Chinese porcelain

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Qing Dynasty Famille Rose vases in the Museu Calouste Gulbenkian , Lisbon (2006)

Chinese porcelain is a central component of the art and culture of China . It became the model for porcelain production in Europe and other parts of the world.

Material and manufacture

Chinese porcelain is mostly made of

  • Kaolin ( Chinese   高嶺土  /  高岭土 , Pinyin gāolǐngtǔ ), a special, low-iron clay consisting mainly of kaolinite , named after the Chinese mountain Gaoling ( 高嶺  /  高岭 , Gāolǐng ),
  • Petuntse ( 白 墩子 , bái dūnzi ), a granite with a high proportion of feldspar , corresponds to pegmatite , and
  • quartz

Due to its “flake” or “book” -like structure, kaolin is able to absorb relatively large amounts of water and gives the material its malleability and fire resistance. Petuntse and quartz, as so-called leaning agents, reduce the malleability of the fabric, but reduce the shrinkage (volume loss) during drying and firing. The petuntse serves as a flux and is the only component that sinters when fired .

Chinese porcelain is usually only fired once, i.e. shards (= material) and glaze in one process. After the shape of a piece is completed, it is air dried, glazed, dried again and finally fired. At the high temperature of the kiln, the material and the glaze sinter together to form an inseparable unit. Chinese onglaze enamel works are produced in a similar way, with the first firing process at a high temperature (around 1,350 ° C) being followed by the application of the enamel and another firing process at a lower temperature. Each color needs a separate fire; the colors and their enamel base must of course be chosen so that the colors that burn the highest are fired first.

classification

In the West, a distinction is usually made between three types of ceramic bodies : depending on the composition of the green body and the firing temperature, earthenware , sintered goods , including the porcelain subclass, and special sizes . The transparency of the body is also often viewed as an essential characteristic of porcelain.

In the Chinese culture there are only two differentiation criteria according to the firing temperature: hot-fired (cí, 瓷 ) and cold-fired (táo, 匋 ) ceramics. Also stoneware , earthenware and stoneware can apply there as porcelain where the ceramic creates the typical for this material clear and bell-like sound when struck.

In China, one often finds the distinction between “northern” and “southern” porcelain, which is due to the different geological properties of the two parts of the country, but also to the fuels preferred in each of them. In the coal-fired kilns of the north, porcelain masses with a higher concentration of kaolin (including slip ) were preferably burned at high temperatures. With the wood firing, which was widespread in the south, usually lower temperatures were reached, the raw material usually had higher proportions of petuntse.

history

Beginnings

If the history of ceramics in China goes back well into the second millennium BC, dating the first porcelain is difficult due to the lack of a binding definition. The late Eastern Han Dynasty (100–200 AD), the Three Kingdoms (220–280 AD), the Period of the Six Dynasties (220–589 AD) and the Tang Dynasty (618–906 AD). Some experts believe that the first “real” Chinese porcelain was made in Zhejiang during the time of the Eastern Han . In particular, there was a sufficient occurrence of the above-mentioned raw materials there, and broken glass was found in the province at temperatures of 1260 to 1300 degrees.

Jingdezhen

Porcelain painter in Jingdezhen today

Since the early Han dynasty at the latest , the city of Jingdezhen had become one of the most important ceramic centers in southern China. The older goods were still cold-fired, but in the 5th and 6th centuries a type of porcelain was already being produced using local raw materials. In 1004, the Song Emperor Zhenzong ( 真宗 ) made Jingdezhen a production facility for imperial porcelain. The city was named Jingde ( 景德 ) after his reign .

During the Song and Yuan Dynasties , porcelain was produced in Jingdezhen and other southern Chinese distilleries, sometimes using only petuntse at temperatures of around 1250 degrees. In the early eighteenth century, however, these were increasingly mixed with kaolin in equal parts and burned at 1350 degrees. The result was a very durable porcelain of brilliant white. In the egg-shaped kilns in the south there were large temperature differences that had to be compensated for by varying the proportion of kaolin in the mass of the work.

Two descriptions of the Jingdezhen manufacture have survived from the Qing period : The Jesuit missionary Père François Xavier d'Entrecolles, who worked in the city towards the end of the Kangxi period, described in his letters in detail the materials and processes used in the manufacture of porcelain. He cited pure curiosity as the motive for this, but also admitted that his descriptions could be useful for Europe. Of course, his letter, written in 1712, only reached Europe when Johann Friedrich Böttger and Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus had already deciphered the secret of porcelain. In 1743, during the reign of Qianlong , the imperial head of the manufactory, Tang Ying, wrote a memorandum entitled "Twenty illustrations of the porcelain factory". The illustrations themselves have not survived today, but the text has.

Sui and Tang dynasties

Glazed camel from the Tang Dynasty (7th century)

During the Sui and Tang dynasties (581–906), large quantities of hot and cold fired ceramics were produced, including the well-known lead glaze of the Tang period (sāncǎi, 三 彩  - "tricolor"), the hot-fired lime glaze celadon Yue and the cold-fired Changsha goods. In the northern Chinese provinces of Henan and Hebei , hot-baked transparent porcelain was made.

One of the first mentions of Chinese porcelain by a foreigner comes from this era. In China, according to the records of an Arab traveler in the 8th or 9th century, a very fine clay is used to make vases that are as transparent as glass. At that time, glass was well known in the Arab world, so that any confusion between the two materials can be ruled out.

Celadon porcelain

During the Song era, Kaifeng and Longquan in particular produced large quantities of the famous celadon porcelain, the production method of which had been known since the 4th century.

Celadon shoulder pot; Yuan / Ming time

The characteristic olive, at Jade reminiscent glaze is produced by reduction of oxide of iron (III) to iron (II) oxide during the firing process. The vessel types were largely based on the classic shapes, which have remained essentially unchanged since the Bronze Age. Often geometric, floral or zoomorphic reliefs were modeled or carved into the shards.

The celadon ware from Longquan was not only very popular at the Chinese imperial court, but was also exported to numerous countries in Asia from the start. In the heyday of the Ming Dynasty , it finally reached Europe, where it was initially weighed in gold.

Jian tea china

Jian bowl with rabbit fur pattern, Song Dynasty

The so-called Jian black porcelain from Jianyang Prefecture in Fujian Province was mainly used for tea services and reached the peak of its spread during the Song Dynasty. For this purpose, iron-rich kaolin from local deposits was used, which was burned with a large supply of oxygen at around 1,300 degrees. The glaze was made from similar clay as the workpiece itself, but mixed with charcoal. At the high firing temperatures, individual layers formed within the glaze, creating the famous "rabbit fur" pattern.

Jian porcelain was highly valued and accordingly often copied, especially in Japan, where it is known under the name temmoku or tenmoku . The layering in the iron-rich glaze of Chinese black porcelain was also used to produce the well-known "oil stain", "tea dust" and "partridge feather" patterns.

Qingbai porcelain

Qingbai style teapot, Song dynasty

Qingbai porcelain (qīngbái, 青白  - "green-white, blue-white, blue-green-white") has been made in Jingdezhen and numerous other southern Chinese distilleries since the Northern Song Dynasty. At the beginning of the 14th century it was almost completely replaced by the emerging blue and white goods. The slightly iron-containing material made using Petuntse is originally white, but the glaze gives it the typical greenish sheen that gave it its name. In particular, bowls have been preserved, some with incised or modeled patterns. Much of the Qingbai goods were created for everyday use and were therefore much less valued at the time of their creation than they are today.

A remarkable piece of Qingbai is the so-called "Fonthill Vase" now in the Irish National Museum . Allegedly, it is said to be the first piece of Chinese porcelain art ever to have come to Europe. The vase, presumably fired in Jingdezhen around 1300, was Pope Benedict XII. Sent as a gift from the last Yuan emperor in 1338.

Blue and white style

In the tradition of early Qingbai goods, the blue and white porcelain was also provided with a transparent glaze. The blue color consists of a mixture of cobalt oxide and water and was applied to the porcelain before glazing and firing. The different shades of blue allow conclusions to be drawn about the geographical origin of the cobalt and thus make dating easier: Initially, the dye was imported from Persia , Sumatra and Malaya , from the 16th century, however, from Chinese Turkestan , and finally it was discovered towards the end of the Ming dynasty more centrally located deposits in the provinces of Jiangxi , Guangdong and Zhejiang.

The first underglaze blue and white porcelain is said to have originated in the Tang Dynasty. Only three complete pieces from this period have survived, but shards dating to the 8th or 9th century have been excavated near Yangzhou ( Jiangsu Province ). In the 1970s, several blue and white bowls from the Song and Yuan dynasties were found in Zhejiang, Jiangsu and Jiangxi. The style only experienced its heyday in the Ming Dynasty; In particular, the “Ming vase”, which has become almost proverbial, has a particular impact on the European conception of Chinese porcelain art.

In terms of decor, geometric, ornamental and floral motifs predominated, to a lesser extent dragons, birds and fish. In the 15th century the density of the decoration decreased, but more emphasis was placed on a division into a central motif and peripheral ornamental bands and friezes. In the middle of the 16th century, in addition to the classic decorative treasure, landscape motifs, scenes from court life and the Taoist intellectual world as well as depictions from works of classical literature finally established themselves .

Yixing earthenware

Yixing teapot, Qing Dynasty

In addition, during the Ming dynasty in the town of Yixing on Lake Taihu , the brick-red tea stoneware named after her was created , which requires a specific clay that is only found there. The relatively small jugs and cups replaced the larger silver, copper and pewter vessels that were previously in use, since it is generally accepted that they can better develop the fragrance and aroma of the fresh tea that is coming into fashion. Shi Da Bing was considered the most important master of the style . The Yixing stoneware found widespread use among scholars and officials up to the imperial court. In the Qing period it was stylistically developed and in 1685 Emperor Kangxi exported it to Europe for the first time together with tea. The “red porcelain” was also very well received there and was copied by many large manufacturers.

Dehua porcelain (Blanc-de-Chine)

Guanyin (Dehua)

Dehua porcelain also appeared in the Ming period . The name is derived from its production site in Fujian Province. The name Blanc-de-Chine is also used in Europe .

Dehua porcelain is usually white or cream-colored and unpainted. In the Kangxi epoch, the pieces of which are considered to be the most precious, a pink-cream tinge prevailed, while in the reign of Qianlong it was more of a bluish color. The material has a relatively low kaolin content, the pieces were coated with a somewhat thicker layer of glaze. Dehua porcelain was often processed into sculptures and sculptures; Statuettes of the goddess of mercy Guanyin for the house altar were popular.

From the 17th century onwards, Dehua goods also represented a relatively large proportion of the so-called export porcelain shipped to Europe . By being imitated in the princely courts of the Rococo era, it was to have a considerable influence on the development of western porcelain art.

Porcelain of the three great Qing emperors

Famille Rose style plate, Qing Dynasty
Famille Verte style mug, Qing Dynasty

From 1662 to 1796, China ruled only three emperors: Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong. The period is considered to be the last great heyday of classical Chinese culture and has produced significant things in the field of porcelain art: while on the one hand the manufacturing technique of the Ming dynasty was retained for the porcelain itself, there was an increased tendency towards overglaze decor. There was also a considerable expansion of the color palette: During the reign of Emperor Kangxi, a whole series of styles took the place of the blue and white style:

  • The famille verte , where the eponymous green color was mainly supplemented by a little iron red .
  • The famille rose , which mainly uses pink and purple tones and was to remain dominant throughout the 18th century.
  • The famille jaune , a modification of the famille verte with a yellow background
  • The famille noire that works with a black background

In terms of decor, the artists turned to figurative representations even more. Flowers ( peony , lotus ), birds (especially pairs of phoenixes ), goldfish and insects ( cicadas , dragonflies ) were popular. Scenes from Chinese history, mythology and literature were often reproduced in great detail; Examples include the novel The Dream of the Red Chamber and the Daoist deity Queen Mother of the West .

Late Qing period eclecticism

Bowl with cherry twig decor, Daoguang period
Five-necked vase, Cixi regency

After Qianlong's death, porcelain art also declined in the course of the creeping decline of Classical Chinese culture. In many cases, homage was paid to an eclecticism based on the model of earlier periods . Already under Emperor Jiaqing , a certain formalization of the design could be observed, in particular through mechanical repetition of certain always identical decorative elements; artistic originality increasingly gave way to mere craftsmanship. The onglaze colors lose depth, luster and transparency; the pink of the classic Qing palette turns increasingly purple.

During the blatant decline of imperial power in the Daoguang, the Beijing court's orders also fell in quantitative terms. In many places, the factories therefore switched to the production of cheaper tableware. Nonetheless, styles from the Ming period were occasionally taken up again and further developed. Finally, in 1853, the marauding troops of the Taiping uprising destroy the traditional Jingdezhen manufacturing facility.

Under the reign of the Empress Dowager Cixi , which lasted from 1862 until the fall of the dynasty in 1911, production generally increased again, although it was also without any particular originality. Characteristic is the increasing appreciation of the decor color yellow as well as the so-called “overarching decor”, which was occasionally encountered under Yongzheng: Individual decor elements are continued from the outer wall of the vessel over the edge to the inside. After the turn of the century, Cixi tentatively initiated a structural realignment of porcelain production, which, in addition to semi-state manufacturers, also provided for more industrialization of the production processes.

20th century

After the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 and the proclamation of the republic, porcelain artists were able to work more freely due to the abolition of the imperial production regulations. On the one hand, this led to the fact that the decor of the pieces was no longer created in sections by different painters, but now often came from the hand of a single artist who was also allowed to sign the pieces by name. He also no longer adapted the decor to the previously dominant surface of the vessel, but applied it as if on an ordinary, even painting surface. The industrialization of the production processes that can be observed in general was contrasted with a completely contrary trend towards individualization in Chinese porcelain production.

Traditional imperial porcelain production experienced a final flare-up when Yuan Shikai finally allowed himself to be proclaimed emperor in 1915 without consequences, but immediately commissioned 40,000 pieces with his government motto "Hongxian".

After 1917 production grew rapidly in quantitative terms, and new factories were founded throughout the country, although in the meantime the majority of the products were used. For the upper classes, copies of old court porcelain were also produced, as well as pieces whose decor integrated Western-style paintings by the Jesuit court painter of the Qing emperors, Giuseppe Castiglione . The quality of the colors used increased, not least thanks to industrial pigments imported from Germany.

Effects on the West

Chinese porcelain art was received by Europe to a greater extent than almost any other part of Chinese art.

Porcelain junk produced for export, Qing dynasty
Plates produced on behalf of Wittelsbach during the Wanli period

Initially it was the Portuguese and Spanish who shipped large quantities of mainly Chinese porcelain to Europe. King Philip II of Spain already owned a porcelain collection of more than 3000 pieces. In the 17th century, however, the East India trade increasingly passed into the hands of the Dutch and British. From the Dutch ports, royal courts throughout Europe were supplied in particular with the popular blue and white porcelain . It was not only used as utensils, but also enjoyed great popularity as a fireplace attachment or equipment for the famous "porcelain cabinets" of European castles. In some cases, porcelain was manufactured in China specifically for export ( Chinese export porcelain ) or even to order from European clients according to their wishes and specifications ( Chinese commissioned porcelain ).

Very soon people in Europe tried to imitate Chinese porcelain. The first attempts have already been made for Italy in the late 15th century, although the end product was probably more of a milky glass. Later, the blue and white porcelain influenced the European art of faience , especially the production of the Delft manufactories. However, it was not until 1709 that Johann Friedrich Böttger, who worked at the court of August the Strong in Dresden , succeeded in producing real porcelain . In the course of the 18th century, manufactories a. a. at all leading royal courts on the continent (to Meissen and others Vienna, Sèvres, Nymphenburg, Copenhagen, Naples and others). Later on, porcelain became a natural part of everyday European culture.

Authentication

The test methods for the "authenticity" of Chinese porcelain are controversial. The most common is the so-called thermoluminescence test (TL test), with which the time of the last firing process can be determined with relatively large tolerances. The test is carried out with small porcelain samples, which are taken from the test piece by drilling or cutting. The method is considered to be very risky and naturally leads to damage to the test piece, which is why it is more likely to be used with less valuable porcelain. Other methods work by comparing the glaze quality of the test piece with that of comparison pieces that have already been reliably dated. According to a widespread opinion, technical-physical processes can only be used sensibly in conjunction with traditional dating methods.

Well-known European collections

Larger collections of Chinese porcelain can be found among others. a. in the following European museums:

See also

literature

  • Stephen W. Bushell: Chinese Pottery and Porcelain. Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur 1977, ISBN 0-19-580372-8 .
  • Robert H. Blumenfield: Blanc de Chine. The Great Porcelain of Dehua. Ten Speed ​​Press, Berkeley 2002, ISBN 978-1-58008-293-8 .
  • Antony DuBoulay: Chinese porcelain. Mundus-Verlag, Essen 1987, ISBN 3-88385-015-2 .
  • Sven Frotscher: dtv-Atlas ceramics and porcelain. Deutscher Taschenbuch-Verlag, Munich 2003, ISBN 3-423-03258-8 .
  • Hubertus Günther : Chinese porcelain (= Heyne books. No. 4552: Antiques. ). Heyne, Munich 1978, ISBN 3-453-41226-5 .
  • Birgit Hahn-Woernle: Chinese porcelain. Schuler, Munich 1974, ISBN 3-7796-5112-2 .
  • He Li: Chinese Ceramics. The New Standard Guide. Thames and Hudson, London 1996, ISBN 0-500-23727-1 .
  • Florian Hufnagl (Ed.): Porcelain from China - Seltmann Collection. Edition Braus, Heidelberg 1994, ISBN 3-89466-119-4 .
  • Suzanne Kotz (Ed.): Imperial Taste. Chinese Ceramics from the Percival David Foundation . Chronicle Books, San Francisco 1989, ISBN 0-87701-612-7 .
  • Stacey Pierson: Earth, Fire and Water: Chinese Ceramic Technology. Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art, University of London 1996, ISBN 0-7286-0265-2 .
  • Friederike Ulrichs: The East Asian porcelain collection of the Wittelsbacher. Bavarian Palace Administration , Munich 2005, ISBN 3-932982-63-0 .
  • Ruoming Wu: The origins of Kraak porcelain in the Late Ming Dynasty . Bernhard A. Greiner, Weinstadt 2014, ISBN 978-3-86705-074-6 .
  • Ernst Zimmermann : Chinese porcelain. Its history, art and technology . Klinkhardt & Biermann, Leipzig 1913.
    • 2nd edition: Chinese porcelain and the rest of China's ceramic products . Klinkhardt & Biermann, Leipzig 1926 ( digitized volume 1 , volume 2 ).

Web links

Commons : Ceramics of China  - Collection of Images, Videos, and Audio Files