Austro-Hungarian relations

Austro-Hungarian relations

Austria	Hungary

The Austro-Hungarian relations have their origins in the Habsburg Monarchy . In 1867 there was an Austro-Hungarian settlement within the monarchy. Due to Austria's territorial claims in western Hungary, diplomatic relations were clouded after the disintegration of the multi-ethnic state . These stabilized only in the time of the Austrian corporate state , before they dried up through the "annexation" of Austria to the German Reich . After the Second World War , the relationship was revitalized again. Economic aspects were in the foreground. With the onset of the Cold War , relations deteriorated noticeably. After the fall of the Iron Curtain , the previously moderate diplomatic relations intensified. Economic and cultural issues are very important.

history

Common past in the Habsburg monarchy

The two present-day states of Austria and Hungary were part of the Habsburg Monarchy until 1918. Relations were particularly shaped by the 1848 revolution and the Austro-Hungarian settlement in 1867.

The 1848 revolution and the demands of the population connected with it had many consequences for the Habsburg monarchy. In 1847/48 the Hungarian side formulated its own Hungarian constitution in 31 articles of law. Through this Hungary should achieve its independence from the monarchy, Austria refused, however, and declared the constitution to be invalid. This did not contribute positively to Austro-Hungarian relations. The March constitution caused Hungary to proclaim independence in 1849. However, this revolt could be put down with the help of Russian troops. The Austrian side tried again and again to improve relations with Hungary, for example through the first attempt at a compromise with Hungary in 1862. After the Austrian defeat by Prussia in the Battle of Königgrätz in 1866, Austrian supremacy in the German-speaking cultural area was finally over. Thus it could finally come to a balance between Austria and Hungary.

Central common coat of arms of Austria-Hungary from 1915

As part of the compensation, Hungary ( Transleithanien ) became independent from Cisleithanien in many areas . Austria and Hungary remained connected only with the person of the emperor, who from then on was also the apostolic king of Hungary, and a system of so-called “common affairs”. This was recorded in both the constitution of the Kingdom of Hungary and the constitution of Austria.

The dual monarchy Austria-Hungary now shared the following institutions and tasks with each other: In addition to the common ruler, there was a common finance minister who was responsible for the common budget, as well as a common war minister and a common foreign minister. As a result, Austria-Hungary had a joint army , the supreme command of which was reserved for the ruler. The shares of the two halves of the state for the common budget were determined by separate delegations every ten years. In 1868, for example, it was decided that Austria should contribute 70% and Hungary 30% to the joint budget, which amounted to around 1,000,000 guilders. Both of them also shouldered half of the emperor's court costs. The economic contact was regulated by a customs and trade alliance, which was renegotiated at certain intervals. This was intended to coordinate matters such as the development of the railroad network or shipping.

The resulting state structure was viewed in different ways by both sides. The Hungarian politician Albert Graf Apponyi made this clear in 1931: "In the Hungarian mind, Austria-Hungary was a confederation, in Austria a federal state". Due to the legal formulation, arguments could be found for both views. For example, there was a foreign policy that corresponded to the interests of both parts of the state; on the other hand, both Hungarians and Austrians had their own citizenship.

Even after the compromise, Hungary sought further independence from the rest of the empire. The common army in particular was a thorn in the side of Hungarian politics and was considered a symbol of the old absolutist oppression. The gradual changes in the title of common institutions were symbolic of Hungary's emancipation. In Hungary, for example, the term “Reich” was not used in official documents. The common coat of arms was also changed after a long dispute. In 1804, the double-headed eagle was still a symbol for the entire empire, but in 1915 it was only used as a state symbol for the now officially titled “Austria”.

Despite these separatist developments within the dual monarchy, the empire lasted until the end of the First World War . With the peace treaties of 1919/1920 , the German-Austrian and Hungarian-dominated Habsburg monarchy was dissolved and the end of the multi-ethnic state was sealed. Both Austria and Hungary suffered major territorial losses and were now two independent states.

Between World War I and World War II

From 1918 to 1938, relations between Austria and Hungary were constantly overshadowed by major European power issues: the Paris suburb treaties and their revision, the Burgenland / West Hungary question , the Habsburg restoration and the dispute between the democratic and authoritarian systems of rule influenced foreign policy relations with one another.

Both the Republic of Austria and the Hungarian Soviet Republic , both of which were considered the successor states of the Austro-Hungarian dual monarchy, were among the losers of the First World War and suffered major territorial losses as a result of the peace treaties. When the Republic of Austria asserted territorial claims to the German-speaking areas in western Hungary, this had an extremely negative effect on the bilateral relations between the two states. In Burgenland there were major riots by rioters until the Hungarian army marched in. Only a referendum recognized under international law on the area around Ödenburg / Sopron could calm the situation down again.

When the Soviet republic was overthrown in Hungary and the kingdom was proclaimed, this put a strain on relations with Austria, which granted asylum to many of the communist functionaries who had fled. Hungary officially handed Burgenland over to Austria in 1921, and relations slowly eased. With the establishment of the corporate state in Austria in 1934, the intergovernmental relationship between the two authoritarian states improved. In view of the aggressive German foreign policy in the course of the 1930s, however, the Hungarian observers did not believe that Austria would continue to exist as a sovereign state in the long term.

The year 1938, World War II and the post-war period

The situation around the possible annexation of Austria to the German Reich was an internationally discussed topic in 1938, which also had an impact on relations with Hungary. The Hungarian Legation Council closely observed developments between Germany and Austria. The political constellation around the Berchtesgaden Agreement , in retrospect announcing the “Anschluss” of Austria, negotiated on February 12, 1938 between Adolf Hitler and Kurt Schuschnigg , was judged to be tense, but not yet classified as a threat to Austria's sovereignty. From the point of view of the Hungarian Legation Council, the situation was still not fully clarified.

Just a few weeks later, the "Anschluss" was completed and with it also the "Synchronization of Austria" with the German Reich. Austria no longer existed, so relations with Hungary were now organized through central offices of the German Reich. The Hungarian embassy in Vienna was converted into a consulate general and staffed with new diplomats, consular officers and officials. These were specially delegated from Budapest by the National Socialists.

The Hungarian Foreign Minister Kálmán Kánya summarized a few weeks later that the “Anschluss” of Austria was only a matter of time. Hungary had diplomatically held back on this matter for several reasons: The follow-up question was not a matter for Hungary. In addition, it did not have the necessary means of influencing the intervention. In addition, the Hungarian government assumed that interference would not have been positively received by either Germany or Austria.

Eduard Baar-Baarenfels was one of the last diplomats to represent Austria in Hungary until the resumption of bilateral relations after the end of the Second World War. From November 1936 to March 1938 he was envoy to Budapest. After the synchronization of Austria had been initiated, Baar-Baarenfels was removed from office, initially retired and later arrested.

After Austria was "annexed" to the German Reich in March 1938, there were no official bilateral relations between Austria and Hungary. The first official contact with Hungary from the new area of ​​the Ostmark (later the Alpine and Danube Reichsgaue ), the Nazi designation for Austria, related to financial and trade matters.

Immediately after the end of the Second World War in Europe in May 1945, the first unofficial contacts between former Hungarian consular officers in Vienna and Austrian authorities took place. These concerned the return of properties and refugee issues. A few months later, an agreement was reached on compensation payments from Hungary to Austria in the form of coal, as there was a shortage of heating materials in Austria.

The trade sector was a crucial driving force for the resumption of bilateral relations between Austria and Hungary after the Second World War. In this area, however, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and not the Ministry of Commerce was primarily responsible for negotiations and contact with Hungary in the period from 1945 to 1949 . The reciprocal movement of goods developed only slowly at first, despite mutual efforts, immediately after the end of the Second World War. In autumn 1946 it was finally decided to send a trade delegation from Austria to Hungary to start negotiations. In December 1946, the first Austro-Hungarian trade agreement after the Second World War was concluded: an exchange of goods and a payment agreement. Negotiations were resumed in the summer of 1947, which resulted in a further trade agreement in September 1948. This primarily concerned the exchange of Hungarian food for Austrian industrial products.

At the non-commercial level, the first attempts at making contact were somewhat different. Starting in Vienna in August 1945, the committee of the Hungarian Red Cross resumed its work in the Hungarian embassy building in Bankgasse as the first official body . A short time later, an official from the Hungarian Foreign Ministry also traveled to Vienna. He should look for ways to initiate semi-official relations between Austria and Hungary. Due to the political situation and the military occupation of the two countries, similar to the trade relations, only very slow developments were initially possible. The diplomatic mission of Hungary in Vienna in November 1945 still had the title “Royal Hungarian Consulate General, in the process of dissolution”. Nevertheless, the Ministerialrat Ödon Kriváchy was de facto, albeit not officially, perceived as a representative of Hungary and was accordingly received by the Austrian Federal President on January 4, 1946 .

In May 1946 the diplomat László Bartók came to Vienna with the order to dissolve the Consulate General. In June of the same year he was appointed head of the Vienna diplomatic mission abroad. At that time, however, this did not yet have official diplomatic status. Nevertheless, during his one-year term in office, he largely rebuilt the diplomatic mission abroad and established diverse relationships. In the summer of 1947, due to political events in Hungary, Bartók had to leave his post in Vienna after only one year in office. The legation secretary József Garzuly became provisional successor .

Starting from Hungary, the first official trip of an Austrian diplomat to the neighboring country after the end of the Second World War took place on January 12, 1946. It was carried out by Legation Councilor Rudolf Seemann . At that time there was already an “Austrian Aid Office” in Budapest as an institutional contact point, but this was not an official authority. Accordingly, Seemann emphasized that the applications of the auxiliary office could not be considered as applications of the Austrian government and that the auxiliary office did not have authorizations. Seemann was supposed to plan the visit of the Austrian Foreign Minister during his business trip and discuss the organization of the resumption of diplomatic relations.

In addition to the recognition of the Republic of Austria by Hungary, there was another hurdle on the way to re-establishing the official diplomacy between the two countries: The Second Control Agreement of June 1946 said that the approval of the Allied Council in Vienna was necessary to establish diplomatic relations with To include countries that were not part of the United Nations . This affected Hungary, which was only accepted into the world organization in 1955.

It was not until January 18, 1947 that Hungary recognized the Republic of Austria. Shortly afterwards, the offices in Vienna and Budapest were also converted into “political representations”. In agreement with the Allies, Manfred Falser was transformed from an unofficial to an official “political representative” of Austria in Hungary, and the official bilateral relations between the two countries were restored after a decade of interruption.

The situation deteriorated rapidly when the Hungarian communists came to power in 1948.

During the cold war

Imre Nagy

János Kádár (1962)

The conflict between the Western powers under the leadership of the United States of America and the Eastern Bloc under the leadership of the Soviet Union , which lasted from 1947 to 1989 and was carried out by almost all means, also had far-reaching consequences for Austro-Hungarian relations. Due to the Treaty of Yalta , Hungary came under Soviet influence, which was strengthened by the constitution of August 20, 1949 based on the Soviet model. The bilateral relations changed with the signing of the Austrian State Treaty in May 1955. This event was undoubtedly one of the most significant results of the international thaw after Stalin's death on an international level .

Until the bloody popular uprising in 1956 , Hungary followed a Stalinist course under Mátyás Rákosi . However, the ensuing uprising was brutally suppressed by the Soviet military, Imre Nagy was executed and János Kádár was appointed prime minister. As a result of the invasion of Soviet troops in 1956/1957, around 180,000 people fled Hungary across the Burgenland border to Austria within a few weeks. This meant that the Austrian Armed Forces had to pass the first practical test almost a year after it was founded, by having to look after refugees and secure the border against Soviet soldiers. The UNHCR was able to take 84,000 Hungarian refugees from post-war Austria and bring them to countries of resettlement within eight weeks. The USA, Canada and some Western European countries took in the majority of the refugees, only just under 18,000 Hungarians stayed in Austria.

The Cold War was significant for Austria because the small country was a focal point and plaything of the East-West conflict due to its strategic location “between the blocs”, especially due to the borders with Hungary and Czechoslovakia . As early as the summer of 1948, the construction of the Iron Curtain on the Burgenland-Hungarian border had begun, a border protection system of the communist countries. This structural separation of the liberal democracies of Western Europe from the communist countries of Eastern Europe existed until the revolutions of 1989. This technical barrier system consisted of barbed wire fences, watchtowers, a five-meter-wide strip of meadows and a minefield directly in front of the Austrian border . With the death of Stalin in 1953 and the subsequent change of power in the Soviet leadership, there was a spirit of optimism in the satellite states. After Khrushchev's settlement with Stalinism , the bilateral relationship between Austria and Hungary also improved. During this phase, Hungary made a surprise announcement that it would remove the Iron Curtain, but this was not actually carried out until 1989. The official start of dismantling was announced on May 2, 1989 at an international press conference in Hegyeshalom in front of around two hundred domestic and foreign journalists. In the summer of 1989, Hungary opened the no longer strictly monitored border with Austria for a few hours as part of the Pan-European Picnic and enabled around 600 to 700 GDR citizens to flee to Western Europe. This accelerated the ongoing process of disintegration of the Warsaw Pact and contributed to the destabilization of the GDR.

Since 1989

Austria endeavored much earlier in various ways to pursue a policy of détente; B. in the CSCE , which should improve the relations between East and West in Europe. Regional policy in the eastern Austrian border areas was particularly important, as new economic and social opportunities for growth and economic development had been set as the goal.

The opening of the Hungarian borders with Austria in 1989 led to relations with Austria being revived on many levels. In 1989 Austria helped to simplify the development of the Eastern states of Europe into market economies by providing economic aid . At the end of the same year, Austria, Italy , Hungary and Yugoslavia launched an initiative , the so-called Quadragonale, whereby an agreement was reached on cooperation that would go beyond borders and bring Europe closer together and was further developed into the Central European Initiative .

In 1995 Austria became part of the EU and thus also of the Schengen Agreement . Hungary joined the EU in May 2004 and became a member of the Schengen Agreement in 2007, bringing the two countries even closer together.

Since then, diplomatic relations between the two countries have been intensified in all areas, also because Austria is one of the most important import and export countries for Hungary. The two states share many interests and aspirations, which is why they often collude and adapt their positions at European level. The "diplomatic and consular cooperation" was also intensified. B. in the mutual representation of Austria and Hungary when issuing Schengen visas in the absence of one of the two countries in other countries.

2015 refugee crisis

Refugees wait at Budapest Central Station for an onward journey

The so-called refugee crisis preoccupied the neighboring states of Austria and Hungary intensively from 2015. The two countries are dealing with the situation very differently. Hungary in particular was heavily criticized by Austria, but also internationally, for its refugee policy. The Hungarians are particularly accused of inhuman treatment of refugees.

At the beginning of September 2015 the situation at the border between Austria and Hungary came to a head. On September 3, 2015, the Hungarian police stopped trains heading west with the plan to take the refugees to a refugee camp without their consent or knowledge. On the following day, September 4, 2015, after trains had been canceled and the refugees were prevented from continuing their journey, thousands of people set out on foot to the Austrian border, which is more than 170 kilometers away. On the autobahn they marched towards Austria, led by a man carrying the EU flag. Compared to Hungary, Austria supported the refugees by providing trains waiting directly at the borders for onward travel. However, not all refugees set out on foot; many came to Vienna by other means of transport or stayed at the train station in Budapest . There there was a conflict with right-wing radical hooligans , which the police quickly ended.

In order to get the situation under control, Austria has tightened the border controls to the Hungarian border. But the positions of Austria and Hungary are not only contrary: Hungary made it clear in February 2016 that it supports Austria with regard to the closure of the so-called "closure of the Balkan route". These included that refugees arriving via Greece should be stopped by police officers and soldiers at the border with Macedonia .

Foreign cultural relations

Logo Austrian Culture Forum

The Austrian Foreign Ministry describes bilateral relations between Austria and Hungary as "excellent". They consist of extensive contacts and collaborations at all levels, from city and community partnerships to university collaborations. An Austrian cultural institute was founded in Budapest in 1977 and renamed the Austrian Cultural Forum in 2001 . This is an institution of the Austrian Foreign Ministry that wants to create a platform for cultural contacts between Hungary and Austria and those “culturally interested from all over the world”. The Austrian Cultural Forum Budapest offers, among other things, exhibitions, concerts and film programs, most of which are designed in collaboration with Hungarian museums, galleries, concert halls, art house cinemas and Austrian schools. In presenting the Austrian cultural forums, the Austrian Foreign Ministry endeavors to present Vienna as the center of international dialogue. Reference is made to the diverse history and the UN City of Vienna.

The relations between Hungary and Austria are also represented by more than 40 town and community partnerships. In addition, there are four university partnerships in the education sector and the “Austria-Hungary campaign”, which oversees around 150 scientific and cultural projects. It was founded in 1990 by the Austrian Ministry of Science, Research and Economy and the Hungarian Ministry of Education. Funding includes joint projects, research stays, summer language schools for both languages ​​and grants. In addition, the issuing of teaching aids and publications will become the results of activities funded by the action.

There is also the Austro-Hungarian Society, which acts as a "non-partisan friendship society" for good relationships and the interests of the respective minorities .

Economic relations

Habsburg Monarchy

During the dual monarchy, Austria and Hungary had a coordinated economic area that was differently developed both linguistically and economically. The economic and social structure of Cisleithania was comparable to that of Western Europe, whereas Transleithania had a more traditional and rural economic and social structure. In both halves of the empire there was strong rural exodus, and massive social problems were faced, which were made even more difficult by the language differences.

In 1850, a law came into force that eliminated tariffs within the monarchy , which had a positive impact on trade. The largest purchaser of Hungarian products was Austria. Hungary did 76% of the trade with Austria, the other way around it was only 37%. In mining, Austria was way ahead of Hungary due to its more modern technology. Since this economic sector was crucial for industrial development, Hungary tried to make up this deficit. In spite of all this, the focus of industrial activity in the empire was clearly Austria. In the area of transport , a joint rapid expansion of the railway network and shipping was sought , although there was great competition here within the monarchy. Austria had the upper hand in finances, with Hungary seeing itself as the beneficiary and benefiting from it. Austria had better relations with the western banks, which compared to the Austro-Hungarian banks had better financial strength.

After the First World War

After the dissolution of the dual monarchy, Austria and Hungary became separate economic areas. Austria's economy fared better insofar as the industrial areas were in Austria and Hungary primarily had agriculture as an economic branch. Due to the collapse of the empire, the Austrians lacked buyers for industrial products and Hungary's most important export partner for agricultural products fell away. This led to rapid overproduction, which culminated in massive inflation in both countries.

After the Second World War, the two countries had little economic contact, as Austria benefited from the Marshall Plan and Hungary's economy was promoted by the Council for Mutual Economic Aid initiated by the USSR . This economic aid ultimately contributed to Austria and Hungary taking over the economic systems of their supporters. Due to the east-west policy, the two countries were isolated from each other in the following decades, one of the few things in common was the mutual economic use of the Danube as a traffic and transport route. The situation was different when it came to road use, as many roads were no longer accessible or blocked due to the iron curtain. Rail traffic did not work smoothly either, as all of the former routes passed through Budapest.

In addition, there were now high customs costs, which curbed trade between Austria and Hungary even more. While Austria imported goods worth 131.7 million schillings to Hungary in 1937 , in 1958 it was already goods worth 1,210.4 million schillings. In 1937 Austria exported goods from Hungary to the value of 111.9 million schillings, in 1958 exports totaled 838.1 million schillings. As early as 1955, Hungary was only handling 4.8% of imports and exports with Austria.

From the fall of the Iron Curtain

From 1989/1990 the economic relations between the two countries developed very dynamically and a brisk foreign trade followed. Since the 1990s, Hungary has been the most important investment location in Central and Eastern Europe for Austria alongside the Czech Republic . Since then, Austria has already invested over 8 billion euros in Hungary as a business location. The construction, paper and automotive industries are particularly important, as is real estate trading and brick and sugar production. Other important sectors are the retail and financial sectors and the service sector in general. Conversely, Hungary invested heavily in Austria in the IT and transport sectors. In general, foreign trade developed positively in both countries up to the economic crisis in 2008 and an increase has been observed again since 2010. In 2014 Austria exported 4.3 billion euros to Hungary, the other way around it was 3.8 billion euros. Most of the exports between Austria and Hungary concern the same products. This results from the interdependence of many companies, from which it can be concluded that there are economic relations between two highly developed economies.

literature

• Klaus Fiesinger: Ballhausplatz Diplomacy 1945–1949. Re-establishment of the neighborhood relations and reorganization of the Foreign Service as forms of foreign policy re-emancipation of Austria (= tuduv studies: series of political sciences. Volume 60). tuduv-Verlag, Munich 1993.
• József Galántai: The Austro-Hungarian dualism 1867–1918. Budapest 1985.
• Peter Haslinger: A hundred years of neighborhood. Relations between Austria and Hungary 1895–1994.
• Karen Henning, Sandra Lakitsch: The bilateral foreign and cultural policy relations between Austria and Hungary since 1989. Diploma thesis, University of Vienna 1996.
• Richard Lein: From interstate conflict to bilateral understanding. The Burgendland question and its role in Austro-Hungarian relations. In: Csaba Szabo (Ed.): Austria and Hungary in the 20th Century. Institute for Hungarian Historical Research, Vienna 2014.
• Werner Link: The East-West Conflict: The Organization of International Relations in the 20th Century. 2., revised. u. exp. Ed., Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1988.
• Walter Rauscher: The foreign policy relations between Austria and Hungary in the interwar period. In: The institutional legacy of the monarchy - the survival of the common past in the archives. Berger, Vienna / Horn 1998.

Web links

Commons : Austro-Hungarian relations  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

1. ^ Karin Olechowski-Hrdlicka: The common affairs of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Frankfurt am Main 2001, p. 51.
2. ↑ ^{a b} Karin Olechowski-Hrdlicka: The common affairs of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Frankfurt am Main 2001, pp. 52-54.
3. ↑ Hans Peter Heye: 1848/49 - The turn of the Habsburg monarchy. Vienna 2007, p. 17.
4. ^ Karin Olechowski-Hrdlicka: The common affairs of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Frankfurt am Main 2001, p. 125.
5. ↑ József Galántai: The Austro-Hungarian dualism 1867-1918. Budapest 1985, p. 41.
6. ↑ József Galántai: The Austro-Hungarian dualism 1867-1918. Budapest 1985, p. 51.
7. ↑ József Galántai: The Austro-Hungarian dualism 1867-1918. Budapest 1985, pp. 55-58.
8. ^ Peter Haslinger: One hundred years of neighborhood. Relations between Austria and Hungary 1895–1994. Frankfurt am Main 1996, p. 5.
9. ↑ József Galántai: The Austro-Hungarian dualism 1867-1918. Budapest 1985, pp. 69-70.
10. ^ Peter Haslinger: One hundred years of neighborhood. Relations between Austria and Hungary 1895–1994. Frankfurt am Main 1996, pp. 9-11.
11. ↑ József Galántai: The Austro-Hungarian dualism from 1867 to 1918. Budapest 1985, p. 165.
12. ^ ^{A b} Walter Rauscher: The foreign policy relations between Austria and Hungary in the interwar period. In: The institutional legacy of the monarchy - the survival of the common past in the archives. Berger, Wien / Horn 1998, ISBN 3-85028-307-0 , pp. 37-45.
13. ↑ Richard Lein: From interstate conflict to bilateral understanding. The Burgendland question and its role in Austro-Hungarian relations. In: Csaba Szabo (Ed.): Austria and Hungary in the 20th Century Institute for Hungarian Historical Research , Vienna 2014, ISBN 978-615-5389-32-0 , pp. 111-131.
14. ↑ Ibolya Murber: Hungary and the annexation of Austria in the interwar period. Analysis attempt based on legation files (PDF). In: Kakanien revisited , November 11, 2008, p. 8, accessed on March 18, 2016.
15. ↑ ^{a b c} Ibolya Murber: Hungary and the Anschluss of Austria in the interwar period. Analysis attempt based on legation files (PDF). In: Kakanien revisited , November 11, 2008, p. 9, accessed on March 18, 2016.
16. ↑ ^{a b c} Lajos Gecsényi: The Hungarian Embassy in Vienna (After 1945) . In: Academia , 2012, accessed March 18, 2016.
17. ^ Isabella Ackerl, Friedrich Weissensteiner: Eduard Baar-Baarenfels . In: Austrian Personal Lexicon of the First and Second Republic . Ueberreuter, Vienna 1992, August 28, 2015, accessed on March 19, 2016 (available from Austria-forum ).
18. ^ Klaus Fiesinger: Ballhausplatz-Diplomacy 1945-1949. Re-establishment of the neighborhood relations and reorganization of the Foreign Service as forms of foreign policy re-emancipation of Austria (= tuduv studies: series of political sciences. Volume 60). tuduv-Verlag, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-88073-466-6 , p. 301.
19. ↑ ^{a b c} Lajos Gecsényi: At the border of two power blocs. On Hungarian-Austrian relations 1945–1965 . In: Hungary Yearbook. Journal for Interdisciplinary Hungarology , Volume 27, 2004, p. 270.
20. ^ Klaus Fiesinger: Ballhausplatz-Diplomacy 1945-1949. Re-establishment of the neighborhood relations and reorganization of the Foreign Service as forms of foreign policy re-emancipation of Austria (= tuduv studies: series of political sciences. Volume 60). tuduv-Verlag, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-88073-466-6 , pp. 315-317.
21. ^ Klaus Fiesinger: Ballhausplatz-Diplomacy 1945-1949. Re-establishment of the neighborhood relations and reorganization of the Foreign Service as forms of foreign policy re-emancipation of Austria (= tuduv studies: series of political sciences. Volume 60). tuduv-Verlag, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-88073-466-6 , p. 319.
22. ↑ Oliver Rathkolb: The Austrian "Ostpolitik" towards Hungary. In: Oliver Rathkolb, Zoltán Maruzsa, István Majoros (eds.): Austria and Hungary in the Cold War. ELTE University Budapest, Vienna / Budapest 2010, ISBN 978-3-200-01910-2 , p. 211.
23. ^ Klaus Fiesinger: Ballhausplatz-Diplomacy 1945-1949. Re-establishment of the neighborhood relations and reorganization of the Foreign Service as forms of foreign policy re-emancipation of Austria (= tuduv studies: series of political sciences. Volume 60). tuduv-Verlag, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-88073-466-6 , p. 323.
24. ↑ ^{a b} Austrian Embassy Budapest: History of Diplomatic Relations ( Memento from July 29, 2012 in the web archive archive.today ). Federal Ministry for Europe, Integration and Foreign Affairs, accessed on March 19, 2016.
25. ^ Artur Kremsner: Austria in Hungary - Pictures of a Neighborhood . In: Oliver Rathkolb, Otto Maschke, Stefan August Lütgenau (eds.): Seen with different eyes. International perceptions of Austria 1955 - 1990. History of the Austrian federal states since 1945 . Special volume 2. (= Austrian national history after 1945. Series of publications by the Research Institute for Political and Historical Studies of the Dr. Wilfried Haslauer Library, Salzburg . Volume 2). Böhlau Verlag, Vienna / Cologne / Weimar 2002, ISBN 3-205-99105-2 , p. 577.
26. ↑ Oliver Rathkolb: The Austrian "Ostpolitik" towards Hungary. In: Oliver Rathkolb, Zoltán Maruzsa, István Majoros (eds.): Austria and Hungary in the Cold War. ELTE University Budapest, Vienna / Budapest 2010, ISBN 978-3-200-01910-2 , p. 212.
27. ↑ Werner Link: The East-West Conflict: The Organization of International Relations in the 20th Century. 2., revised. u. exp. Edition. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1988, pp. 122-123.
28. ^ János M. Rainer: Imre Nagy. From party soldier to martyr of the Hungarian uprising. A political biography 1896–1958. Paderborn 2006, p. 95.
29. ^ Hungarian crisis 1956. Austrian Red Cross, accessed on April 30, 2016.
30. ↑ Dieter Szorger: No limit like any other. Burgenland and the Iron Curtain in the years 1945–1957 . In: From Dream to Trauma. The Hungarian Uprising in 1956. Volume accompanying the exhibition, WAB 116, Eisenstadt 2006, pp. 64–65.
31. ↑ Jósef Révész: Border Guard and Refugee Affairs 1956–1989 . In: From Dream to Trauma. The Hungarian Uprising, 1956. Volume accompanying the exhibition, WAB 116, Eisenstadt 2006, pp. 132–133.
32. ↑ From Politics and Contemporary History - Hungary. Federal Agency for Civic Education, accessed on April 30, 2016.
33. ↑ Karen Henning, Sandra Lakitsch: The bilateral foreign and cultural policy relations between Austria and Hungary since 1989. Vienna 1996, p. 127.
34. ↑ Karen Henning, Sandra Lakitsch: The bilateral foreign and cultural policy relations between Austria and Hungary since 1989. Vienna 1996, p. 129.
35. ^ Hungary . Communication department of the European Commission, accessed on April 29, 2016.
36. ↑ ^{a b c} Austrian-Hungarian relations ( Memento from May 22, 2011 in the Internet Archive ). Federal Ministry for Europe, Integration and Foreign Affairs, accessed on April 29, 2016.
37. ^ Allegations against Orban. . In: orf.at , accessed April 30, 2016.
38. ↑ Austria tightened controls on Hungary's border. ( Memento from September 1, 2015 in the Internet Archive ). In: Wirtschaftsblatt , accessed on June 13, 2016.
39. ↑ EU meeting: Austria and Hungary put Athens under pressure in the refugee crisis. . In: derstandard.at , accessed on April 30, 2016.
40. ^ The Budapest Cultural Forum . Federal Ministry for Europe, Integration and Foreign Affairs, accessed on April 15, 2016.
41. ^ Vienna as the center of international dialogue (PDF). Federal Ministry for Europe, Integration and Foreign Affairs, accessed on April 15, 2016.
42. ^ The Austria-Hungary campaign ( Memento from April 14, 2016 in the Internet Archive ). Action Austria-Hungary Foundation, accessed on April 26, 2016.
43. ^ Society. ( Memento of the original from September 6, 2018 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved April 26, 2016. 
44. ^ The First World War: Austria-Hungary 1914 . Austrian media library, accessed on June 5, 2016.
45. ↑ Hermes: Hungarian General Exchange Office AG: Austria - Hungaria . In: Journal for cultural exchange, for economy and travel in Austria and Hungary. Volume 1, Vienna 1936, p. 27.
46. ^ Herma Breisach: Basic features of the economic development of Austria-Hungary 1904–1914. Dissertation University of Vienna 1950, pp. 200–204.
47. ↑ Peter Eigelsberger: Are the successor states of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy still economically complementary . Dissertation, University of Vienna 1960, p. 265.
48. ^ Herma Breisach: Basic features of the economic development of Austria-Hungary 1904–1914. Dissertation, University of Vienna 1950, pp. 201–202.
49. ^ Herma Breisach: Basic features of the economic development of Austria-Hungary 1904–1914. Dissertation, University of Vienna 1950, pp. 203–204.
50. ^ Herma Breisach: Basic features of the economic development of Austria-Hungary 1904–1914. Dissertation, University of Vienna 1950, pp. 204–205.
51. ↑ Peter Eigelsberger: Are the successor states of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy still economically complementary. Dissertation, University of Vienna 1960, pp. 264–278.
52. ↑ Peter Eigelsberger: Are the successor states of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy still economically complementary. Dissertation, University of Vienna 1960, pp. 259–260.
53. ↑ Peter Eigelsberger: Are the successor states of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy still economically complementary. Dissertation University of Vienna 1960, p. 195.
54. ^ Economic relations between Austria and Hungary ( Memento from May 22, 2011 in the Internet Archive ). Federal Ministry for Europe, Integration and Foreign Affairs, accessed on June 5, 2016.