Tamil culture

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Tamil culture ( Tamil தமிழர் பண்பாடு ) is the culture of the Tamils in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu , in Sri Lanka and in countries outside of South Asia where Tamils ​​live, such as Malaysia and Singapore .

language

Statue of a goddess representing the Tamil language; the inscription at the foot of the statue means Tamil Annai ("mother of Tamils").

Perhaps the most important link in Tamil culture is the Tamil language, which can look back on around 2000 years of literary history and is therefore the only Dravidian language to be one of the classical literary languages ​​of India.

Tamils ​​generally have a strong bond with the Tamil language, which is also shown by the fact that the language is referred to in the literature as " Tamil̲an̲n̲ai " ("Mother of Tamil"). Like the other languages ​​of southern India, Tamil is one of the Dravidian languages and is not related to the Indo-Aryan languages ​​of northern India. In addition, due to its geographic location, Tamil had little contact with Sanskrit and has retained many of its Urdravidian characteristics. However, the Tamil spoken today has a large number of loan words from Sanskrit and English. This property makes Tamil one of the languages ​​with diglossia , as written Tamil has hardly changed since the beginning of the written Tamil language. This was also the reason why the Indian government raised Tamil as the first language ever to the rank of a classical language .

There are a large number of regional dialects among the Tamils, and these mostly differ through sound shifts. Although most dialects do not differ in vocabulary, there are a few exceptions. The spoken Tamil in Sri Lanka was strongly influenced by Portuguese and Dutch and there are different names for everyday words. The language of the Muslim Tamils ​​should also be emphasized, as it has been heavily influenced by Arabic and Urdu.

literature

Creation story from a Tamil Bible (1723)

According to legend, the Sangams (poetry academies ) on the legendary Kumarikkandam continent cultivated Tamil literature in antiquity , which is why the earliest development stage of Tamil literature (around 200 BC to 300 AD) is known as Sangam literature . Numerous works of different genres (poems, epics) originate from that epoch, some of which go back to older oral traditions. The Tolkappiyam , a Tamil grammar, describes the aesthetics of classical poetry. It is differentiated according to subjective content ( akam ), such as love and sexuality, as well as objective topics ( puram ), such as war and the state, which are each represented graphically. In contrast to North Indian Sanskrit literature , references to higher beings are extremely rare. The main works of the Sangam period include the Ettuttokai (“Eight Anthologies”) and Pattuppattu (“Ten Songs”) collections, as well as the “Five Great Epics”, including the Cilappatikaram .

Towards the end of the Sangam period, North Indian influences became increasingly noticeable, which were expressed, among other things, in extensive Buddhist and Jainist writings, often in Sanskrit. New topics such as morals and ethics came to the fore, for example in Tiruvalluvar's instructive assembly, Tirukkural .

With the emergence of the Hindu Bhakti movement in the 7th century, pious Hindu poetry in the form of songs of praise for Shiva and Vishnu flourished. In the Chola period, the epic became the most popular genre. Particularly noteworthy are Kampan with his main work Kamparamayanan , a version of the Ramayana , and the poet Auvaiyar .

From the 14th century onwards, in addition to commentaries on older works, numerous philosophical and religious writings were created. The Hindu rulers of the small states that followed the collapse of the Vijayanagar Empire in the 16th century once again promoted pious Hindu poetry. The 17th century saw significant Islamic and Christian contributions for the first time .

Tamil literature experienced revolutionary changes as a result of Western influences during European colonial rule. New genres such as the novel , essay, and short story prevailed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and continue to shape modern Tamil literature to this day. Kalki (1899–1954) mainly used historical material in his novels and short stories. Pudhumaipithan (1906–1948) achieved great recognition for his socially critical works. Subramaniyam Bharati (1882–1921) is considered one of the most outstanding poets of Tamil modernism.

art

Painting from Tanjore depicting the Hindu god Krishna

Traditional Tamil art mostly relates to Hinduism . However, religion is only used as a metaphor to represent universal and humanistic issues. The representation of classical art is to be understood as a "living tradition" which was practiced at that time.

Ivory relief from the Nayak era

Thanjavur art from the ninth century AD had the most important influence on Tamil painting . The basis for the paintings was made of whole linen mixed with zinc oxide , on which was drawn with dye. After that, the painting was decorated with precious stones, silver and gold. A similar technique was used for the murals in the numerous Tamil Nadu temples ; a very notable example is the Minakshi Temple in Madurai . In general, Tamil art is known for its stylistic elegance, richness in color and detail.

Tamil sculptures range from elegant stone carvings to detailed bronze icons . The bronze statues of the Chola era are considered to be one of India's greatest contributions to the world of art. The material for the Tamil sculptures did not affect their shape. Instead, the artist created his work in such a way that the viewer could not immediately know what material the work was made of. So the cave paintings in Mamallapuram appear as if they were set with precious stones. A popular motif for bronze sculptures were primarily the depictions of Shiva in one of his manifestations, the Nataraja .

As in Indian art , portraits or realism hardly play a role in Tamil art . More emphasis is placed on the representations of idealistic prototypes and symbols. Thus, by idealizing what is represented, criticism of reality is exercised.

architecture

Coastal temple in Mamallapuram
A gopuram of the Minakshi Temple in Madurai

Tamil Nadu is famous for its large temple complexes . These important historical masterpieces of the Dravidian temple architecture are popular pilgrimage sites and have a special place in the tradition of Hinduism . Each location is closely related to a particular aspect of Hindu mythology, and each sanctuary provides a glimpse into a different facet of Hinduism.

Some of the most outstanding examples of early medieval Hindu temple architecture can be found in Tamil Nadu. The monolithic rock temples from the Pallava period (7th and 8th centuries) in the former port city of Mamallapuram are early forms of the South Indian Dravida temple style , which is characterized by a pyramid-shaped stepped temple tower called Vimana above the Holy of Holies. The Vimana is usually preceded by a pillared hall. In the architecture of the Pallava, influences from older temple buildings of the Chalukya in Badami , Aihole and Pattadakal are reflected. The Pallava mainly used the abundant granite in Tamil Nadu as a building material, in contrast to the sandstone of northern India. In the 8th century, the temple style begun in Mamallapuram continued in the old Pallava capital Kanchipuram .

The Chola further developed the Vimanas of the Pallava period into huge storey pyramids, the storeys of which were decorated with false cells. The highlight of this development is the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur from the early 11th century. Under the late Chola, and especially under the Pandya who replaced them , there was a structural shift in emphasis from the Vimana to the gate tower ( gopuram ) of the temple area surrounding the actual sacred building. While the Vimana is smaller and less conspicuous, the Gopuram now takes on its size and artistic design. During the time of the nayaks of the Tamil small states (16th to 19th centuries), many temple districts grew into temple cities by adding additional porticos and walls decorated with gopurams . Examples are Srirangam , Chidambaram , Rameswaram , Tiruvannamalai and Madurai . With the fall of the nayaks in the 18th century, the classic Dravidian temple architecture of Tamil Nadu also came to an end.

Under European rule, the previously largely neglected secular architecture experienced an upswing. The colonial architecture in Tamil Nadu is largely similar to that of the entire subcontinent. Their early forms hardly differed from contemporary architecture in Europe. Later, in addition to European, indigenous Indian, especially Islamic, influences emerged, which at the end of the 19th century mixed in the Indo-Saracen style . In Chennai in particular , monumental administrative and representative buildings such as the High Court and numerous museum buildings were built.

performing Arts

Dances and music

Bharatanatyam dancer
Folk music at a Tamil funeral → video clip

Performing arts has a long history in Tamil culture and is still practiced today. The temples and royal courts have served as centers for the performing arts since the Classical Age. Evidence of a close connection between ancient and modern art forms can be found in the classical texts of Tamil literature. The aim of a representation in the Tamil tradition is to convey the feelings of the written word. The quality and success of a good presentation is measured by how much the audience is excited. In contrast to the western world, in Tamil culture it is quite common for the audience to stand up during a performance, to dance, to sing along or to applaud loudly.

Classical Tamil music belongs to the Carnatic music of South India. It is primarily based on the singing voice, while the musical instruments only accompany, sometimes paraphrase the singing voice . The older music during the classical period played a large role in the development of the Carnatic. So the stories from the classical era were presented to the uneducated people in the form of a drama.

The most dominant classical dance is the Bharatanatyam . It is one of the eight classical dance styles in India . They all follow the basic rules established by Bharata. The Bharatanatyam developed in Tamil Nadu and is still particularly cultivated there today. Although it can only be traced back 200 years, it is based on ancient Indian traditions in literature and art. Since the 1930s it has experienced a renaissance through the work of Rukmini Devi Arundale . The Bharatanatyam is a solo dance and is accompanied by an orchestra (consisting of percussion and bass instruments as well as singers). It is based on the aspects of bhava (expression), raga (melody), tala (rhythm) and natyam (dance). The repertoire of the Bharatanatyam owes its current form mainly to four famous musicians and dance masters from Thanjavur (Tanjore), South India, in the 18th century ( Tanjore Quartet ). It includes abstract and narrative dances in a specific order. The Bharatanatyam is only performed by women, but well-known male dancers have also recently become established.

The most famous folk dance is the karakattam . In its religious form, the dance is performed in front of an image or statue of the Hindu goddess Mariamman . The dancer leans on his head a brass pot filled with grains of rice, decorated with strips of bamboo and flowers, and dances and jumps with it without losing a grain. Typically a kind of love song is played to express his love for the goddess.

Terukkuttu (literally "street performance") is a kind of village theater. This traditionally takes place in the evening on the village square. There is no set and only very simple equipment. These performances include a great many songs and dances and the stories can be both religious and secular. The performances do not always adhere exactly to the specifications and it is not uncommon for the audience to be involved in the drama. Terukkuttu is also used today to present the uneducated rural folk with new laws or state advice. But social messages such as abstinence or criticism against the caste system are also increasingly being incorporated into these plays.

Movies and Today's Music

In allusion to Bollywood , the film industry in Mumbai , Tamil cinema also bears the name “Kollywood”, the first letter of which refers to Kodambakkam , the district of Chennais on which Tamil film production is concentrated. In fact, Tamil film, with currently 150 to 200 productions per year, is one of the three largest Indian regional film industries alongside Hindi film and Telugu film, all of which have already held the top position for most films produced (Tamil for the first time in 1979 with 139 productions). Tamil film is gaining increasing recognition abroad too, particularly in Sri Lanka , Singapore , Malaysia , South Africa and the UK . The first feature film was made in Kodambakkam as early as 1916 under the direction of R. Nataraja Mudaliar . The first sound film followed in 1931, Kalidas by HM Reddy .

Most Tamil productions are similar in concept and subject matter to those of Hindi films, but are differentiated through the use of the Tamil language . As in Bollywood films, music and dance are very important, but there are more comic and martial arts elements. Successful Tamil films are often in a slightly modified form and with a different composition in Bollywood neuverfilmt , rarely reversed. One of the best-known directors of contemporary Tamil film is Mani Ratnam , who has meanwhile also worked on numerous other language productions and is considered one of the most outstanding Indian directors.

A special feature is the extraordinarily high, at times idolatrous admiration that actors and actresses are shown. In no other state in India have former filmmakers been as politically successful as in Tamil Nadu. This is due to the pronounced party propaganda in Tamil film ( DMK film). So five film personalities managed to become Chief Minister of the country. The screenwriters CN Annadurai (1967) and M. Karunanidhi (1969, 1988, 1996) were followed in 1977 by the actor MG Ramachandran , who was re-elected twice until his death in 1987. This was shortly followed by his wife, the former actress VN Janaki . The actress J. Jayalalithaa also held the office of Prime Minister Tamil Nadus three times.

As in other parts of India, the market for modern Tamil music is undisputedly dominated by Tamil film music. Since Tamil films contain a lot of music scenes, the overall success of the film usually depends on whether the film music, which is released before the film release, is a success or not. Tamil film music is seen as a separate musical genre in India. The fusion of Carnatic music, Tamil folklore, hip hop, rock and western pop is often experimented with. This often results in a motley mix in the Tamil music scene. One of the most successful composers in Tamil Nadu and India is the Tamile AR Rahman .

religion

Christian Marian basilica from Velankanni
Adorned Ganesha on Diwali

Hindus make up the clear majority of Tamils ​​at around 90 percent. "People's Hinduism" is by far the most widespread belief among the Tamils ​​and many other peoples of India. It is the current closest to primitive Hinduism and animism and, like many other currents, is characterized by ancestral cult and polytheism .

The Shaivism also plays a major role. The Hindu god Murugan has an important position in the daily life of a devout, Tamil Hindu. In southern Tamil Nadu there are many followers of Ayyavali , a monistic religion that split off from Hinduism in the middle of the 19th century. The origin of this tradition can be found in the time of the dynasties, when statues were erected in honor of fallen local heroes. This form of worship is mentioned regularly in classical Tamil literature. Most Hindus do not regard Ayyavali as a separate religion, but as a form of Hinduism. In censuses, the Ayyavali are usually counted as Hindus, so the number of followers of this religious community is not known.

The various Christian denominations account for around 5 percent. Most Christians are either Catholics or Thomas Christians , who in turn split up into several churches according to East Syrian or West Syrian rites. They trace their origins back to the missionary work of the Apostle Thomas in South India. He is said to have died in Chennai around AD 60 . The Church of South India , which unites Presbyterians , Methodists, and Anglicans, has few followers .

The Islam brought Arab traders although in the 9th century to the land, but he never found in Tamil Nadu such a large spread, in most parts of North India. Today around 5 percent of the Tamils ​​cling to him. About 0.1 percent are Jainas , who live almost exclusively in Chennai and the surrounding area. In addition, several thousand Sikhs , Buddhists and followers of other religions live in Tamil Nadu.

In addition to the national holidays of the various religious communities, the Pongal harvest festival is considered the most important of all Tamil festivals. It is celebrated for four days from the first day of the Tamil month of Tai (mid-January). On the first day old objects are symbolically thrown away. The most important day is the second when the typical feast, also called pongal, is cooked over. This is to express the desire for a good harvest, prosperity and abundance. On the third day, thanks are given to the cows and buffaloes for the milk they give and for plowing the fields. Traditionally, Pongal ended on the fourth day with the young, unmarried men gathering at a river to choose their future bride. However, this custom is no longer observed today. The Tamil New Year festival takes place in mid-April. Among the religious festivals of the Hindus, the festival of lights Diwali stands out, called Dipavali in Tamil .

kitchen

Tamil dish served on a banana leaf

The Tamil cuisine, which is considered particularly spicy, is characterized by an extraordinary variety of dishes. Both meat dishes and vegetarian dishes exist in abundance. Rice serves as a staple food , also as rice noodles or flatbreads made from rice flour. Usually it is served as a curry with legumes, especially lentils , or other vegetables and a sauce. "Curry" does not mean, as is often assumed in the western world, a mixture of spices, but a vegetarian or meat or fish dish in an often strongly seasoned sauce. The word is derived from the Tamil kari ("sauce"). A variety of spices are used in the preparation of the sauces, including tamarind , curry leaves , coriander , ginger , chilli , garlic , pepper , cardamom , cumin , cinnamon , nutmeg and cloves . Dairy products are also used in Tamil cuisine.

A Tamil dish consists of rice as the main ingredient with two to six different side dishes. The side dishes usually include curries, rasam (a kind of vegetable or meat broth), thayir (a spicy yogurt sauce), a chutney and some fried vegetables. For festivals or important events, the food is served on a banana leaf. Other typical dishes are pongal , rice with fresh milk and syrup made from palm sugar , dosai , a kind of pancake made from rice flour and bean flour , idli , small cakes made from rice and bean flour, and vadai , baked pea cakes. For example , you can eat sambar , usually a lentil dish with a spicy tamarind sauce, of which there are numerous variations with other vegetables or fish, or a chutney made from coconut meat or tomatoes. Traditionally, people usually eat by hand.

Popular drinks are coffee and tea (usually green, white or ginger tea).

Martial arts

A number of traditional martial arts are still practiced today. These martial arts arose during the Chola era and were used for military combat. Nowadays they are used for physical exercise. The more famous martial arts include the Kalarippayat , the Kuttu Varisai and the Maankombukkalai . The typical weapons are z. B. the Silambam (long staff), Vaal (simple sword), Vettaruval (machete), Maduvu (deer horns).

A very popular event is the unarmed bullfighting , Jallikattu called during the annual Tamil Pongalfestes . In contrast to the Spanish bullfight, this is not about killing the animal. The point is that the fighter brings the bull under control without harming him physically.

Organizations

The global expansion of the Tamil diaspora made it difficult to establish a Pantamil organization. The main national institutions for Tamils ​​are those of the Tamil Nadu and Sri Lankan governments .

Tamil Nadu politics is dominated by the so-called Dravidian Movement. The aim of the Dravidian movement is to promote the self-worth and pride of the Tamils, to preserve the culture and language of the Tamils ​​and to fight the caste system and the oppression of the lower castes. Every major party in Tamil Nadu has its origin in this movement.

In Sri Lanka, Tamil politics were determined by federalist movements until the 1980s. In the 80s this was replaced by violent, military independence movements. Several rebel organizations formed, from which the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) emerged as the strongest and most dominant group. Although there have been promising talks between the Sri Lankan government and the LTTE from time to time, these talks often failed due to internal political differences on both sides. The LTTE has been inactive since 2009 and parts of the LTTE became part of the new government of Sri Lanka or were given autonomous status.

The LTTE has been classified as a terrorist organization in the EU , USA , Canada and India . In contrast, the UN has not classified the LTTE in this category. As of 2014, the LTTE is no longer classified as a terrorist organization in the EU.

In the 1960s, the Tamil Nadu government held a World Tamil Conference and decided to hold it regularly. From this, the World Tamil Confederation developed in 1999 . Its main goals are the preservation and consolidation of the Tamil culture and language as well as the feeling of togetherness in the different countries. The organization has developed both a flag and an anthem to represent all Tamils ​​in the world.

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b BBC News: India sets up classical languages (September 17, 2004); The Hindu: Sanskrit to be declared classical language (October 28, 2005)
  2. ↑ See Sumathi Ramasamy: Passions of the Tongue , Feminizing language: Tamil as Goddess, Mother, Maiden Chapter 3.
  3. ^ Tamil - A historical and linguistic perspective . In: Tamilar.org . Tamilar.org. Retrieved December 4, 2006.
  4. ^ Coomaraswamy, AK: Figures of Speech or Figures of Thought
  5. ^ Tanjore - Painting . In: tanjore.net . Tanjore.net. Retrieved December 4, 2006.
  6. ^ Tamil Mural Paintings - a History . In: Temple Mural Paintings of Tamilnadu, India . Nayaka Painting Archival Project. Archived from the original on February 15, 2007. Retrieved December 4, 2006.
  7. ↑ SHILPAIC LITERATURE OF THE TAMILS . In: V. Ganapathi . INTAMM. Retrieved December 4, 2006.
  8. ^ Aschwin Lippe: Divine Images in Stone and Bronze: South India, Chola Dynasty (c. 850-1280) . In: Metropolitan Museum Journal . 4, pp. 29-79. Retrieved on May 3, 2007. "The bronze icons of Early Chola period are one of India's greatest contribution to world art ..."
  9. ↑ Heaven sent: Michael Wood explores the art of the Chola dynasty . Royal Academy, UK. Archived from the original on March 3, 2007. Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved April 26, 2007.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.royalacademy.org.uk
  10. ↑ Carmel Berkson: II The Life of Form pp29-65 . In: The Life of Form in Indian Sculpture . Abhinav Publications, 2000, ISBN 81-7017-376-0 .
  11. ^ Tamil Art & Architecture . In: Dr TV Mahalingam, Second International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, January 1968 . Tamilnation.org. Retrieved December 7, 2006.
  12. ↑ a b t
  13. ↑ History of Music - ORIGINS . carnatica.net. Retrieved December 7, 2006.
  14. ↑ Sharma, Manorama (2004): Folk India: A Comprehensive Study of Indian Folk Music and Culture , Vol. 11
  15. ^ Tamil Art History . eelavar.com. Archived from the original on April 27, 2006. Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved December 5, 2006. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.eelavar.com
  16. ^ Striving hard to revive and refine ethnic dance form . hindu.com. Retrieved December 5, 2006.
  17. ↑ Overview of the number of productions in the individual languages ​​of India in: Ashish Rajadhyaksha, Paul Willemen. Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema . P. 30 ff.
  18. ↑ Steven Rosen, Graham M. Schweig (2006). Essential Hinduism . Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 45.
  19. ↑ M. Shanmugam Pillai: Murukan in Cankam Literature: Veriyattu Tribal Worship . In: First International Conference Seminar on Skanda-Murukan in Chennai, Dec. 28-30, 1998. This article first appeared in the September 1999 issue of The Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies . Retrieved December 6, 2006.
  20. ↑ 'Hero stone' unearthed . In: The Hindu, Jul 22, 2006 . Retrieved December 5, 2006.
  21. ↑ Mukund Padmanabhan, Subash Jeyan and Subajayanthi Wilson (May 26, 2012). "Food Safari: In search of Ambur biryani". The Hindu .
  22. ^ Google books version of the book A Western Journalist on India: The Ferengi's Columns by François Gautier . Retrieved May 24, 2007.
  23. ^ NY Times: The ritual dates back as far as 2,000 years… . Retrieved May 24, 2007.
  24. ↑ 21 terrorist outfits banned in UK. rediff.com , February 28, 2001. Retrieved November 30, 2006.
  25. ↑ LTTE banned in Canada. ( Memento of May 29, 2006 in the Internet Archive ) Lanka Truth , April 8, 2006. Retrieved November 30, 2006.
  26. ↑ Adam, Ruxandra. Tamil Tigers Banned by the European Union. ( Memento of the original from August 10, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Softpedia News , May 30, 2006. Retrieved November 30, 2006. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / news.softpedia.com
  27. ↑ Court of the European Union. PRESS RELEASE No 138/14. Judgment in Joined Cases T-208/11 and T-508/11. Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) / Council "The General Court annuls, on procedural grounds, the acts of the Council keeping the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam on the European list of terrorist groups"
  28. ^ World Tamil Confederation. World Tamils ​​National Song. , accessed November 30, 2006.

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