Austrian-Czechoslovak relations

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The division of Austria-Hungary after the First World War

The Austrian-Czechoslovakian relations began after the dissolution of the Habsburg monarchy in 1918. The areas of Czechoslovakia , like today's Austria, had previously been part of this multi-ethnic state. As a result, political relations rarely proved to be free of tension. Particularly in the period after the Second World War, aspects such as the expulsion of the Sudeten Germans , territorial claims and the increasing ideological polarization that culminated in the Cold War put a lasting strain on the relationship between Austria and Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia disintegrated in 1992 and two independent states have existed on the former territory since January 1, 1993, the Czech Republic and Slovakia .

prehistory

The political relations between the ruling house of Habsburg-Lothringen and the Imperial and Royal Empire from 1867 onwards to the part of the Bohemian Lands before 1918 were shaped by the attempts at autonomy of the Czech population and the associated restructuring of the administration of the Habsburg Empire in the 19th century. The countries of the Bohemian Crown included Bohemia , Moravia and Austrian Silesia .

Revolution 1848/1849

František Palacký, lithograph by Adolf Dauthage (1855)

Parallel to the revolution of 1848/1849 in Vienna , there were also several uprisings and demonstrations in Prague , supported by the Czech petty bourgeoisie and radical groups such as the Repeal Club (“Repealists”). The demands made on the central power in Vienna concerned the abolition of feudal burdens such as compulsory labor and ransom, equality of the German and Czech languages ​​in schools, the reform of wage labor and greater autonomy for the Bohemian countries. At the Reichstag in Kremsier , the Czech historian and politician František Palacký , a member of the Austrian parliament, tried to convey the national aspirations of the Czechs to the central power. The dissolution of the Kremsier Reichstag on March 7, 1849, forced by the Schwarzenberg government , and the introduction of a centralized constitution resulted in these efforts being abandoned and the nationality question remained unsolved from the Czech point of view. The basic structures of the Czech national movement, however, continued to exist.

Austro-Hungarian compensation and its effects on the Bohemian countries

Contrary to the federalist demands of Palacký, the December constitution instructed by the emperor in 1867 led to a substantial strengthening of the German language, although the equality of all national languages ​​in offices and in public life was guaranteed, which should enable independent cultural autonomy and development. Nevertheless, German remained the dominant official language. On the other hand, there was a centralization of universities, passports and infrastructural institutions, which were then under the direct control of Vienna's central power, the crown. The predominance of the Germans and the settlement with Hungary in 1867 shifted the position of Czech affairs to the political sidelines. The Czech attempt at reconciliation of 1868, the Bohemian Declaration , was considered a central point of reference for the Czech political elite in the course of intensifying efforts to achieve autonomy. Under Ladislav Rieger's leadership , the Czechs demanded a settlement in the style of that with Hungary in order to be recognized as a state nation. However, this initiative failed. The tensions that arose parallel to the Czech autonomy movement continued until 1918.

Development from 1897 to 1914

Count Kasimir Badeni , Austrian Prime Minister, tried to improve the position of Czech in 1897 and issued the Baden language ordinance . The subsequent so-called Badeni crisis led to violent demonstrations in Vienna and Prague, whereupon the government resigned. The language ordinance was repealed in 1899. In 1911 the Bohemian Landtag was dissolved and political contacts between the representatives of the Czechs and Germans or between Bohemia and Moravia and the Imperial and Royal Central Power in Vienna came to a standstill.

First World War

As a result of the high losses in the Czech regiments at the front and due to the waning enthusiasm for the war, there were mass desertions of Czech troops in April 1915. Czech nationalists saw the war as an increasing rapprochement with Germany and a strengthening of German nationalism, which would bring the Czechs into an existential need. In nationalist Czech circles, for example, in the middle of the First World War, the destruction of the Danube monarchy by the Triple Entente was considered, which would result in the independence of the Czech Republic. In the event of a victory for the Central Powers, autonomy within the imperial territory should be sought. In 1916, the death of Emperor Franz Joseph and the successor to Charles I led to a cautious reorientation. Despite the Imperial Manifesto of October 16, 1918, with which the Austrian half of the empire was to be converted into a federal state with far-reaching autonomy for the individual nationalities, the monarchy fell apart. On October 28, 1918, the Czech-Slovak state was proclaimed.

History from 1918 to 1992

From the establishment of Czechoslovakia to the Munich Agreement

Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (1925)

The recognition of the Československá republika (ČSR) was written into the treaties of Saint-Germain and Trianon . The philosopher Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk was elected as the first president of the new republic . The new borders that were created in 1919 gave rise to economic difficulties as important transport networks, for example the Northern Railway, which led to Czechoslovakia, were cut up. Due to the locking of the borders, Austria had to import the sugar from countries like Cuba and Java , while Czechoslovakia exported to the USA. Austria then moved its foreign trade to Western and Central Europe. So Czechoslovakia was able to survive the economically difficult years and even received a new upswing, which represented a counterpoint to the considerable inflation in Austria and Germany. The kroner banknotes that had been used in the monarchy were abolished in 1919 and replaced by the stable Czechoslovak krona .

In December 1921, Czechoslovakia and Austria signed the Treaty of Lana , in which neutrality was agreed if one of the states were to be attacked by a third country. However, this contract lost its validity in 1927 and was replaced by an arbitration and reconciliation agreement in 1926.

The 1929 stock market crash reached Czechoslovakia late, but with effect. Between 1928 and 1932 exports fell from CZK 21.2 billion to CZK 7.4 billion and reached their low point in 1932 at CZK 5.8 billion. In 1930/1931 there were numerous mass layoffs due to plant closures. An attempt was made to improve the tense situation in the country by increasing unemployment benefits.

One underestimated the disaffection of the Sudeten Germans, which increased steadily from 1930 onwards. In 1936, Federal Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg tried to find a result with the little Entente and to bring new positive impulses to the clouded Czechoslovakian-Austrian relationship. In the years that followed, the Sudeten German Party (SdP) continued to expand, until in March 1938 Adolf Hitler ordered the chairman of the Sudeten German Party, Konrad Henlein , to make demands on the Czechoslovak government that it could not possibly meet. On April 24, 1938, Henlein passed the Karlovy Vary Program , which called for equality with the Czech people.

In the Munich Agreement of September 30, 1938, France, Great Britain, Germany and fascist Italy decided that the Sudeten German territories would be ceded to the German Reich . Czechoslovakia was not involved in this agreement. The entry of the Wehrmacht into the border areas took place on October 1, 1938 in order to annex the Sudetenland.

Occupation of Czechoslovakia and World War II

Map of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

In 1938 Austria was incorporated into the German Reich as part of the " Anschluss ". In the same year, the Upper Danube and Lower Danube Gaue, established on formerly Austrian territory, made significant territorial gains at the expense of Czechoslovakia as part of the Munich Agreement. The cities of Znojmo , Mikulov and Břeclav , among others , came to Lower Danube and were from then on administered from the Gau capital Krems . Upper Danube also made territorial gains with Český Krumlov . In total, over 4,000 km² and around 350,000 inhabitants fell to the two “Austrian” districts in this way.

When the German Reich broke the Munich Agreement in March 1939 and completely occupied Czechoslovakia, the Wehrmacht was set on the march from “Austrian” areas, among other places. After the occupation, Czechoslovakia ceased to exist. From then on the territory was run as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia . In addition to Germans, Austrians were also employed in the administration of this area. Subsequently, the Gauleiter of Upper and Lower Danube were responsible for internal party affairs of the NSDAP in parts of the Protectorate area.

Post War and Cold War

New beginning after the war

Even before the provisional state government officially took office on April 27, 1945, former Austrian diplomats under the direction of Heinrich Wildner began laying the first foundations for the re-establishment of an Austrian diplomatic service at Ballhausplatz. This was initially subordinate to the Federal Chancellery ; it was not until 1959 that the Ministry of Foreign Affairs became independent again. The first central area of ​​activity of the foreign service was the endeavor to reach a state treaty that was primarily intended to confirm the borders of Austria before the "annexation" to Nazi Germany. Among other things, there were the first points of conflict with Czechoslovakia, which wanted border changes on the Danube and March .

Building bilateral relationships
Austrian Embassy in Prague

The last Austrian envoy before the Anschluss, Ferdinand Marek , stayed with his family in Czechoslovakia in 1938 and survived the war in Prague. Immediately after the end of the war, the Prague National Committee approved the resumption of the activities of the Austrian embassy in Prague . But after just a few days, Marek was arrested by the Soviet troops on charges of having served as an informant for the Gestapo . He died in custody in Moscow in 1947. After the fall of the Soviet Union , Marek was formally rehabilitated by the Russian authorities.

After Marek's arrest, Alois Vollgruber took over the management of the embassy in Prague, while Friedrich Lenhardt was the representative of the “State Office Slovakia” in Bratislava . On July 31, 1945, the Austrian State Chancellor Karl Renner announced in a meeting that Czechoslovakia would also send a diplomat to Vienna with František Count Bořek-Dohalský . The bilateral relations were officially restored a few months after the end of the war.

The building at Jungmannova 9, now Viktora Huga 10, which was already used for this purpose in the First Republic , was reactivated as the seat of the Austrian embassy in Prague . The first provisional seat of the office was also installed in Bratislava at the private address of Friedrich Lenhardt, who worked with Paul Meyerberg , Franz Chovanec and Karl Rajnoch on this point.

On November 13, 1945, the Czechoslovak Council of Ministers decided to recognize the provisional state government and to officially exchange diplomats. In December 1945 the first official foreign visit by an Austrian member of the government took place in Prague. Foreign Minister Karl Gruber met President Edvard Beneš . In the course of this visit, an agreement was signed that provided for the supply of raw materials, semi-finished and finished goods from Austria in return for supplies of food and raw materials from Czechoslovakia.

As a result, the relations between the two states were strained, among other things by the different ideological orientations that began to crystallize. While a multi-party system developed in Austria in which the communists increasingly fell behind, in Czechoslovakia with the February revolution in 1948 a Soviet-style communist system was installed.

Expulsion of the Sudeten Germans
Edvard Beneš

In 1945 the so-called Beneš decrees were issued. The decrees were supposed to make it possible to confiscate German property, expropriate agricultural property, deprive Germans of Czechoslovak citizenship and finally legitimize the internment of these people in labor camps. As a result, around 2.5 million Germans had been resettled by July 1946.

Thus, it was above all pragmatic circumstances that prompted the establishment of a representative authority for Austria in today's Slovak capital, since the aim was to devote itself to the expulsion and expropriation of the German-speaking population on Slovak territory. Relations were further strained by the expulsion of the Sudeten Germans from Czechoslovakia , as 130,000 Sudeten Germans had come to Austria by the end of November 1945. In this regard, the Austrian legation worked primarily to protect Austrian citizens in Czechoslovakia from activities directed against the German minority. This was seldom achieved, however, as the Czechoslovak authorities hardly differentiated between the German language and Austrian nationality. In Austria, resistance to the mass influx of displaced persons built up in the post-war period, mainly due to the poor supply situation. The Austrian government even discussed the possibility of expelling foreign nationals, especially Czechoslovak citizens, from Austria as a countermeasure in order to alleviate the plight, but this did not materialize.

Territorial claims against Austria

Another problem arose in the summer of 1946. For the first time official requests for border corrections were made to Austria. Austria could not respond to these demands in order not to set a precedent against Yugoslavia , which had also asserted large territorial claims. Since the federal states of Lower Austria and Upper Austria were significantly expanded to the north by the Munich Agreement in 1938 , these areas reverted to Czechoslovakia after the end of the war. However, the government in Prague called for further border changes. On the Austrian side, they switched to delaying tactics in the hope of solving the problem by concluding a state treaty with the Allies.

Economic relations

During this time, work was already being carried out on international relations with regard to cultural and economic aspects, which was successfully pursued through the establishment of trusting contacts in Czechoslovak politics, both under the activity of Karl Nedwed as Consul General and his successor Hans Jilek . Nonetheless, it can be said that the communist orientation of Czechoslovakia and the simultaneous western orientation of Austria significantly reduced the volume of trade between the states compared to the period before the Second World War. Whereas in 1937 Czechoslovakia was still the destination for 7.1% of Austrian exports, in 1978 this figure was only 1.8%. For imports, the ratio changed from 11% in 1937 to 1.5% in 1978.

Bilateral relations until the State Treaty of 1955

In 1947 the consulate in Brno was closed and at the same time the Bratislava authority was upgraded to a consulate general. That increase in the rank of the Austrian representation also required a change at the top of the authority. Lenhardt was not considered admissible. Now a professional diplomat should take over this office, which was realized with the appointment of Karl Nedwed. But because they did not want to forego the contacts and experiences of their predecessor, Lenhardt was appointed "Deputy Head of Office". Due to the further closure of many diplomatic missions of other states in the course of the establishment of the communist regime in Czechoslovakia, the Austrian authority was the only representation of a western country between 1951 and 1968 in what is now Slovakia. Reporting was the focus of the authority's field of activity: For example, information about the situation of the Catholic Church in Czechoslovakia was passed on to Rome via Vienna. The representation became a hub for information towards the Western Allies and the Holy See in Rome. Although the office in Pressburg was subordinate to the office in Prague, the geographical proximity between Pressburg and Vienna very often meant that the files were sent directly to Vienna without a “detour to Prague”. Information from Pressburg was therefore the basis of the information for Vienna, and there was a direct exchange of information.

Klement Gottwald on a GDR postage stamp

The increasing Stalinization of Czechoslovakia after the communist Klement Gottwald became president in the so-called February revolution in 1948, left relations with Austria to cool down significantly. For example, Austria's new envoy, Rudolf Seemann, was not received by the Prime Minister, as is customary in diplomatic circles, but only by his deputy, Anton Vašek . The consequence was a standstill in the development of bilateral relations. During this time, the contact between Austria and the Slovak state was characterized by a lack of interest on the part of the respective headquarters and therefore remained in fact within a select group of people. Since the scope of action of the Austrian representation in Slovakia changed fundamentally as a result of the takeover of power by the communist regime in Czechoslovakia, one of the main tasks of the Consulate General was to be able to view authentic reports on the situation behind the Iron Curtain. After the Communists came to power, documenting information within the framework of diplomatic missions was tantamount to forms of espionage, which entailed the risks of expulsion and conviction for those involved.

Nevertheless, Austria compared to other Western countries like Britain or the United States in less subversive actions of the opposition was involved groups of people, Austria played by its location as an escape route from both the opposition and diplomats an essential role in the West. As a result of the ideological conflict between West and East, there was also a reduction in the representation authorities of the democratic countries in Czechoslovakia, for example consulates general of the USA. The Austrian authorities and their representatives were initially treated differently in private and protocol matters, which was characterized by a more friendly atmosphere, for example at a festive banquet in May 1949, where the Austrian envoy Rudolf Seemann and Karl Nedwed from the Primate of Pressburg Anton Vasek were received.

A diplomatic uproar occurred when the Czechoslovak Health Minister Josef Plojhar said in a speech in the great hall of the Wiener Konzerthaus : “This time I was not given a visa for my trip, but I'm here. You do n't want to give socialism a visa for Austria, but it will come. ”The Austrian Foreign Ministry protested as a result. The correspondence that followed between Prague and Vienna was fruitless and the Austrian diplomat Meinrad Falser came to the conclusion that further involvement in this agenda was completely pointless, since “in local official circles one has lost the sense of objectivity and international courtesy . "

In the following year, however, the ideological conflict along the border worsened and there were no invitations to celebrations. Tensions between the French and US authorities and Czechoslovakia led Seeman's successor, Meinrad Falser, to be urged to pass on information to the US ambassador about violence against the diplomatic authorities in the Czechoslovakia. In view of the situation, the Austrian Foreign Minister Karl Gruber decided not to agree to the matter. It is precisely this cautious attitude on the part of the Austrian representation in Czechoslovakia that seems to have resulted in Austria never receiving a request to close its consulate general in Pressburg or to recall its representatives.

There was a noticeable improvement in relations only from 1953, when Josef Stalin and shortly afterwards Klement Gottwald died. The new Soviet government corrected its course towards the west, which was also followed by the new Czechoslovak government. In the same year Consul General Hans Jilek died, whereby Franz Chovanec was filled as interim director. Since Chovanec was not appointed as the new consul general, there was no representation in Pressburg, which also reduced contacts.

In that phase of the ideological realignment of Czechoslovakia, relaxation brought about the final solution to the territorial question through the accession of Czechoslovakia to the Austrian State Treaty on September 30, 1955.

From the State Treaty to the Prague Spring

Antonín Zápotocký (1947)

In the course of the State Treaty, the retention of Austrian neutrality also contributed to the relaxation of relations, as this was mentioned positively in the New Year's address by Czechoslovak President Antonín Zápotocký in 1956. Despite this, a serious diplomatic incident occurred just this year. In July 1956, the Viennese student Josef Heinrich was shot at the state border by Czechoslovak border soldiers. A request by Chancellor Julius Raab to the government in Prague to do everything possible to prevent such an incident from happening again was acknowledged by the Czechoslovak Foreign Ministry by saying that it was the student's own fault for trying to cross the border and following the instructions the border guards did not comply.

In 1957, during Antonín Zápotocký's funeral, an Austrian member of the government visited Czechoslovakia for the first time since the Communists came to power in 1948. From 1959 Ernst Krumhaar was appointed as the new diplomatic consul general in Bratislava.

In 1961 Krumhaar was appointed the first western doyen of the consular corps in Pressburg since 1948, which hoped to attract more attention to Austrian interests. Krumhaar also tended to act as a representative of Slovak interests in the communist state as a whole. Nevertheless, a lack of interest on the part of the Vienna headquarters in terms of active political actions in the direction of Slovakia became clear on the basis of the file traffic at that time, which can mainly be attributed to the fact that they wanted to save expenses.

Prague Spring and Property Contract

Rudolf Kirchschläger

From 1967 Rudolf Kirchschläger , who later became President of Austria, was head of the legation in Prague. In the wake of the general euphoria about the reforms in the wake of the Prague Spring, he warned that developments could take a completely different direction. The military intervention of the Soviet Union on August 21, 1968, which brought an abrupt end to the Prague Spring, was commented with very cautiously by the Austrian government. One can assume here that good relations were sought with one of the former occupying powers. In general, one cannot see any substantial impairment of the relations between the two states through the Soviet intervention and the associated change of government in Czechoslovakia.

In 1974, after decades of negotiations, the property contract was concluded, which regulated the question of what should happen to the expropriated property of Austrian citizens on Czechoslovakian territory. Compensation for the expropriations in the amount of 1.2 billion schillings was agreed. On January 8, 1975, the diplomatic missions of the two states, which had previously only had the status of embassies, were raised to the rank of embassies.

From 1989 until the dissolution of Czechoslovakia

Preserved piece of the Iron Curtain between Čížov and Hardegg

In December 1989, the iron curtain fortifications on the border between Czechoslovakia and Austria were dismantled after the change of system from communism to democracy in the Velvet Revolution in November of the same year . The revolution is seen as a consequence of the scarcity economy that prevailed in the country at the time. For example, there was a shortage of currencies, so a change in strategy was required with regard to trade with the West. With the opening of the border, people in Czechoslovakia enjoyed freedom of travel again . New opportunities also opened up for Austrian-Czech relations.

A year before the Velvet Revolution, Austria was concerned to try to expand the difficult bilateral relationship. In numerous contacts, humanitarian concerns could be advanced. After the Velvet Revolution, it was decided to adapt the economy and trade to the market economy standard. In March 1992, Austria and Czechoslovakia signed a free trade treaty covering goods such as iron, steel, coal, textiles and clothing.

The first free elections in Czechoslovakia after the Velvet Revolution took place on June 8, 1990. After the elections, the bilateral relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia were completely reorganized. Visits from politicians increased and Austrian companies invested in neighboring countries and became leading partners of the local economy. In addition, in the 1990s, a special, trilateral cooperation between Austria, Hungary and Slovakia developed in the Vienna-Pressburg-Győr area, with the aim of further developing economic expansion. The interest in close contact grew, cultural exchange developed, lecturers were sent to the other country and training opportunities were increasingly financed by the state. Alongside Germany, Austria became the most important investor in Czechoslovakia.

On January 1, 1993, Czechoslovakia was finally divided into two independent states, the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic . Austria supported various transformations with help to the new parties, democratization aid, scholarships, training of journalists and professor exchanges, with the federal, state, political parties and private organizations participating.

literature

  • Franz Cede, Christian Pösel: Demand and Reality. Austria's foreign policy since 1945 . Studies Verlag, Innsbruck 2015, ISBN 978-3-7065-5430-5 .
  • Armin Laussegger, Reinhard Linke, Niklas Perzi: Austria. Czech Republic. Our 20th Century: Accompanying volume to the scientific framework program of the Lower Austrian State Exhibition 2009 . LIT, Vienna 2009. ISBN 978-3-643-50092-2 .
  • Niklas Perzi, Hildegard Schmoller, Ota Konrád, Václav Šmidrkal (eds.): Neighbors. An Austro-Czech history book . Publishing house library of the province, Weitra 2019, ISBN 978-3-99028-817-7 .
  • Robert Sandgruber (Ed.): The Iron Curtain. The story - the end - the warning . Rudolf Trauner University Press, Linz 1999, ISBN 3-85487-024-8 .
  • David Schriffl: Austrian-Slovak relations 1945 to 1968. Dead border or lively neighborhood? Dissertation, University of Vienna 2009.
  • Jan Stavek: Development of foreign trade between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1918 to 1991 . Diploma thesis, University of Vienna 1992.
  • Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia 1945-1968 . LIT, Vienna 2006, ISBN 3-8258-7756-6 .
  • Monika Zach: The Austrian-Czech relations during the Czech EU accession process in the mirror of the daily press . Diploma thesis, University of Vienna 2005.

Individual evidence

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  2. ^ Friedrich Prinz: The Bohemian countries from 1848 to 1914. In: Karl Bosl: Handbook of the history of the bohemian countries Volume III. 1968, pp. 48-53.
  3. ^ Friedrich Prinz: The Bohemian countries from 1848 to 1914. In: Karl Bosl: Handbook of the history of the bohemian countries Volume III . 1968, p. 131.
  4. ^ Friedrich Prinz: The Bohemian countries from 1848 to 1914. In: Karl Bosl: Handbook of the history of the bohemian countries Volume III. 1968, p. 132.
  5. ^ Friedrich Prinz: The Bohemian countries from 1848 to 1914. In: Karl Bosl: Handbook of the history of the bohemian countries Volume III. 1968, p. 136.
  6. ^ Friedrich Prinz: The Bohemian countries from 1848 to 1914. In: Karl Bosl: Handbook of the history of the bohemian countries Volume III. 1968, p. 174.
  7. ^ Friedrich Prinz: The Bohemian countries from 1848 to 1914. In: Karl Bosl: Handbook of the history of the bohemian countries Volume III. 1968, p. 191.
  8. ^ Friedrich Prinz: The Bohemian countries from 1848 to 1914. In: Karl Bosl: Handbook of the history of the bohemian countries Volume III. 1968, pp. 291-300, 319-329.
  9. ^ Kamil Krofta: History of Czechoslovakia. 1932, pp. 143-144.
  10. ^ Armin Lausegger: Austria. Czech Republic. Our 20th century. Pp. 24-26.
  11. ^ Kamil Krofta: History of Czechoslovakia. 1932, p. 154.
  12. ^ Armin Lausegger: Austria. Czech Republic. Our 20th century. Pp. 32-33.
  13. ^ Jörg K. Hoensch: History of Czechoslovakia. 1992, p. 58.
  14. ^ Jörg K. Hoensch: History of Czechoslovakia. 1992, pp. 63-64.
  15. ^ Armin Lausegger: Austria. Czech Republic. Our 20th century. P. 34.
  16. ^ Jörg K. Hoensch: History of Czechoslovakia. 1992, pp. 81-82.
  17. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968. 2004, pp. 9-11.
  18. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968. 2004, pp. 11-13.
  19. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968. 2004, p. 19.
  20. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968. 2004, p. 37.
  21. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968. 2004, p. 38.
  22. ↑ ÖStA, CoR STKA-AA, Gr.Z1. 1411-pin / 45, Z1. 1331-pin / 45. Collection points of the Austrian Repatriation Committee. East Repatriation Committee Prague to StKa-AA dated September 24, 1945.
  23. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968. 2004, p. 41.
  24. ^ The embassy buildings and the history of the Austrian embassy in Prague . Federal Ministry for Europe, Integration and Foreign Affairs, accessed on May 10, 2016.
  25. ↑ David Schriffl: Austrian-Slovakian Relations 1945 to 1968. Dead Border or Lively Neighborhood? Dissertation, University of Vienna 2009, pp. 46–48.
  26. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968. 2004, p. 42.
  27. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968. 2004, pp. 42-43.
  28. ^ Beppo Beyerl: The Beneš decrees. Between Czech identity and German desirability. 2002, pp. 74-82.
  29. ↑ David Schriffl: Austrian-Slovakian Relations 1945 to 1968. Dead Border or Lively Neighborhood? Dissertation, University of Vienna 2009, p. 347.
  30. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968. 2004, pp. 44-50.
  31. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968 . 2004, p. 50.
  32. ↑ David Schriffl: Austrian-Slovakian Relations 1945 to 1968. Dead Border or Lively Neighborhood? Dissertation, University of Vienna 2009, p. 57.
  33. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968. 2004, pp. 63-64.
  34. ↑ David Schriffl: Austrian-Slovakian Relations 1945 to 1968. Dead Border or Lively Neighborhood? Dissertation, University of Vienna 2009, p. 348.
  35. ↑ David Schriffl: Austrian-Slovakian Relations 1945 to 1968. Dead Border or Lively Neighborhood? Dissertation, University of Vienna 2009, p. 56.
  36. ^ ÖStA, AdR, BKA-AA, II-Pol / Slovakia 4, Gr.Z1. 84.265-pin / 49, Z1. 85.451-pin / 49. Karl Nedwed to Karl Gruber on July 11, 1949.
  37. ↑ David Schriffl: Austrian-Slovakian Relations 1945 to 1968. Dead Border or Lively Neighborhood? Dissertation, University of Vienna 2009, p. 38.
  38. ↑ David Schriffl: Austrian-Slovakian Relations 1945 to 1968. Dead Border or Lively Neighborhood? Dissertation, University of Vienna 2009, p. 348.
  39. ↑ David Schriffl: Austrian-Slovakian Relations 1945 to 1968. Dead Border or Lively Neighborhood? Dissertation, University of Vienna 2009, p. 76.
  40. ↑ David Schriffl: Austrian-Slovakian Relations 1945 to 1968. Dead Border or Lively Neighborhood? Dissertation, University of Vienna 2009, p. 59.
  41. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968. 2004, pp. 102-103.
  42. ↑ David Schriffl: Austrian-Slovakian Relations 1945 to 1968. Dead Border or Lively Neighborhood? Dissertation, University of Vienna 2009, p. 349.
  43. ↑ David Schriffl: Austrian-Slovakian Relations 1945 to 1968. Dead Border or Lively Neighborhood? Dissertation, University of Vienna 2009, p. 56.
  44. ↑ David Schriffl: Austrian-Slovakian Relations 1945 to 1968. Dead Border or Lively Neighborhood? Dissertation, University of Vienna 2009, p. 61.
  45. ↑ David Schriffl: Austrian-Slovakian Relations 1945 to 1968. Dead Border or Lively Neighborhood? Dissertation, University of Vienna 2009, pp. 62–63.
  46. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968. 2004, p. 109.
  47. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968. 2004, p. 111.
  48. ↑ David Schriffl: Austrian-Slovakian Relations 1945 to 1968. Dead Border or Lively Neighborhood? Dissertation, University of Vienna 2009, p. 63.
  49. ↑ David Schriffl: Austrian-Slovakian Relations 1945 to 1968. Dead Border or Lively Neighborhood? Dissertation, University of Vienna 2009, p. 65.
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  52. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968. 2004, p. 151.
  53. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968. 2004, p. 154.
  54. ↑ David Schriffl: Austrian-Slovakian Relations 1945 to 1968. Dead Border or Lively Neighborhood? Dissertation, University of Vienna 2009, p. 80.
  55. ↑ David Schriffl: Austrian-Slovakian Relations 1945 to 1968. Dead Border or Lively Neighborhood? Dissertation, University of Vienna 2009, pp. 85–86.
  56. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968. 2004, pp. 199-200.
  57. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968. 2004, p. 204.
  58. ↑ Paul Ullmann: A difficult neighborhood. The history of diplomatic relations between Austria and Czechoslovakia from 1945–1968. 2004, p. 227.
  59. ↑ Robert Sandgruber, Norbert Loidol: The Iron Curtain. The story - the end - the warning. In: Robert Sandgruber (Ed.): The Iron Curtain. The story - the end - the warning. 1999, pp. 41-43.
  60. ↑ Armin Laussegger, Reinhard left, Niklas Perzi: Austria. Czech Republic. Our 20th century volume accompanying the scientific framework program of the Lower Austrian State Exhibition 2009. Vienna 2009, p. 139.
  61. ↑ Armin Laussegger, Reinhard left, Niklas Perzi: Austria. Czech Republic. Our 20th century accompanying volume for the scientific framework program of the Lower Austrian State Exhibition 2009. Vienna 2009, p. 147.
  62. ↑ Franz Cede, Christian Pösel: expectations and reality. Austria's foreign policy since 1945. Innsbruck 2015, p. 103.
  63. ↑ Monika Zach: The Austrian-Czech relations during the Czech EU accession process in the mirror of the daily press. Diploma thesis, University of Vienna 2005, pp. 86–87.
  64. ↑ Franz Cede, Christian Pösel: expectations and reality. Austria's foreign policy since 1945. Innsbruck 2015, p. 79.
  65. ↑ Franz Cede, Christian Pösel: expectations and reality. Austria's foreign policy since 1945. Innsbruck 2015, p. 77.
  66. ↑ Franz Cede, Christian Pösel: expectations and reality. Austria's foreign policy since 1945. Innsbruck 2015, p. 104.
  67. ↑ Franz Cede, Christian Pösel: expectations and reality. Austria's foreign policy since 1945. Innsbruck 2015, pp. 77–78.