Black Buzzard

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Black Buzzard
Immature black buzzard

Immature black buzzard

Systematics
Class : Birds (aves)
Order : Birds of prey (Accipitriformes)
Family : Hawk species (Accipitridae)
Subfamily : Buzzard-like (buteoninae)
Genre : Buzzards ( buteo )
Type : Black Buzzard
Scientific name
Buteo albonotatus
Kaup , 1847

The black buzzard ( Buteo albonotatus ) is a medium-sized, slender bird of prey from the genus Buteo within the subfamily of the buzzard-like (Buteoninae). The almost entirely black species occurs in two separate areas in the southern USA and northern Mexico , or southern Mexico, Central America and large parts of South America around the Amazon basin . The Andes are only crossed in a few places to the west. The sexes are largely the same in color, but females are noticeably larger and significantly heavier than males.

The black buzzards that breed in the northern part of the distribution area (south to Panama ) appear to be largely migratory birds , while the birds in the other regions are predominantly resident birds . The species often mixes with circling turkey vultures , which are somewhat larger, but whose flight silhouettes are largely similar to that of a black buzzard. It is controversial whether there is mimicry .

The black buzzard is very adaptable and finds suitable breeding habitats in different landscape types and climatic areas ; it is a kind of both the hot lowlands and the coastal plains, as well as the more moderate altitudes up to 1500 meters above sea ​​level ; however, breeding sites at heights of up to 3000 meters have also become known. It feeds mainly on small mammals , birds and reptiles , which it usually tracks down in a slow, ground-level search flight and beats on the ground or in the air.

B. albonotatus was first described under this name in 1847 by Johann Jakob Kaup based on a bellows from Mexico . The specific epithet is a combination of Latin albus (white) and notatus (drawn) and refers to the white banded black tail. The species is monotypical in spite of its large and partly disjoint distribution area . As of the end of 2019, IUCN and BirdLife see no serious threat; accordingly they rate the current population situation with LC (least concern) and the population trend due to the great adaptability of the species with increasing - (increasing).

The species has not yet been adequately researched in terms of its biology, distribution and population dynamics. Most of the scientific information pertains to its small area in the southern United States.

Appearance

The black buzzard is a medium-sized to large, slender buzzard with long wings, which are narrow for a buzzard, long legs and a relatively long tail. When the bird is seated, the tips of the hand wings close approximately with the tip of the tail. The color dimorphism is limited to the banding of the tail: males show two bands, females a very narrow third one. The weight dimorphism is considerable: females are up to 11% larger and up to 26% heavier than males, a difference that can also be evaluated in a more massive habitus of the females in a field ornithological way. The youth plumage is very similar to the adult plumage. The average body weight of the males is 637 grams, that of the females 891 grams. The total body length is between 46 and 56 centimeters. Large females have a wingspan of up to 140 centimeters.

Adult, probably male, black buzzard
Immature black buzzard
Circling turkey vulture. The black buzzard often mixes with circling turkey vultures

Black buzzards spend a lot of time in flight. Your hunting flight is a consecration-like slow search flight with frequent changes of direction and stops. When sailing, the wings are usually widely spread and the outer hand wings are deeply fingered; the leaves are held horizontally or in V-position . In this position, buzzards are difficult to distinguish from turkey vultures; In addition to these, other dark-morphic buzzards, the sympatric shrimp buzzard in large regions , and possibly also the much larger tryrannian eagle can be mistaken for.

Adult plumage

The sitting black buzzard is largely black (often with a slight shade of brown), only occasionally some white feather bases shine through on the neck. The forehead is always white, sometimes with a few black streaks. This feature is mostly recognizable in the flying bird. The feathered rein region is pale gray. The relatively long, black tail is banded twice on the upper side, rather inconspicuously in medium gray and has a gray border. The subterminal band is slightly wider than the second band closer to the tail base. The inner flags of most of the wrist wings are light gray, which means that when the feathers are strongly spread in this wing area, lighter color elements can also be seen on the upper side. On the underside, too, the body plumage and the under wing-coverts are black or brown-black. The wings, which are narrow, deeply fingered wings for a buzzard, are silver-colored and tightly and narrowly banded in dark. The two color elements contrast sharply and result in the typical two-zone flight pattern. The tail is clearly banded white on the underside. Two bands are completely drawn through, in females often an almost line-shaped third. The beak is dark towards the tip, light horn-colored at the base, the wax skin is yolk yellow; the legs , which are unfeathered from the intertarsal joint, are also colored . The iris of the eyes is dark brown.

Youth plumage

Overall, the youth plumage is already very similar to the adult dress. The color tends to be brown to varying degrees. Spread over the entire body, but more pronounced on the belly side, there are white spots and spots. The two-zone coloring pattern of the lower wings is even more evident than in adults, as the wings appear lighter due to the weaker dark lines. The color of the tail differs significantly: it is gray-brown on the upper side and only indistinctly banded, on the underside it is colored like the wings and only weakly banded.

Mauser

There is hardly any information about moulting. The chicks molt their hatchbacks in the nest and wear their youthful plumage when they fly out. It is not known whether the large feathers have already reached their full length by this time; in any case, the young birds are fully capable of flight when they leave the nest. Whether moulting into an immature plumage occurs in the second year of life and when the moulting into adult plumage takes place is just as unknown as the moulting sequence of adults.

Vocal repertoire

The species is only noticeable acoustically in the pre-breeding season. The most common call to be heard at this time is a very drawn out, polyphonic nasal call, declining in pitch and fading away. The communication call from two flying birds is a sequence of calls that has more of a whistle character. In the nestling period, the female often hears a staccato of lighter, pointed, but not particularly loud calls when the male carrying the prey approaches.

distribution

Breeding area

Distribution area of ​​the black buzzard

Except for the well-recorded breeding occurrences in the USA, both the exact distribution area and the population density in many areas of the probable breeding area are largely unknown; this is especially true for the central and southern part of Mexico and most of the states of Central America. The species is only scattered everywhere and is nowhere common.

In the United States, some pairs breed in southern and central New Mexico ; The breeding population is somewhat denser in western Arizona and southwest Texas . Increasing observations of the breeding season in southwestern Utah and in southern Nevada indicate a slight northern expansion of the breeding area. The first brood was also found in Nevada in 2005. Occasionally the black buzzard breeds in southernmost California and regularly up to about the middle of Baja California in Mexico. Whether there are further occurrences there further south is just as unknown as the distribution of the species in large parts of western, central and southern Mexico. In central Mexico, B. albonotatus has been recorded as a breeding bird south to San Luis Potosí . In southern Sonora, in parts of Sinaloa and Durango , resident populations appear to be at home. In Central America, breeding occurrences are known in Nicaragua , Costa Rica and, in somewhat greater density, in Panama .

In the north of the distribution area, river-accompanying trees in canyons are a preferred breeding habitat

In South America, the distribution area is very extensive, but as far as is known, the species does not occur anywhere. Well into the 20th century, all sightings of the species were thought to be migratory birds from the north. The distribution area encloses the Amazon basin in an almost closed belt. From Colombia mostly east of the Andes south over eastern Ecuador and eastern Peru to eastern Bolivia ; in the south there are breeding occurrences in Paraguay and northern Argentina . In Brazil , apart from a gap in the Amazon delta, there is a belt of different widths on the Atlantic coast ; However, parts of the southeast and southern Cerrados (provinces of Mato Grosso , Mato Grosso do Sul and Goiás ) do not appear to be populated. From northern South America breeding occurrences are reported from the north of the Guayana states , as well as from northern and central Venezuela . Trinidad , Paraguaná and probably some small Pacific islands in Costa Rica and Panama are also populated . To the west of the main Andean ridge, there are two isolated islands in the area around Guayaquil in Ecuador, as well as in the province of Pisco in Peru.

habitat

In the north of South America the Llanos are breeding areas

The black buzzard inhabits different climate zones and habitat types from the coastal plains to mountain regions of up to 3000 meters above sea ​​level . He largely avoids intensively used and populated areas for agriculture, but his hunting grounds can also include such areas. In the lowlands it appears mainly in woody trees and deciduous forests that accompany rivers, but also in dry scrubland with only a few trees. In addition to a sufficient supply of food, proximity to water is an essential requirement of a good breeding area. The species often breeds in wooded canyons , preferably where there are populations of old poplars ( Populus Fremontii and others). Often breeding grounds are located at the wooded base of steep rock formations. In Mexico, many breeding grounds are in loosened pine  -  oak mixed forests, but also in rugged mountainous land with individual bushes and trees. Moist coastal forests (occasionally also bushy marshland ) and their drier, loosely tree-lined hinterland until the transition into seasonally moist to dry savannas ( caatinga and cerrado), as well as the llanos in the north are the preferred breeding habitats of the species in the lowlands of South America. In the foothills of the Andes, most of the breeding grounds are found in rugged, rather dry mountain landscapes with embedded mountain oases and in narrow valley gorges with steep rock faces. Moderately humid coastal regions are the breeding area of ​​the species on the Pacific coast.

Black buzzards establish a breeding territory that they defend very emphatically against significantly larger species such as the golden eagle . The species even attacks humans when they get too close to the nest. The breeding area is relatively small, as it does not, or only partially, corresponds to the hunting area. The prey flights lead the species to comparatively large distances (up to 26 kilometers) from the nest. The boundaries of the territories are often given by the topography of the area (valley, canyon).

hikes

The breeding birds of the USA and northern Mexico are migratory birds with largely unknown wintering areas. So far, only wintering areas in Nayarit on the Pacific coast, Puebla in central Mexico and Tamaulipas on the Gulf coast are known. In most of the countries of Central America, the black buzzards are likely to overwinter. They leave their breeding grounds from mid-September and return at the end of February / beginning of March at the earliest. Some individuals from these breeding regions also remain in the breeding area throughout the year; others only move to lower-lying areas or pass westward to the Pacific coast or eastward to West Louisiana . In December 2005, an adult black buzzard was discovered in South Florida ; whether this was an isolated case or whether the species regularly overwinters in these regions is uncertain. Mohr buzzards often seem to migrate individually, but no migration concentrations are known. Often, however, they socialize with turkey vultures, which makes them easily overlooked as both breeding birds and migrants. In Central America, a significant increase in sightings of the species in the months of November and December or February indicates a migration of black buzzards to South America and Mexico. It is also unknown where the wintering areas are located, as is any migration of the South American breeding birds. However, flights into areas in which the species is otherwise not observed suggest (at least small-scale) migrations.

Food and subsistence

On these aspects there are some studies from the USA and a comparative study from Durango / Mexico. Almost no information is available from South America.

The black buzzard seems to be a fairly adaptable predator , in which those animals become the main prey in which the ratio of effort and energy gain is the most favorable. In general, birds and reptiles seem to be more prominent in the food spectrum of the species than with other buzzard species.

In terms of biomass , small mammals dominate such as antelope peas , cottontail rabbits , chipmunks , in Mexico especially cotton rats and birds up to the size of pigeons ( jays , woodpeckers , especially from the genera Colaptes and Melanerpes , Montezuma quail and many different passerine birds ). The percentage distribution of these two food components varies both regionally and seasonally. Reptiles always make up a large proportion of the total biomass; They too can become the most important energy suppliers with the right supply; They seem to play a special role, especially as baby food.

The collar iguana is an important prey animal in the north of the range

Lizards of the genus Crotaphytus such as the collar iguana and spiny lizards are captured most often. From the southeast of Brazil the Moor Buzzard was in a successful hunt for colored iguana observed. The black buzzard regularly preyes on amphibians and insects , but of little importance in terms of biomass . It often bites the heads off of lizards and birds before consuming, and sometimes it plucks larger birds.

The Mohr Bussard hunts occasionally from a raised hide , but is mainly one of the few hawks, which captures most of its food flight hunting. Either it searches its feeding ground for potential prey in a slow and low rowing flight, or it circles at a significantly greater height, where it often mingles with circling turkey vultures. This behavior is often interpreted as aggressive mimicry . The biological advantage of this behavior could be that potential prey animals are used to the sight of turkey vultures circling and know that they are not threatened by these birds. The black buzzard could thus approach its prey unnoticed. Research seems to confirm this view, in that 30% of attacks from a group with turkey vultures were successful, but only 7% when the buzzard hunted alone. If he has spotted a prey in a slow search flight, he immediately falls to the ground, grasps it with outstretched legs and kills it with a bite on the neck. If he sees one in a group with turkey vultures, he tries to stay in that group until the time for a dive with half-flung wings seems right to him; it only stops shortly before the surface of the earth and hits the prey on the ground. If he does not eat immediately on the ground, he carries her into the clutches of a feeding place or to the nest. It preyes birds and insects both in flight and on the ground, strips them from branches or grabs them on tree trunks or branches.

Breeding biology

The duration and type of pair bond as well as the breeding age are not known. In the USA, breeding begins in the last decade of March at the earliest with a peak between mid-April and early May, in Mexico from early March and a little earlier in Central America. There are only few phenological data from South America: Trinidad: February - March; Colombia: August; Venezuela: April. Otherwise it is assumed that the black buzzards breed during the regional dry seasons. They breed once a year; Replacement clutches are not the rule and if they do, then only if the clutch is lost early. The loyalty to the nest seems to be great; old nests are often repaired. Often several nests are built per breeding season.

Pair formation, nest building and nest

It is unclear whether the pairs find each other anew each year, or whether there are (occasionally or frequently) mating of last year's breeding partners. There are indications that some black buzzards have already returned from their winter quarters in pairs. Immediately after arriving in the breeding area, the male begins expressive flights over the territory, shows up in exposed places and calls frequently. After a couple has found each other, they fly over the area in deliberately slow sightseeing flights, climb high and tumble, often clasping each other with their claws, to the canopy to loosen shortly before. The nest building itself, which begins soon after the first courtship flights, is also part of pair formation. The birds keep their distance from each other during this time and are rarely seen at a distance of less than 3 meters, with the exception of copulations.

The nest is very often set up in a north-facing position, high (7.5 - 30 meters) in trees or (less often) on ledges in the last third of the rock formation. Nest carriers in the north are different tree species, often poplars, alders , Quercus emoryi and the ponderosa pine . At the top, the nest is often completely hidden from view, and even with rock broods, the species primarily chooses places that also offer a certain protection upwards and, ideally, are overgrown with individual bushes. The nest location is almost always not far from a permanent water point. The nest is a largely round, stable construction made of twigs and twigs, often lined with pieces of bark on the inside, which are detached by juniper trees. Outside and inside it is laid out with fresh branches of different deciduous trees, which are regularly renewed until the nestling period. If used several times, it can grow into a considerably large construction. Initial buildings have average dimensions of 60 centimeters in diameter and 50 centimeters in height. How long the construction process takes and whether there is a division of labor in nest building is not known. The distance between two flown nests is usually more than a kilometer, only in particularly favorable areas it can be shorter.

Clutch, breeding and nestling time

The clutch consists of two (1 - 3) matt white eggs, which sometimes have a slightly bluish tone and are seldom spotted purple or pink at one end. Their average dimensions are 57.7 x 44.3 millimeters. They are almost exclusively incubated by the female for 28-35 days. When hatching, the chicks are covered with gray-white dunes; they can hold their heads upright and sit. At 12 days they can stand and the control springs and first swing begin to break through. From about the 20th day they are able to cut up prey on their own; From this point in time at the latest, the female participates in the hunt again, which was previously taken care of by the male. Fratricide has been observed but does not seem to occur regularly. Depending on the weather and feeding conditions, the nestlings leave the nest between the 41st and 51st day after hatching. The large feathers are developed at this point and the young birds are able to fly. The young birds stay in the immediate vicinity of the nest for the first week and gradually expand their radius of action. They will be cared for by the adult birds for at least 4 weeks before they start to hunt independently and leave the nest area.

No conclusive test results are available on breeding success and reproduction rate. Eight broods observed in Texas brought 1.14 young to fly out in 1975, but only 0.78 the following year. With 0.45 pups flown out per brood started, an investigation in New Mexico needed even lower results. It is not known what this very low breeding success is related to. There are also hardly any results on life expectancy. A nest ringed bird was found dead after 4 years and a month.

Systematics

Buteo albonotatus was first described in 1847 by Johann Jakob Kaup using a bellows from Mexico. As early as 1844, George Robert Gray had cataloged this bellows from the British Museum under the same name, but not described it. Harry Kirke Swann criticizes the quality of Kaup's first description, but says that it is valid because Gray's catalog note is a nomen nudum and Jean Louis Cabani's description and naming ( Buteo abbreviatus ) followed a year later. Until the name B. albonotatus became generally accepted, various other binomials ( Tachytriorchis albinotatus , Buteo zonocercus , Buteo abbreviatus and others) were used.

As of the end of 2019, the black buzzard is considered to be monotypical ; the often somewhat smaller and shorter-tailed birds from Central and South America, which have occasionally been discussed as a subspecies abbreviatus , are considered to be clinical size variations.

The relationships have not yet been fully clarified. Molecular genetic results so far place the black buzzard in the vicinity of Buteo jamaicensis and Buteo ventralis .

Persistence and Threat

Population assessments and analyzes of population dynamics that are based on supra-regional quantitative studies do not exist. All information on the total stock is based on extrapolations based on small, regional surveys; the results scatter accordingly. Ferguson-Lees describes the species as nowhere common and puts the total population at 4, which in its nomenclature would mean a maximum of 10,000 individuals. Without citing sources, Partners in Flight give a total of 2 million, a number that HBW has also adopted and which extremely exceeds all other information. The IUCN does not give a total population, evaluates the population trend with increasing = increasing and the risk situation with LC = least concern / not endangered. The total area of ​​the breeding area is named as 22.3 million km².

In addition to a number of predators (birds of prey, great horned owls , martens , raccoons and possibly also snakes ), which are particularly dangerous to the clutches and nestlings, habitat destruction and increasing recreational activities even in remote areas, in Central and South America, possibly also both primary as well as secondary poisoning are the main threat factors. The species is particularly sensitive to disturbances near the nest. Habitats in narrow valleys and canyons are particularly threatened by dam construction projects. Direct shooting could also pose a certain risk potential in some regions of the large distribution area.

literature

  • RO Bierregaard Jr., GM Kirwan and JS Marks: Zone-tailed Hawk (Buteo albonotatus) . In: J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, J. Sargatal, DA Christie, and E. de Juana (Eds.): Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive . Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2019 (downloaded from https://www.hbw.com/node/53132 on December 9, 2019).
  • James Ferguson-Lees , David A. Christie : Raptors of the World . Houghton Mifflin, Boston 2001, ISBN 0-618-12762-3 , pp. 206; 675-677 .
  • RR Johnson, RL Glinski and SW Matteson: Zone-tailed Hawk (Buteo albonotatus) . Version 2.0. In: The Birds of North America (AF Poole FB Gill, ed.). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA, 2000; https://doi.org/10.2173/bna.529
  • Scott H. Stoleson and Giancarlo Sadotti: Zone-tailed Hawk (Buteo albonotatus) publication of the US Forest Service. pdf engl.

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l James Ferguson-Lees , David A. Christie : Raptors of the World . Houghton Mifflin, Boston 2001, ISBN 0-618-12762-3 , pp. 990; Pp. 675-677 .
  2. ↑ a b c d R. R. Johnson, RL Glinski and SW Matteson: Zone-tailed Hawk (Buteo albonotatus) . Version 2.0. In: The Birds of North America (AF Poole and FB Gill, eds.). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA, 2000; https://doi.org/10.2173/bna.529 Introduction and Appearance
  3. ^ A b Edwin O. Willis: Is the Zone-Tailed Hawk a Mimic of the Turkey Vulture? In: The Condor; Jhrg. 65, Volume 4; 1963. pp. 313 - 317 html engl.
  4. ^ RR Johnson, RL Glinski and SW Matteson: Zone-tailed Hawk (Buteo albonotatus) . Version 2.0. In: The Birds of North America (AF Poole and FB Gill, eds.). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA, 2000; https://doi.org/10.2173/bna.529
  5. ↑ BirdLife International (2019) Species factsheet: Buteo albonotatus. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org/ on December 9, 2019. Datasheet engl.
  6. ↑ a b c d e f g h i R. O. Bierregaard Jr., GM Kirwan and JS Marks: Zone-tailed Hawk (Buteo albonotatus) . In: J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, J. Sargatal, DA Christie, and E. de Juana (Eds.): Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive . Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2019 (downloaded from https://www.hbw.com/node/53132 on December 9, 2019).
  7. ↑ Xeno-canto: Revierruf
  8. ↑ Xeno-canto: flight call .
  9. ^ RR Johnson, RL Glinski and SW Matteson: Zone-tailed Hawk (Buteo albonotatus) . Version 2.0. In: The Birds of North America (AF Poole and FB Gill, eds.). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA, 2000; https://doi.org/10.2173/bna.529 Sounds and Vocal Behavior
  10. ↑ a b c d e f g Scott H. Stoleson and Giancarlo Sadotti: Zone-tailed Hawk (Buteo albonotatus). Publication of the US Forest Service
  11. ↑ a b c d e R. R. Johnson, RL Glinski and SW Matteson: Zone-tailed Hawk (Buteo albonotatus) . Version 2.0. In: The Birds of North America (AF Poole and FB Gill, eds.). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA, 2000 Distribution
  12. ^ RR Johnson, RL Glinski and SW Matteson: Zone-tailed Hawk (Buteo albonotatus) . Version 2.0. In: The Birds of North America (AF Poole and FB Gill, eds.). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA, 2000; https://doi.org/10.2173/bna.529 Introduction
  13. ^ Thomas J. Wilmers: First record of a Zone-tailed Hawk in Florida. In: Florida Field Naturalist. Born in 33; Volume 2; 2005. Pages 51 - 52. pdf engl.
  14. ↑ a b c d R. R. Johnson, RL Glinski and SW Matteson: Zone-tailed Hawk (Buteo albonotatus) . Version 2.0. In: The Birds of North America (AF Poole and FB Gill, eds.). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA, 2000 Diet and Foraging
  15. ↑ a b c F. Hiraldo, M. Delibes, J. Bustamante and R. Estrella: Overlap in the Diets of diurnial Raptors breeding at the Michilía Biosphere Reserve, Durango, Mexico. In: The Journal of Raptor Research Vol. 25, Volume 2; 1994. Pages 25-29. Pdf engl.
  16. ↑ Diogo Andrade Koski, Aline P. Valadares Koski and André Felipe Barreto-Lima: Predation of Polychrus marmoratus (Squamata: Polychrotidae) by Buteo albonotatus (Accipitriformes: Accipitridae) in southeastern Brazil In: Boletim do Museu de Biologia Mello Leitão Jhrg .: 38 ; Episode 1 2016. pdf engl./portug.
  17. ↑ a b c d e f R. R. Johnson, RL Glinski and SW Matteson: Zone-tailed Hawk (Buteo albonotatus) . Version 2.0. In: The Birds of North America (AF Poole and FB Gill, eds.). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA, 2000. Breeding
  18. ^ RR Johnson, RL Glinski and SW Matteson: Zone-tailed Hawk (Buteo albonotatus) . Version 2.0. In: The Birds of North America (AF Poole and FB Gill, eds.). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA, 2000. Behavior
  19. ^ A b R. R. Johnson, RL Glinski and SW Matteson: Zone-tailed Hawk (Buteo albonotatus) . Version 2.0. In: The Birds of North America (AF Poole and FB Gill, eds.). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA, 2000. Demography and Populations
  20. ^ A b Herbert Friedmann: The birds of North and Middle America. United States National Museum Bulletin. Volume 50; Part XI; Washington 1950. BHL
  21. ↑ F. Raposo do Amaral, FH Sheldon, A. Gamauf †, E. Haring, M. Riesing, LF Silveira, and A. Wajntal: Patterns and processes of diversification in a widespread and ecologically diverse avian group, the buteonine hawks (Aves , Accipitridae) In: Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution Vol. 53; 2009; Pp. 703-715
  22. ^ Partners in Flight Database Buteo albonotatus
  23. ^ BirdLife International 2016. Buteo albonotatus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T22695926A93534193. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22695926A93534193.en . Downloaded December 15, 2019.