg (2005)). It's not exact. The Great Divide Megashear, even if it existed in the Cascades, would run well north of the Olympic Peninsula, while the OWL - assuming a connection to the Snake River fault zone (via the Vale fault zone) - the Great Divide Megashear as is likely not to be the case with the Wichita Fault Zone. This lineament is said to have a dextral offset to the Colorado lineament , which supposedly runs from the Grand Canyon to Lake Superior and possibly beyond. (A "Montana / Florida lineament" and even a "Mackenzie / Missouri lineament" [from the Mackenzie River Valley in the Yukon Territory to Florida] were postulated by Carey, but not universally recognized. For an interesting excursion over the In mainstream science, the theory of “Expanding Earth” is recommended.) There is a significant discrepancy here in the age information. While the OFZ is more like 90… 70 million years old, the mega-ashing is very ancient and was dated to the Mesoproterozoic - about a billion years ago. The Snake River / Wichita fault zone is similarly old. What seems to be happening is the exploitation of ancient weak points in the earth's crust. These could explain the Newberry “hotspot track”: Parallel weak spots in the crust open up as Brothers, Eugene / Denio and Mendocino fault zones in response to the development of the Basin and Range Province; Magma from the event that initiated the Yellowstone hotspot (and possibly the Columbia River and other basalt rivers) is simply exploiting faults in the Brothers fault zone. The other faults do not develop into a “hotspot track” simply because there is no magma source nearby. Similarly, the OWL could be, reflecting a similar zone of weakness but not becoming the main fault zone because it is too far removed from the tensions of the Basin and Range Province.

This could also explain why the OWL appears to be in alignment with the Kodiak-Bowie deep-sea mountain range in the Gulf of Alaska, especially since the apparent movement for the OWL appears to be in the wrong direction to reflect a past passage of the Mark OWL. The mountains are also on the other side of the center of the mid-ocean ridge. However, it seems pure speculation that the postulated weak points are related to one another in order to cause faults to arise from this center of the back.

Precambrian basement

Tracking the Great Divide Megashear into the middle of the continent brings interesting things to light: a widely scattered pattern of similar (roughly from northwest to southeast) running fault zones, rift fractures and aeromagnetic or gravity anomalies. This is particularly dramatic on the "Precambrian Crystalline Basement Map of Idaho" from 2005. (See also Marshak & Paulsen (1996), Sims et al. (2001), Vanden Berg (2005), and several others.) Although some of the faults are more recent (“recent”), the northwest trending zones became one On a continental scale, leaf shear attributed to 1.5 billion years old, the time when Laurentia (the North American continent) was merged.

Interestingly, there is another widespread pattern of parallel faults etc. that are of different ages and run from northeast to southwest. These include the Midcontinent Rift System , the Reelfoot Rift, and others. (The KBML and other less well-known features in Oregon and Washington have a similar orientation, but the context is completely different, so they are generally excluded from studies of the geology of the central continent.) These fault zones and rift fractures occur tectonic borders that date back to the Proterozoic - that is, to an age of 1.8 ... 1.6 billion years. They run roughly parallel to the Ouachita / Appalachian Mountains , which were raised when Laurentia was united with other continental plates to form the supercontinent Pangea about 350 million years ago. Today it is believed that these two salient patterns reflect the primeval weak points in the underlying Precambrian basement, which can be reactivated to control the orientation of objects that emerged much later.

Such a link between older and younger structures appears to be extremely relevant for the OWL's obscure age classification. The possible inclusion of the low-lying Precambrian basement suggests that what we perceive as OWL could only be the expression in less deep and transitory terran and surface processes of a deeper and persistent original OWL, like waves in a current one below the Surface reflect hidden rocks, so that the superficial expression of the OWL must be distinguished from a deep-lying original OWL. But neither the applicability of this to the OWL nor any details have been worked out so far.

Summary: What we know about the OWL

• Described for the first time in 1945 by Erwin Raisz
• Apparently more depressions and basins on the north side
• Associated with many right-wing shifts
• Apparently expressed in Quaternary (geologically young) glacial deposits
• Does not move the Columbia River basalts, older than 17 million years
• Not displaced by the Straight Creek Fault, so likely less than 41 million years old
• Roughly separated oceanic from continental provinces
• Possibly no boundary between oceanic and continental crust
• May not be a hotspot track
• Apparently in the continuation of the lithospheric river from the Juan de Fuca ridge
• Seemingly disappearing in Oregon

See also

• Geology of the Pacific Northwest

Individual evidence

1. ↑ ^{a b} Erwin Raisz: The Olympic-Wallowa lineament . In: American Journal of Science . 243-A (Daly Volume), 1945, pp. 479-485.
2. ^ ^{A b c} G. A. Davis: Tectonic evolution of the Pacific Northwest, Precambrian to present . In: Preliminary safety analysis report, WNP-1/4, amendment 23, subappendix 2R C . Washington Public Power Supply System, Inc., 1977.
3. ^ ^{A b c} B. McKee: Cascadia: The Geological Evolution of the Pacific Northwest . McGraw-Hill, 1972.
4. ^ PR Hooper, VE Camp: Deformation of the southeast part of the Columbia Plateau . In: Geology . 9, No. 7, July 1981, pp. 323-328. doi : 10.1130 / 0091-7613 (1981) 9 <323: dotspo> 2.0.co; 2 .
5. ↑ ^{a b c d} P. R. Hooper, RM Conrey: A model for the tectonic setting of the Columbia River basalt eruptions . In: SP Reidel, PR Hooper (Eds.): Volcanism and Tectonicism in the Columbia River Flood-Basalts Province , Volume Special Paper 239. Geological Society of America, 1989, pp. 293-306.
6. ^ I. Zietz, BC Jr. Hearn, MW Higgins, GD Robinson, DA Swanson: Interpretation of an Aeromagnetic Strip across the Northwestern United States . In: GSA Bulletin . 82, No. 12, December 1971, pp. 3347-3372. doi : 10.1130 / 0016-7606 (1971) 82 [3347: IOAASA] 2.0.CO; 2 .
7. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g} P. K. Sims, K. Lund, E. Anderson: Precambrian crystalline basement map of Idaho - An interpretation of aeromagnetic data . In: US Geological Survey . Scientific Investigations Map 2884, 2005. "Scale 1: 1,000,000"
8. ^ ^{A b} R. W. Simpson, RC Jachens, RJ Blakely, RW Saltus: A New Isostatic Residual Gravity Map of the Conterminous United States With a Discussion on the Significance of Isostatic Residual Anomalies . In: Journal of Geophysical Research . 91, July 10, 1986, pp. 8348-8372. doi : 10.1029 / JB091iB08p08348 .
9. ↑ ^{a b c d} D. U. Wise: An outrageous hypothesis for the tectonic pattern of the North American Cordillera . In: GSA Bulletin . 74, No. 3, March 1963, pp. 357-362. doi : 10.1130 / 0016-7606 (1963) 74 [357: AOHFTT] 2.0.CO; 2 .
10. ^ GE Thomas: Lineament-block tectonics: North America - Cordilleran Orogen . In: M. Podwysocki, J. Earle (Eds.): Proc. of the 2nd International Conference on Basement Tectonics 1976, pp. 361-370.
11. ↑ BS Martin, HL Petcovic, SP Reidel: Goldschmidt Conference 2005: Field Trip Guide to the Columbia River Basalt Group (PNNL-15221) . US Dept. of Energy, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, May 2005.
12. ^ SG Mitchell, DR Montgomery: Polygenetic Topography of the Cascade Range, Washington State, USA . In: American Journal of Science . 306, November 2006, pp. 736-768. doi : 10.2475 / 09.2006.03 .
13. ^ ^{A b c} R. A. Haugerud, RW Tabor: Geologic Map of the North Cascade Range, Washington . In: US Geological Survey . Scientific Investigations Map 2940, 2009. "2 map sheets, scale 1: 200,000"
14. ^ ^{A b c d e} J. A. Vance, RB Miller: Another look at the Fraser River-Straight Creek Fault (FRSCF) . In: GSA Abstracts with Programs . 24, 1994, p. 88.
15. ↑ ^{a b} P. J. Umhöfer, RB Miller: Mid-Cretaceous thrusting in the southern Coast Belt, British Columbia and Washington, after strike-slip fault reconstruction . In: Tectonics . 15, No. 2, June 1996, pp. 545-565. doi : 10.1029 / 95TC03498 .
16. ↑ ^{a b c d} R. W. Tabor, VA Jr. Frizzell, JA Vance, CW Naeser: Ages and stratigraphy of lower and middle Tertiary sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the central Cascades, Washington: Application to the tectonic history of the Straight Creek fault . In: GSA Bulletin . 95, No. 1, January 1984, pp. 26-44. doi : 10.1130 / 0016-7606 (1984) 95 <26: AASOLA> 2.0.CO; 2 .
17. ^ ^{A b c} R. W. Tabor: Late Mesozoic and possible early Tertiary accretion in western Washington State: the Helena – Haystack mélange and the Darrington – Devils Mountain Fault Zone . In: GSA Bulletin . 106, No. 2, February 1994, pp. 217-232. doi : 10.1130 / 0016-7606 (1994) 106 <0217: LMAPET> 2.3.CO; 2 .
18. ^ ^{A b c d} S. J. Wyld, PJ Umhoefer, JE Wright: Reconstructing northern Cordilleran terranes along known Cretaceous and Cenozoic strike-slip faults: Implications for the Baja British Columbia hypothesis and other models . In: JW Haggart, RJ Enkin & JWH Monger (Eds.): Paleogeography of the North American Cordillera: Evidence For and Against Large-Scale Displacement , Volume Special Paper 46. Geological Association of Canada, 2006, pp. 277-298.
19. ^ NP Campbell: Structural and stratigraphic interpretation of rocks under the Yakima fold belt, Columbia Basin, based on recent surface mapping and well data . In: SP Reidel & PR Hooper (eds.): Volcanism and tectonism on the Columbia River flood-basalt province , Volume Special Paper 239. Geological Society of America, 1989, pp. 209-222.
20. ↑ PL Heller, RW Tabor, CA Suczek: Paleogeographic evolution of the US Pacific Northwest during Paleogene time . In: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences . 24, 1987, pp. 1652-1667. doi : 10.1139 / e87-159 .
21. ↑ ^{a b c d} R. W. Tabor, V. A Jr. Frizzell, DB Booth, RB Jr. Waitt: Geologic map of the Snoqualmie Pass 60 minute by 30 minute quadrangle, Washington . In: US Geological Survey . Miscellaneous Investigations Map I-2538, 2000. "Scale 1: 100,000"
22. ↑ ^{a b c d e} Preliminary interpretation of the tectonic stability of the reference repository location, Cold Creek syncline, Hanford site  (= Rockwell Hanford Operations Report RHO-BW-ST-19P) March 1983, p. 130.
23. ^ SP Reidel, NP Campbell: Joseph, NL et al. (Ed.): Structure of the Yakima Fold Belt, Central Washington  (= Geologic Guidebook to Washington and Adjacent Areas), Volume Information Circular 86. Washington State Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Earth Resources, 1989, p. 277– 303 (Retrieved November 22, 2018).
24. ^ ^{A b} E. S. Cheney: Geological map of the Easton area, Kittitas County, Washington . In: Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources . Open File Report 99-4, December 1999, p. 11. "Scale 1: 31.680"
25. ^ ES Cheney, NW Hayman: Regional tertiary sequence stratigraphy and structure on the eastern flank of the central Cascade Range, Washington . In: PL Stelling & DS Tucker (Eds.): Floods, faults, and fire: Geological Field Trips in Washington State and Southwest British Columbia , Volume 9. Geological Society of America, 2007, pp. 179–208, doi : 10.1130 / 2007.fld009 (09) .
26. ^ JD Dragovich, BW Stanton: Darrington-Devils Mountain Fault, Skagit and Island Counties, Washington . In: Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources . Open File Report 2007-2, 2007. "Scale 1: 31.104, 2 tables and text"
27. ^ SY Johnson: Stratigraphy, age, and paleogeography of the Eocene Chuckanut Formation, northwest Washington . In: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences . 21, 1984, pp. 92-106. doi : 10.1139 / e84-010 .
28. ^ Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources (2003). Geologic Map of the Oso 7.5-minute Quadrangle, Skagit and Snohomish Counties, Washington [map].
29. ↑ MT Brandon: Mesozoic melange of the Pacific Rim complex, western Vancouver Iceland; Trip 7 . 1985.
30. ^ RB Miller: The Mesozoic Rimrock Lake inlier, southern Washington Cascades: Implications for the basement to the Columbia Embayment . In: GSA Bulletin . 101, October 1989, pp. 1289-1305. doi : 10.1130 / 0016-7606 (1989) 101 <1289: TMRLIS> 2.3.CO; 2 .
31. ↑ AC Rohay, JD Davis: Contemporary deformation in the Pasco Basin area of the central plateau Columbia . In: Preliminary Interpretation of the Tectonic Stability of the Reference Repository Location, Cold Creek Syncline, Hanford site 1983.
32. ↑ ^{a b} R. D. Catchings, WD Mooney: Crustal Structure of the Columbia Plateau: Evidence for continental rifting . In: Journal of Geophysical Research . 93, No. B1, 1988, pp. 459-474. doi : 10.1029 / JB093iB01p00459 .
33. ^ ^{A b c} S. P. Reidel, NP Campbell, KR Fecht, KA Lindsey: Late Cenozoic structure and stratigraphy of south-central Washington September 1993, doi : 10.2172 / 10193734 , Westinghouse Hanford Company Report WHC-SA-1764.
34. ^ ^{A b} R. W. Saltus: Upper-crustal structure beneath the Columbia River Basalt Group, Washington: Gravity interpretation controlled by borehole and seismic studies . In: GSA Bulletin . 105, September 1993, pp. 1247-1259. doi : 10.1130 / 0016-7606 (1993) 105 <1247: UCSBTC> 2.3.CO; 2 .
35. ^ ^{A b c d e} S. C. Kuehn: The Olympic-Wallowa Lineament, Hite Fault System, and Columbia River Basalt Group Stratigraphy in Northeast Umatilla County, Oregon . In: Masters thesis, Washington State University . September 2008.
36. ^ JE Essman: The Case for NE-SW Extension in Northeast Oregon . In: Masters thesis, Oregon State University . 2003.
37. ↑ SK Pezzopane, R. Weldon: Tectonic role of active faulting in central Oregon . In: Tectonics . 12, No. 5, 1993, pp. 1140-1169. doi : 10.1029 / 92TC02950 .
38. ^ ^{A b c d} R. McCaffrey, MD Long, C. Goldfinger, PC Zwick, JL Nabelek, CK Johnson, C. Smith: Rotation and plate locking at the southern Cascadia subduction zone . In: Geophysical Research Letters . 27, No. 9, 2000, pp. 3117-3120. doi : 10.1029 / 2000GL011768 .
39. ^ ^{A b c} W. R. Dickinson: Evolution of the North American Cordillera . In: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences . 32, No. 5, May 2004, pp. 13-45. doi : 10.1146 / annurev.earth.32.101802.120257 .
40. ↑ ^{a b} R. L. Christiansen, GR Foulger, JR Evans: Upper-mantle origin of the Yellowstone hotspot . In: GSA Bulletin . 114, No. 10, 2002, pp. 1245-1256. doi : 10.1130 / 0016-7606 (2002) 114 <1245: UMOOTY> 2.0.CO; 2 .
41. ↑ http://www.mantleplumes.org/Coffin.html
42. ↑ http://www.semp.us/publications/biot_reader.php?BiotID=218
43. ↑ https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/10/12/pdf/gt0012.pdf
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57. ↑ SY Johnson, SV Dadisman, JR Childs, WD Stanley: Active tectonics of the Seattle fault and central Puget Sound, Washington - Implications for earthquake hazards . In: GSA Bulletin . 111, No. 7, July 1999, pp. 1042-1053. doi : 10.1130 / 0016-7606 (1999) 111 <1042: ATOTSF> 2.3.CO; 2 .
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64. ↑ JD Dragovich, ML Anderson, TJ Walsh, BL Johnson, TL Adams: Geologic map of the Fall City 7.5-minute quadrangle, King County, Washington . In: Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources . Geological Map GM-67, 2007, p. 16. "1 map sheet, scale 1: 24,000"
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Web links

• Evolution of the Pacific Northwest - Detailed text on the geology of Cascadia
• Office of Scientific and Technical Information (English)
• Energy Citations Database (English)