Cunene project

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The Cunene Project ( English Cunene Project , Portuguese Esquema do Rio Cunene ) describes an agreement for complex investment projects, originally concluded in 1969 between South Africa and Portugal , for the joint water and energy management of the Kunene in southern Angola . Most of the technical equipment for this project was built with South African capital on the territory of the Angolan province of Cunene .

prehistory

Course of the Kunene ( blue in Angola, black as the border river between Angola and Namibia)
The Ruacana Falls near the hydroelectric power station

Considerations to use the abundance of water of the Kunene as a basis for an irrigation system in the area of ​​northern Namibia were first presented by the geologist Ernest HL Schwarz at the Rhodes University in Grahamstown . In 1919 he proposed that a dam on the Kunene should divert its water into the plains of Ovamboland and in this way achieve irrigation of the Etosha pan . At the time, his proposal was considered unrealizable and too expensive. Nevertheless, in 1927 a joint Technical Commission of the South African Union and Portugal re- examined this vision. Their work was based on a bilateral agreement of July 1, 1926 on the use of the Kunene water.

Considerations about water production on the Kunene for irrigation in what was then Ovamboland were discussed by representatives of both countries in a conference on July 13 and 23, 1927 in Olushandja , but they were ultimately judged to be too difficult. At the end of the 1920s, the industrialist Ernest Oppenheimer brought these ideas back to the public by thinking that one of his companies could build a dam on the Kunene to supply water to the mining industry in South West Africa , but he refrained from realizing it.

From 1954 to the 1960s, numerous dams and canals were built in Ovamboland under the direction of the water authority of the SWA administration to irrigate the region with very little rainfall. These included extensive canal guides, such as the approximately 100-kilometer-long Etaka Canal from Eunda , on the Angolan border, via Tsandi to Ongandjera . Pumps raised the water from a large number of boreholes. The canal was extended to the national border with a view to a later water supply from the Kunene. For this purpose, a pump station was planned on the south bank of the Kunene not far from the town of Calueque, the river water over a height difference of 22 meters through a 2500 meter long pipeline into an adjoining canal. The energy for the pumping station was to be obtained from an interim system for generating electricity at the Ruacana waterfalls until the planned power plant was built. The project was called Calueque Pumping Scheme (German about: Calueque pump system). The projected canal had a length of 12 kilometers and its line should reach the border with South West Africa at the Mahanene settlement .

Sociologically motivated division of South West Africa based on proposals from the Odendaal Commission

Until the beginning of the 1960s, the energy situation remained at the previous level. The power supply in South West Africa was largely decentralized and not very efficient . When the South African government commissioned the Odendaal Commission (analogous to the Tomlinson Commission ) to investigate the “socio-economic” potential in South West Africa in 1962 , the earlier considerations on hydropower became topical again. The final report of the commission published in 1964 stimulated the generation of energy and the water supply of Ovamboland with the help of the Kunene again and named a possible location for the generation of electrical energy at Ruacana . As a concrete measure, the South West Africa Water and Electricity Corporation (SWAWEK, predecessor institution of the Namibia Water Corporation ) was founded under the leadership of the South African Industrial Development Corporation . Their task was the development of the hydropower plant of Ruacana and the creation of an electrical power transmission network to Windhoek .

In 1964, the governments of Portugal and South Africa formulated their common fundamental interest in the use of the Kunene River.

At the beginning of the 1960s, South Africa undertook studies on the use of the Kunene on the northern border of the South West Africa it occupied, independently of the plans of the Portuguese colonial administration in Angola . Portugal, on the other hand, asked South Africa for support for its colonial political goals in favor of the agricultural and energy industry potential in the catchment area of ​​the Kunene. Portugal had a reforestation program with subsequent forest management by the pulp industry in mind. In 1967 and 1968, both states signed preliminary agreements on such cooperation. The comprehensive agreement concluded in January 1969 provided for the construction of the Gove Dam as a central project of the agreed development. This should reach a dimension of 70 kilometers in length and 30 kilometers in maximum width. The intention was to regulate the subsequent run of the Kunene over a length of 700 kilometers, on which the basis for 28 planned hydropower plants should be based. The first and actually implemented project phase comprised the Calueque dam with the Ruacana cavern power station .

With regard to the agricultural stimulus from an irrigation area to be created, the Portuguese expected the creation of 150,000 hectares of farmland and 350,000 hectares of pasture land on the Angolan side and, in the optimistic variant, forecast the settlement of 500,000 Portuguese settlers . In the area of ​​South West Africa, the irrigation of 5.6 million hectares in the settlement area of ​​the Ovambo with their 270,000 inhabitants was planned by means of a canal system .

At the session of the South African Parliament on April 24, 1968, the Deputy Minister for South-West African Affairs reported on the status of the contract negotiations between Portugal and South Africa regarding the Cunene Project . He informed about the Angolan plans to build a dam and hydropower plant near Matala for the energy supply in the neighboring country, also about a dam to be built near Colueq , about 7 to 8 miles from the Ovamboland border, for the water supply in South West Africa and about a planned drainage dam for a hydroelectric power station on the territory of South West Africa near the Ruacana Falls.

Objectives and development of the project under increasing South African influence

South Africa's detente policy on Angola

The Cunene Project finally began on January 21, 1969 with the final signing of a contract between the South African ambassador to Portugal, AJ Viljoen, the government of Portugal and the President of the IDC , Sieg Kuschke . On the part of the South African contract side, the administrative management of the SWAWEK ( South West African Water and Electricy Commission ) in this project was transferred. The contract was signed in January 1969 and in August the first contracts were awarded for the construction of the dam and the construction of pumping stations.

The aim of this agreement was the bilaterally agreed construction of plants for water extraction and electricity generation for the benefit of Angola and South Africa and the South West Africa (now Namibia ) which it occupied . These investment plans should strengthen interregional networking and cooperation and promote South Africa's political supremacy in the region of southern Africa. In the course of its implementation, South Africa built the dam systems on Angolan territory and an underground hydropower plant on the South West African side near the Ruacana waterfalls, with its state-owned and coordinated Industrial Development Corporation , using funds from international financiers.

Point 1.2 of the bilateral agreement of 1969 provided the following objectives as the core tasks of the treaty:

The Cunene Project in Relations between South Africa and Portugal

On the basis of the agreement between the two states, South Africa was able to divert 10 percent of the water from the Kunene for its own purposes free of charge to the area under its control. A pipeline and 260 kilometers of canals were built to provide water for the " Four E regions ". For the operation of the hydroelectric plant Ruacana was agreed as a license performance an annual payment of 400,000 border to the Portuguese authorities. The power plant was supposed to get its water supply via a weir on the Angolan side. The commissioning of the power plant was scheduled for April 1978, after which it would feed 320 MW of power into the power grid of South West Africa. In addition, from 1976 jobs should be available for 2,000 blacks from Angola and 700 whites. In February 1976 the South African Minister of Economic Affairs explained the scope of the project to the National Assembly. He named the project costs of 127.432 million rand determined so far. A further 3.266 million rand would be added for the construction of water systems. South Africa pressed for a rapid start-up of water supplies for the Ovambo region. These began in August 1973 with the filling of the channels by the pump system.

The importance of the South African-Portuguese cooperation in the field of dam construction and the energy industry is also reflected in the official contacts between the two countries. On the occasion of the visit of the Portuguese Foreign Minister Rui Patrício in March 1973 to South Africa at the invitation of his counterpart Hilgard Muller , related issues were discussed. Muller emphasized the very good cooperation with Portugal and named the progress in the Cabora Bassa project and the Kunene River Basin Development Scheme as examples . In the same year the commander in chief of the Portuguese armed forces in Mozambique , General Kaúlza Oliveira de Arriaga , and the chief commander of the Portuguese armed forces in Angola, General Joaquim da Luz Cunha, paid a visit to South Africa.

The developing relationship on both sides made it possible to expand economic cooperation. The Cunene Project also created new fields of activity for the South African mining industry. In 1973 the Companhia Mineira de Cunene received the sole prospecting right for mineral raw materials, with the exception of diamonds as well as natural gas and oil , in the zone along the Cunene. This mining company was founded as a joint project of the Johannesburg Consolidated Investment Company (with 51%), the Companhia Mineira do Lobito (with 39%) and the Portuguese colonial administration of Angola (with 10%). Further advantages were promised through a better energy supply for the South African and international mining companies in South West Africa, such as Anglo American , Falconbridge Nickel Mines , Bethlehem Steel , American Metal Climax , Société Nationale des Pétroles d'Aquitaine (SNPA) or the metal company . Additional electrical energy from the Cunene Project was planned for the further expansion of the plant by Tsumeb Corporation and Rössing Uranium Limited . For the latter in particular, a delay in the construction of the Cunene plants was a major economic disadvantage, as they had concluded a further supply contract with the British Atomic Energy Agency for the period 1976 to 1982. Furthermore, in 1975 the South African Mining Authority began exploration work for raw material deposits in South West Africa.

The level of relations reached between Portugal / Angola and South Africa created the secure basis for a further and comprehensive expansion of the water infrastructure in the north of South West Africa. In order to expand the water supply in this region as planned, work began in 1973 at the instigation of the South African government on the Water Master Plan for South West Africa , which was directed by the Department of Water Affairs, South-West Africa Branch and which was published in 1974.

End of Portuguese influence in Angola

The collapse of the Portuguese colonial empire in 1974 ended bilateral cooperation well before the technical and structural completion of the Cunene Project . The MPLA government that has now come to power in Luanda has signaled its intention not to continue long-term cooperation with South Africa on this issue. At this time, SWAPO carried out attacks on the resulting facilities. This situation affected the proper functioning of the project components.

The situation came to a head in the course of the spring of 1975, so that the South African government decided, on the initiative of the Ministry of Defense, to call on the Portuguese colonial administration in Luanda to ensure the safety of the project workers at the Calueque Dam . According to a report by the South African Defense Minister in parliament, workers in Calueque were allegedly threatened by Angolan soldiers in August 1975. A SADF unit was then sent to the dam in an attempt to restore the project's stability, which had been achieved through negotiations with the Angolan authorities. The South African military came under fire and then occupied the dams. As a result, construction work was resumed. In the opinion of the Defense Minister, the workers employed on the dam project would refuse to continue the work if the South African military were to withdraw.

The Cunene Project under wartime conditions

In the course of the South African-Angolan border conflict between 1975 and 1976, the water and energy management facilities of the Cunene Project were particularly endangered due to their strategic importance. The invasion was officially justified with the protection of the dams and power stations. As a long-term foreign policy goal, South Africa was interested in an Angolan government that was dependent on it and thus easily influenced, with the participation of FNLA and UNITA . Instead, South Africa's military engagement developed into the end point of Pretoria's detente policy, as previously moderate African governments, such as those in Nigeria , Ghana and Zambia , turned away from strategically oriented cooperation with South Africa.

In the preparatory phase of its Angola intervention, South Africa massively expanded its military infrastructure on the northern border of South West Africa. Numerous camps and the main air force base in Grootfontein were established . Some of these locations received extensive underground facilities. The headquarters of the military high command were in Walfish Bay and in South Africa. In the middle of 1975, SADF special units began clearing a 1000 meter wide strip along the border, known as the specially prohibited area , from which all previous residents were forcibly relocated . In the course of these measures, around 50,000 people lost their original homes by July 1976. A security fence was built between Ruacana and the homeland of Kavangoland .

The first military units in South Africa crossed the border with Angola between August 9 and 11, 1975. In August 1975, SADF units occupied the dams at Calueque. In connection with the withdrawal of the South African military from South Angola since January 1976, declared by Defense Minister Botha , a security zone was established 50 kilometers north of the then Southwest African border. In the same month, the troops also left the region around Calueque after heavy fighting. The final withdrawal of the SADF from Angolan territory took place on March 27, following mediation talks by Great Britain , the Soviet Union and Nigeria, under guarantee of the protection and integrity of the facilities of the Cunene Project at Ruacana and Calueque. A month later, South African officials and MPLA representatives negotiated conditions for the continuation of the construction activities on the Calueque dam, which had since been suspended. South Africa also promised to respect Angola's southern border, a promise that was later violated many times. The result of these negotiations initially made it possible to continue the construction work until 1977. This dam was of functional importance for the function of the power plant in Ruacana and for the irrigation of areas in north-central Namibia . Shortly before its completion, the Angolan government ordered a construction freeze. The increasing bilateral difficulties in the implementation of the project prompted the South African government to plan alternative dams on the territory of South West Africa, which is increasingly integrated through its occupation policy.

In the context of increasing internal political tensions in South West Africa, strangers carried out attacks on the Ruacana hydropower plant in May and October 1978, causing considerable damage to buildings as a result of the attack in May. In July, an attack cut an important water supply in Ovamboland , killing two people.

The Angolan government used the Ruacana water supply and the Calueque Dam as political levers to strengthen its position in the conflict with the South African armed forces. As a result of the project being prevented from being completed, the water supplies in the north of South West Africa and part of its electricity supply could not be secured. This made the South African operations in the war against Angola very complicated. As a result of this situation, the South African Eskom expanded its power grid in the northern part of South West Africa, which resulted in reduced political influence on the part of Angola. As a result of the Brazzaville Protocol of 1988 after the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale , Angola gave in and assured the supply of water for the settlements and habitats in the Ovambo area, which are constantly threatened by drought .

Project takeover by the successor states

overview

In 1990 the independent states took over the project status that had occurred up to then. On September 18, 1990, Namibia and Angola signed two international treaties. One agreement relates to future cooperation in general. The other agreement governed the shared use of the Kunene and recognized the agreements of 1926, 1964 and 1969 as the basis of the contract. The following three areas of activity form the core of the 1990 agreement:

  • Completion of the unfinished Ruacana calueque water supply.
  • The formation of a joint operating institution with the task of guaranteeing the most advantageous water flow regulation at the Gove Dam, which is required for optimal power generation at Ruacana. It also includes the control of water extraction along the central reaches of the Kunene, as well as ensuring continuous operation and properly established maintenance of the water pumps at the Calueque dam and the weir at Ruacana.
  • On the basis of the agreement of 1969, the joint operating institution (PJTC) is enabled to determine the development of further irrigation systems in the area of ​​the Kunene and to determine the current and future electricity needs in both countries.

The civil war in Angola between 1990 and 2002, which ended with the death of UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi , severely restricted the regular maintenance of hydropower and irrigation systems on Angolan territory and the joint project developments. During this period, the technical systems and buildings were in need of considerable renovation. In addition, the increasing energy demand of both economies encouraged considerations regarding the construction of new power plant capacities.

Between 1995 and 1998, the NamAng project group investigated the feasibility of the Epupa Project , for which South African engineers had already drawn up plans. NamAng was a consortium of the companies Norconsult (Norway), SwedPower (Sweden), Burmeister and Partners (Namibia) and SOAPRO (Angola). In 1998 and 1999 there were several PJTC meetings between the two countries, which dealt with the construction of a new hydropower plant on the lower reaches of the Kunene. The possible locations at Epupa Falls (Namibia's preferred location ) or in the Baynes Mountains area (Angola's preferred location ) were discussed. The unstable security situation in Angola, among other factors, hampered the progress of planning. In 2008, the construction of the power station at the Epupa Falls was rejected and its alternative was favored. Decisive for the decision were u. a. the 6.5 times larger flooding area of ​​the Epupa dam project and the prevailing higher evaporation rate over the dammed water.

The technical and economic project study for the Baynes Hydropower Project was carried out by the Cunene Consortium . This working group consists of Brazilian companies, which are: Construtora Norberto Odebrecht SA (project management), Eletrobrás - Centrais Elétricas Brasileiras SA , Furnas Centrais Elétricas SA and Engevix Engenharia SA

In March 2020, the Angolan side announced that the reservoir with hydropower plant should be built from 2021 and that commissioning is Template: future / in 5 yearsplanned for 2025 .

Institutions

In Angola, the Gabinete Para a Administração da Bacia Hidroeléctrica do Cunene (GABHIC) authority is responsible for the jointly managed facilities. It reports to the Ministry of Energy and Water.

The Permanent Joint Technical Commission on the Cunene River (PJTC) / Comissão Técnica Permanente Conjunta Angola / Namibia (CTPC) working group is now managing further developments and monitoring the existing systems. Their responsibility includes three dams and a hydropower plant. There are the Ruacana Hydro Power Station cavern power station on Namibian territory, the Ruacana diversion dam ( Ruacana Diversion Weir ), the Gove dam and the Calueque dam. The water supply for northern Namibia is provided from the Calueque Dam.

Gove Dam / Barragem do Gove

The planning work and construction of the Gove Dam ( 13 ° 27 ′ 4 ″  S , 15 ° 52 ′ 6 ″  E ) south of the city of Huambo began in 1969. Because of the South African invasion and the later civil war situation in South Angola, the work had to be stopped between 1975 and 1983. In 1986 the dam construction was interrupted again because fighting flared up again in the region. In 1990, explosive attacks destroyed parts of the existing facilities. The repair of the resulting damage began in 2001. The completion of the decade-long dam construction project was ultimately the responsibility of the Brazilian construction company Odebrecht . Commissioning took place in the middle of 2012.

Matala Dam / Barragem do Matala

The Matala reservoir on the outskirts of Matala ( 14 ° 44 ′ 29 ″  S , 15 ° 2 ′ 35 ″  E ) was completed in 1954 and is therefore an external part of the Cunene Project . It is located on the middle reaches of the Kunene in the province of Huíla and is subordinate to the Empresa Nacional de Electricidade (ENE). Comprehensive technical and structural modernization began in 2011. The dam was built with two generators, each capable of generating 13.6 MW. Its supply focus includes electricity supplies for the cities of Lubango and Moçâmedes .

Calueque Dam / Barragem do Calueque

Construction of the Calueque Dam ( 17 ° 16 ′ 21 ″  S , 14 ° 32 ′ 41 ″  E ) began in 1974. The security risks in the Angolan civil war and the advance of the South African armed forces prevented the dam system from being completed at that time. During the fighting, Cuban pilots on the Angolan side bombed the dams on June 27, 1988 (according to other sources on June 29). SADF soldiers were killed in the process. In 2012, a major renovation was started in the amount of 225 million US dollars . The work was planned for a period of two years.

Ruacana Diversion Weir / Açude de Derivação do Ruacaná

The Ruacana Downfall Dam and Weir in Angola

The Ruacana derivative dam ( 17 ° 23 '10 "  S , 14 ° 12' 52"  O ) is located about 800 meters upstream from the Ruacana cases in the field of Angola and serves an underground penstock the required water power plant Ruacana To supply process water. The construction work on the weir began in 1971 as with the hydropower plant and ended in 1978.

Ruacana Hydro Power Station / Central Hidroeléctrica do Ruacaná

The Ruacana hydropower plant is one of the most important sources of electrical energy supply in Namibia. According to its construction, it is a cavern power station . The tunnel-shaped caverns with the turbines are 140 meters below the surface of the site. There are three 80 MW generators there. The generated electrical energy reaches the surface of the earth via cables in a vertical tunnel. The electricity is transferred from the company's own transformer station via a 570 kilometer long 330 kV high- voltage line near Omaruru to a substation for the nationwide 220 kV network.

For the construction of the cavern power plant, 415,000 cubic meters of rock were broken up and removed. The systems were operational in 1978, but could not be put into operation because the Angolan authorities at the time refused to put the discharge weir into operation, which is why the turbines were not supplied with water. In January 1980 the weir sluice gates could be closed and the power plant started operations. Shortly afterwards, the high-voltage line leading away from the power station was subjected to repeated attacks of sabotage, which led to frequent interruptions in electricity supplies. With the help of military units, these attacks were reduced. At this time, South Africa nevertheless decided to connect the power supply system of South West Africa to the Eskom network.

Olushandja Dam / Barragem de Olushandja

The Olushandja Reservoir (also known as Etaka Dam ), completed in 1990, is located on Namibian territory and receives its water supply from the Calueque Reservoir in Angola via a pipeline measuring 1658 mm in diameter (length 2437 m) and an adjoining canal (length 21,605 m), the Calueque-Oshakati Canal. The reservoir serves as a water supply in north-central Namibia. Its dam was damaged in the course of military operations and had to be repaired.

Further water pipes and the Etaka Canal run from this facility to the southwest, which contribute to the water supply in north-central Namibia, especially in the area north of the Etosha Pan . The facility is the northernmost water reservoir in Namibia.

Calueque-Oshakati Canal / Canal Calueque-Oshakati

The Calueque Oshakati Canal, which went into operation in 1977, begins at the end of a pipeline ( 17 ° 17 ′ 38 ″  S , 14 ° 32 ′ 10 ″  E ) south of the Calueque Reservoir in Angola and leads over a distance of 150 kilometers to the Namibian Oshakati purification plant ( 17 ° 46 ′ 57 ″  S , 15 ° 42 ′ 22 ″  E ), a water purification plant that provides drinking and service water in the area of ​​the Cuvelai-Etosha Basin in addition to other treatment systems. Further water treatment plants to supply the settlements along the course of the canal have been built in Olushandja , Ombalantu and Ogongo .

The canal extends through the southern area of ​​the Oshana system .

Follow-up developments

Following the example of the Permanent Joint Technical Commission on the Cunene River founded in September 1990, the Joint Permanent Technical Commission (JPTC) was established shortly afterwards in November with regard to mutual water use interests between Namibia and Botswana . Both commissions met in Windhoek in 1991 on issues of water use in the Okavango Basin and to examine the possible establishment of a trilateral institution. As a result of this process, the Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM) was established on September 15, 1994 in Windhoek .

On the lower reaches of the Kunene, in the Baynesberg area , the Namibian energy authority NamPower is developing the Baynes Hydropower Project in coordination with the Angolan partners . A new distribution station, the Kunene substation , is to be built south of the Ruacana hydropower plant . It is intended to transfer electrical energy from the future Baynes Hydropower Station via a 400 kV line to the existing Omatando substation at Ongwediva , where it can be converted to 132 kV. This transmission line is expected to be completed by the end of 2016.

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Agreement between the Government of the Union of South Africa and the Government of the Republic of Portugal regulating the use of the water of the Kunene River for the purposes of generating power and inundation and irrigation in the mandated territory of South West Africa, of 1 July 1926.
  2. ^ A b c d Richard Meissner: The Transnational Role and Involvement of Interest Groups in Water Politics: A Comparative Analysis of Selected Southern African Case Studies. Dissertation, University of Pretoria 2004 PDF document p. 12–19, at www.upetd.up.ac.za (English)
  3. ^ South West Africa Administration. Water Affairs Branch: Ovamboland Master Water Plan ( Memento of October 17, 2014 in the Internet Archive ). 1968. PDF document pp. 42–45, 64. on www.iwrm-namibia.info.na (English)
  4. ^ NamPower: Company Profile . at www.nampower.com.na (English)
  5. ^ Agreement between the Government of the Republic of South Africa, and the Government of the Republic of Portugal in regard to rivers of mutual interest and the Cunene River scheme, of 13 October 1964
  6. ^ A b Stephen L. Weigert: Angola: a modern military history, 1961-2002 . Basingstoke 2011, pp. 45-46 ISBN 9780230337831
  7. ^ SAIRR : A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1968 , 1969, pp. 311-312
  8. ↑ Wellington Winter Nyangoni: Africa in the United Nations system . Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. Press 1985, p. 100. ISBN 0838631185 (English)
  9. ↑ a b c d SAIRR: Survey 1976 , 1977, p. 411
  10. ↑ SAIRR: Survey 1969 , 1970, p. 266
  11. ^ Ronald Meinardus: The Africa policy of the Republic of South Africa . Bonn 1981, p. 407
  12. ↑ Meinardus: Afrikappolitik , pp. 260–261
  13. ↑ Martin Schümer: The Economy of Angola 1973-1976. Approaches to a development strategy of the MPLA government . Work from the Institute for Africa Customer 12, Hamburg 1977. p. 311
  14. ↑ SAIRR: Survey 1973 , p. 108
  15. ↑ Martin Schümer: Wirtschaft Angolas , pp. 311-313
  16. ^ Piet Heyns: Water institutional reforms in Namibia . In: Water Policy, Vol. 7 (2005), pp. 89-106. PDF document p. 6. at www.environmental-expert.com (English)
  17. ↑ Meinardus: Africa Policy , p. 261
  18. ↑ Meinardus: Africa Policy , p. 407
  19. ↑ Meinardus: Afrikappolitik , pp. 392–393
  20. ↑ Meinardus: Africa Policy , p. 402
  21. ^ Meinardus: Afrikappolitik , pp. 261, 405
  22. ↑ SAIRR: Survey 1976 , p. 479
  23. ↑ Meinardus: Africa Policy , p. 261
  24. ↑ SAIRR: Survey 1977 , p. 577
  25. ↑ SAIRR: Survey 1978 , p. 535
  26. ^ Meissner: The Transnational Role and Involvement of Interest Groups in Water Politics ... , 2004, PDF document p. 21
  27. ↑ Meissner: The Transnational Role and Involvement of Interest Groups in Water Politics ... , 2004, PDF document pp. 22–24
  28. ↑ Allgemeine Zeitung: Feasibility study and environmental impact assessment for Baynes project signed . News from June 25, 2008 on www.az.com.na (German)
  29. ^ Namibia, Angola to develop cross-border Baynes hydroelectric dam. Construction Review, March 20, 2020.
  30. ↑ Ministério da Energia e Águas: GABHIC - Gabinete Para a Administração da Bacia Hidroeléctrica do Cunene ( Memento of October 18, 2014 in the Internet Archive ). on www.minea.gv.ao (Portuguese)
  31. ↑ SADC: Guidelines for the development of national water policies and strategies to support IWRM . (SADC Water Sector). SADC 2004. PDF document p. 66, online at www.pacificwater.org (English)
  32. ↑ SM Kahijoro Kahuure: Watershed Treaties: The Vision of Namibia regarding the Cunene Basin ( Memento of March 4, 2016 in the Internet Archive ). ACEEW (Contribution to the 1st International Conference on Energy and Water. September 24-27, 2013, Luanda) at www.aceew.org (English)
  33. ↑ Elling N. Tjønneland: Desenvolver as infra-estruturas em Angola, Qual o papel da SADC? (Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Cunene) . CMI Working Paper WP 2011: 3. on www.cmi.no (Portuguese)
  34. ^ Gove Hydroelectric dam inaugurated in Angola . News from August 23, 2012 at www.macauhub.com.mo (English)
  35. ↑ Ngove hydroelectric dam, in Angola, due to start operating in August . News from January 30, 2012 on www.macauhub.com.mo (English)
  36. ↑ Reparação e Conclusção do AH Gove, Construção da Central Hidroeléctrica e respectiva subestação (Aproveitamento Hidráulica do Gove). on www.minerg.gv.ao ( Memento from October 17, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) (Portuguese)
  37. ↑ Ministério da Energia e Águas: GABHIC: AH Gove . on www.minea.gv.ao ( Memento from October 18, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) (Portuguese)
  38. ↑ industcards: Hydroelectric Power Plants in Angola & Namibia: Matala . at www.industcards.com (English)
  39. ↑ macauhub: Modernization work begins on Angola's Matala Dam . on www.macauhub.com.mo ( Memento from October 21, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) (English)
  40. ↑ Philip O'Keefe, Barry Munslow: Energy and development in Southern Africa: SADCC country studies. part 1 (1984). Stockholm The Beijer Institute, 1984, p. 42 (English)
  41. ↑ ANGOP: Energy minister visits Calueque Dam . on www.portalangop.co.ao (English)
  42. ^ Twelve SA soldiers die at the Calueque dam . on www.sahistory.org.za (English)
  43. ↑ Calueque Dam Bomb Damage . at www.sadf.sentinelprojects.com (English)
  44. ↑ Ministério da Energia e Águas: Barragem de Calueque começa a ser reabilitada . Communication from February 6, 2012 on www.minerg.gv.ao ( Memento from October 17, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) (Portuguese)
  45. ^ The Permanent Secretary Department of Water Affairs: Regional Master Water Plan for the Owambo Region . Windhoek 1990. PDF document p. 45. on www.bgs.ac.uk (English)
  46. ↑ a b c NamPower: Ruacana Power Station . at www.nampower.com.na (English)
  47. ^ Namibia Power Corporation . on www.proudlyafrican.info (English)
  48. ^ The Permanent Secretary Department of Water Affairs: Regional Master Water Plan for the Owambo Region . Windhoek 1990. PDF document pp. 91–93. on www.bgs.ac.uk (English)
  49. ^ Namibia Water Corporation: Olushandja Dam . on www.namwater.com.na (English)
  50. ^ Namibia Water Corporation: Water Supply Networks. Calueque – Oshakati canal . on www.namwater.com.na (English)
  51. ^ EU-Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund: Transboundary Water Supply Calueque (Angola) - Oshakati (Namibia) . on www.eu-africa-infrastructure-tf.net (English)
  52. ↑ Matheus. Kuutondokwa Shuuya: Assessment of the impacts of pollution on water quality in the Calueque-Oshakati Canal in north-central Namibia . Master Thesis, University of Zimbabwe , Faculty of Engineering, June 2008, p. 2 (PDF document p. 13), online at www.ir.uz.ac.zw (English)
  53. ↑ PS cent Heyns: Governance of a shared and contested resource: a case study of the Okavango River Basin . In: Water Policy, Vol 9 (2007), Suppl. 2, pp. 149–167 ( Memento of October 17, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) (English)
  54. ^ Agreement Between the Government of the Republic of Angola, the Republic of Botswana and the Republic of Namibia on the Establishment of a Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM)
  55. ^ NamPower: Baynes Hydropower Project . at www.nampower.com.na (English)
  56. ^ NamPower: Transmission Master Plan. Kunene-Omatando development . at www.nampower.com.na (English)
  57. ↑ NamPower: Kunene Omatando 400kV . at www.nampower.com.na (English)